CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEWS There are reviewed related literatures under the following sections: Physical Fitness 1. The definitions of physical fitness 2. Health-related fitness & skill-related fitness 3. Aerobic fitness and anaerobic fitness Measurement of Maximal Oxygen Consumption 1. Aerobic testing 2. Methods of measurement of Maximal Oxygen Consumption Physical fitness 1. The definitions of physical fitness Physical fitness refers to “a set of attributes that related to the ability to perform physical activity” (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 1996). Physical fitness is the ability of the body systems to work together efficiently to allow people to be healthy and effectively perform activities of daily living (Corbin & Lindsey 2007). Physical fitness can be classified into health-related and skill-related fitness. Health-related fitness consists of five components: cardio respiratory endurance, muscular endurance, muscle strength, flexibility, and body composition and is determined by a combination of regular activity and genetically inherited ability. The amount of physical fitness ranges is form low to high (Caspersen et al., 1985). On the other hand, skill-related fitness is divided into six components: agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time, and speed. In terms of prevention of diseases, the main emphasis of any fitness programs should be placed on the health-related fitness as skill-related fitness is crucial for success in sports and athletics, and it also contributes to wellness (Hoeger & Hoeger, 2005). Physical fitness may be defined as a physiological state of well-being that provide the foundation for the tasks of daily living, a degree of protection against hypokinetic disease, and a basis for participation in sport (American Alliance for
36
Embed
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEWS - Burapha …digital_collect.lib.buu.ac.th/.../53910920/chapter2.pdfCHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEWS There are reviewed related literatures under the following
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEWS
There are reviewed related literatures under the following sections:
Physical Fitness
1. The definitions of physical fitness
2. Health-related fitness & skill-related fitness
3. Aerobic fitness and anaerobic fitness
Measurement of Maximal Oxygen Consumption
1. Aerobic testing
2. Methods of measurement of Maximal Oxygen Consumption
Physical fitness 1. The definitions of physical fitness
Physical fitness refers to “a set of attributes that related to the ability to
perform physical activity” (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
[USDHHS], 1996). Physical fitness is the ability of the body systems to work together
efficiently to allow people to be healthy and effectively perform activities of daily
living (Corbin & Lindsey 2007). Physical fitness can be classified into health-related
and skill-related fitness. Health-related fitness consists of five components: cardio
respiratory endurance, muscular endurance, muscle strength, flexibility, and body
composition and is determined by a combination of regular activity and genetically
inherited ability. The amount of physical fitness ranges is form low to high
(Caspersen et al., 1985). On the other hand, skill-related fitness is divided into six
components: agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time, and speed. In terms
of prevention of diseases, the main emphasis of any fitness programs should be placed
on the health-related fitness as skill-related fitness is crucial for success in sports and
athletics, and it also contributes to wellness (Hoeger & Hoeger, 2005).
Physical fitness may be defined as a physiological state of well-being that
provide the foundation for the tasks of daily living, a degree of protection against
hypokinetic disease, and a basis for participation in sport (American Alliance for
7
Health Physical Education, Recreation and Dance [AAHPERD], 1988). Physical
fitness includes nonperformance components of physical fitness that relate to
biological system that are influenced by one’s level of habitual physical activity
(Bouchard, 1990).
2. Health-related fitness & skill-related fitness
2.1 Health-related fitness
Health-related fitness means that portion of physical fitness which is
directed toward the prevention of or rehabilitation from disease as well as the
development of a high level of function capacity for the necessary and discretionary
tasks of life (Plowan & Smith, 2008).
Hoeger and Hoeger (2009) said that Health-related has four components:
cadiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, muscular flexibility,
and body composition (see figure 2) defined respectively as:
a) Cadiorespiratory endurance: the ability of the heart, lungs, and blood
vessels to supply oxygen to the cells to meet the demands of prolonged physical
activity (also referred to as aerobic exercise).
b) Muscular strength and endurance: the ability of the muscles to
generate.
c) Muscular flexibility: the achievable range of motion at a joint or group
of joints without causing injury.
d) Body composition: body composition: the amount of lean body mass
and adipose tissue (fat mass) in the human body.
