CHAPTER 2 BACKGROUND OF THE SANTAL COMMUNITYshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/65971/11... · unique socio-cultural background notwithstanding the diverse influence on them.

CHAPTER 2

BACKGROUND OF THE SANTAL COMMUNITY

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CONTENTS

2.1 Tribal Heritage 28-31

2.2 Origin of the Santals 31-33

2.3 General Characteristics and Community Life of the

Santa Is 33-34

2.3.1 Good Temperament 34

2.3.2 Love for Music and Dance 34

2.3.3 Community Working 34

2.3.4 Drinks Habit 34

2.3.5 Vegetarian and Non-Vegetarian Diet 35

2.3.6 Variable Occupation 35

2.3.7 Mud House 35

2.3.8 Artistic Mind 35

2.3.9 Unity 35-36

2.3.10 Strong Religious and Superstition Faith 36-37

2.3.11 Non-Existence of Caste System 37

2.3.12 Keeper of Traditional Values 37

2.3.13 Family Structure Same to Other Indian Communities 37

2.3.14 Father is the Supreme Authority of Any Family Property 37-38

2.3.15 Women is Inferior to Men 38

2.3.16 Freedom.ofWomen 38-39

2.3.17 Traditional Political Institution 39-42

2.3.18 Oaths 42-43

2.3.19 Marriage and Divorce 43-48

2.3.20 Dress, Ornament and Furniture 48

2.3.21 Economy 48-49

2.3.22 Education 49

2.3.23 Sports Activities 49

2.3.24 Language and Scripts 49-50

2.3.25 Taboo and Totem 50-52

2.3.26 Festivals 52

2.3.27 Birth and Naming of the Child 52-53

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2.3.28 Disease and Treatment 53

2.3.29 Death and Funeral 53-54

2.4 Jamboni Block and Mouzas under Survey 54

2.4.1 Geographical Location of Jamboni Block 54-55

2.4.2 Historical Background of Jamboni Block 55-56

2.4.3 Jamboni Block Statistical Data At A Glance 56-59

2.4.4 Statistical Data of Each Mouza under Survey 60-63

2.4.5 Nearest Market Place for Each Mouza 63

2.4.6 Banks, Co-operative Societies and Post Offices for

Mouzas under Survey 64

2.