Figure 2 Four components of health-related physical fitness (Hoeger & Hoeger,
2009)
8
USDHHS (1996) Defined of the specific components of health-related
physical fitness are follows:
a) Body composition relates of relative amounts of muscle, fat, bone, and
other vital part of the body.
b) Cardiorespiratory fitness relates to the ability of the circulatory and
respiratory systems to supply oxygen during sustained physical activity.
c) Flexibility relates to the range of motion available at the joint.
Flexibility is specific to each joint of the body.
d) Muscular endurance relates to the muscle’s ability to continue to
perform with out fatigue.
e) Muscular strength relates to the ability of the muscle to exert force.
Table 1 Components of health-related fitness (Genton, 2011).
Term Definition Examples of assessment
Body
composition
Structural components of the body Body mass index, skinfold
thickness, BIA.
Muscular
strength
Maximum force generated by a muscle One RM,a cable tensiometry,
force platforms,
dynamometry.
Muscular
endurance
Ability of a muscle to perform repeated
contractions for a prolonged period of time
Repetitions of lifts at a fixed
percentage of body weight or
RM,a of push-ups, of
abdominal curls, isokinetic
dynamometry.
Flexibility Ability to move joints and muscle freely
through their full range of motion
“sit and reach test”,
goniometry.
Cardiovascular
and
respiratory
Ability of the circulatory and respiratory
systems to supply oxygen to skeletal
muscle for energy-generating processes
Maximum oxygen
consumption (VO2 max)
Remark 1RM refers to maximum amount of weight lifted at one time.
9
According to the Toronto model presented by Bouchard and Shephard
(1994), the components of health-related fitness are defined as morphological,
muscular, motor, cardiorespiratory and metabolic fitness. Morphological fitness refers
to body composition and bone strength. Body composition describes the amount of fat
mass and fat free mass and considers also whether body fat is peripherally or
abdominally distributed. Muscular or musculoskeletal fitness refers to muscular
strength, muscular endurance and flexibility, and motor fitness refers to postular
control.
Cardiorespiratory fitness reflects the ability of cardiovascular and
respiratory systems to supply oxygen to the working muscles during heavy dynamic
exercise. And direct measurement of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) during a
maximal exercise test is regarded as the gold standard for the evaluation of
cardiorespiratory fitness.
Metabolic fitness refers to carbohydrate and lipid metabolism usually
defined usually by glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity, lipid profile and the ratio of
lipid to carbohydrate oxidized at rest of during steady-state exercise. Cardio
respiratory endurance is the ability of the lungs, heart, and blood vessels to deliver
adequate amounts of oxygen to the cells to meet the demands of prolonged physical
activity (Hoeger & Hoeger, 2006).
2.2 Skill-related fitness
Plowan and Smith (2008) stated that skill-related physical fitness is
portion of physical fitness which is directed toward optimizing athletic performance.
Skill-related physical fitness is less related to good health and more related to ability
to learn sport and other kinds of physical skill (Corbin & Lindscey, 2007).
Skill-related physical fitness is needed for success in athletics and lifetime sport and
activities. Fitness components important for success in skillful activities and athletic
events; encompasses agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time, and speed
(Hoeger & Hoeger, 2010). Skill-related physical fitness components following
(Kotecki, 2010):
Agility: the ability to quickly and accurately change the direction of the
movement of the entire body in space. In game such as tennis, agility is important to
reach the ball in time.
10
Balance: the ability to maintain equilibrium while moving or stationary.
Activities such as gymnastics, ballet, and skiing require balance.
Coordination: the ability to combine the senses with different body parts
to perform activities smoothly and accurately. Activities such as catching a
baseball or kicking a football require the hands and eyes or foot and eyes to work
together.
Power: the ability to transfer energy into force at a fast applies speed and
strength to produce a muscular movement. Almost all sport requires power to perform
well.
Reaction time: the amount of time it takes to respond and react to a
stimulus. Activities such as returning a serve in tennis or badminton require fast
reaction times.
Speed: the ability to move quickly from one point to another. Actives such
as the 100 or 200 meter sprint in track or running the baseball require speed.
Figure 3 Sport-specific athletic fitness built on the core of health-related
physical fitness (Plowan & Smith, 2008).
11
Lavy and Hastad (2007) mentioned components of skill-related physical
fitness as following:
Agility is the ability to rapidly and accurately change the position of the
body in space.
Balance: is the maintenance of equilibrium while stationary or moving.
Coordination is the ability to simultaneously perform multiple motor
tasks smoothly and accurately.
Power is the ability to exert maximum force in a minimum length of time.
Reaction time is the duration between the stimulation and the response
to the stimulation.
Speed is the ability to perform a movement in a short period of time.
3. Aerobic fitness & anaerobic fitness
3.1 Aerobic fitness
Sharkey and Gaskill (2007) defined aerobic fitness as the maximal
capacity to take in, transport, and use oxygen, is best measured in a laboratory test
called the oxygen intake (or VO2 max) test. Aerobic fitness, also called
cardiorespirtory fitness or cardiovascular, is a good measure of the heart’s ability to
pump oxygen-rich blood to the muscles. Although there are technical difference in
terms using cardio (heart), vascular (blood vessels), respiratory (lung and ventilation),
and aerobic (work with oxygen), they all reflect various aspects of this component of
fitness (Franks & Howley, 1998).
Aerobic fitness has three important dimensions. The first lactate threshold
defines the level of effort that person can sustain for prolonged periods (see table 2).
Expressed as a percentage of VO2 max, it may be low or high, depending on the
person’s level of activity and training. People can increase all dimensions of aerobic
fitness by training according to the principles (Sharkey & Gaskill, 2007).
12
Table 2 Dimensions of aerobic fitness.
Test Measures Best related to
VO2 max intensity Events lasting 5 to 15 min (1 to 3
mi, or 1.6 to4.8 km)
Second lactate threshold Duration 30 min to 3 hr (10k to marathon)
First lactate threshold Long duration prolonged work or sport
(up to 8 Hr)
3.2 Anaerobic fitness
Aerobic exercise is physical exercise of relatively low intensity that
depends primarily on the aerobic energy-generating process (Plowman & Smith,
2008). Anaerobic fitness is also the athlete’s body ability to deal with lactic and
recover. Better anaerobic fitness means the athletes can sprint, quickly change
direction, accelerate and jump more throughout the game (Marlow, 2003; Ostojic et
al., 2006).
Anaerobic fitness can be explained as the capability of a person to
perform maximal anaerobic exercise. In essence, the competence to generate the
highest mechanical power (peak power, PP) over a few second (an indicator of
maximal anaerobic power) and to sustain the high power output over a short period of
time (usually less than 60s) (mean power, MP, an indicate of maximal anaerobic
endurance or maximal muscular endurance) can be considered as prime indicators of
anaerobic fitness. Anaerobic fitness is lost at the rate of about 10% in both men and
women regardless of activity levels (Hawkins & Wiswell, 2003). Anaerobic fitness
declines at a faster rate than aerobic fitness. Likely due to a greater reduction in
frequency of anaerobic activities compared to aerobic activities as people age and also
to the significant losses of muscle mass (sarcopenta) assoclated with aging (Charmarl
et al., 1995; Doherty, 2003 cited in Inbar & Chia, 2008). Anaerobic fitness refers to
13
the use of oxygen to adequately meet energy demands during exercise via aerobic
metabolism (McArdle et al., 2006).
Benefits of improved anaerobic fitness include increased resistance to
fatigue during high-intensity exercise and increased capacity for and performance in
high-intendsity work. The most important benefit of anaerobic training is that it bulds
muscle mass, muscle strength, and muscle power to a greater extent than aerobic
training (Taylor & Johnson, 2007).
Measurement of Maximal Oxygen Consumption It is imperative carefully screen the clients for exercise testing, classify their
disease risk, identify any contraindications to exercise testing, and obtain their
informed consent to exercise before conducting any physical fitness tests. It can use
laboratory and field tests to assess each component of physical fitness and to develop
physical fitness profiles foe the clients (Heyward, 2010).
The test environment is important for test validity and reliability. Test
anxiety, emotional problems, food in the stomach, bladder distance, room temperature,
and ventilation should be controlled as much as possible. To minimize anxiety, the
test procedures should be explained adequately, and the test environment should be
quiet and private (ACSM, 2010). Cooper and Storer (2004) explained that aerobic
performance is one of the essential elements of physical fitness, along with muscle
strength, flexibility, and body composition. Aerobic performance is defined by certain
parameters that can be measured using carefully selected exercise testing protocols.
The best known of these parameters is maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max).
14
Table 3 Physical fitness testing lists.
Types of Tests Contents of the Tests
Beep Shuttle Run Test Aerobic fitness
Sit and Reach Flexibility
Handgrip Strength Muscle Strength
Vertical Jump Muscle Power
Home Push-up Test Muscle Strength & Muscle Endurance
Sprint Test Speed Endurance
Home Sit-up Test Muscle Strength & Muscle Endurance
Bruce Test Cardiovascular Fitness
Illinois Agility Test Agility
Strength Push and Pull Tests Muscle Strength
Push Up Beep Test Muscle Strength & Muscle Endurance
Curl Up Beep Test Abdominal Strength and Endurance
Bench Press Beep Test Chest Muscle Strength and Endurance
Conconi Test Heart Rate at the Anaerobic Threshold
Single Leg Squat Muscle Strength of Low Body
Pull Up NAPA Muscle Strength and Endurance of
Upper Body
1. Aerobic testing (VO2 max testing)
Reiman and Manske (2009) stated that Aerobic testing utilizes various test
procures that determine a client’s fitness level. Fitness encompasses many variables,
including cardiorespiratory levels. One of the most common methods of determining
one’s fitness level is to measure what is know as VO2 max. Moreover, McArdle et al.
(2001) defined VO2 max as a person’s capacity for aerobic resynthesis. Aerobic
power referred to as aerobic capacity, measures a person’s capacity for aerobic
synthesis of ATP (McArdle et al., 1996) and so indicates the ability to performance
15
sustained, high-intensity exercise. During exercise of increases intensity, oxygen
consumption increases. As the workload continues to increase, oxygen uptake
plateaus and the athlete begins to utilize other energy sources (e.g., glycolytic sources)
to produce ATP. The point at which oxygen uptake plateaus with an increases in
workload is called maximal oxygen consumption, or simply VO2 max (Hoffman,
2006).
Cardiorespiratory fitness is related to the ability to perform large muscle,
dynamic, moderate-to-high intensity exercise for prolonged periods. Performance of
such exercise depends on the functional state of the respiratory, cardiovascular, and
skeletal (ACSM, 2010).
The assessments of VO2 max can be divided into laboratory/ direct test and
field/indirect test. However, using direct measurement of oxygen consumption are
always required some criteria that should be demonstrated so the variable achieved
should be considered as the Maximum Oxygen Consumption (Pomerants et al., 2004).
The precision of the VO2 max results have been discussed for many years. Therefore,
the most precise assessments of VO2 max are performed directly in the lab test setting
(Bruce 1984; Grant et al., 1999). Also Larsen et al. (2002) agreed that the lab test is
one of the most accurate for the results to measure VO2 max.
VO2 max test define the highest intensity of effort, requires a treadmill or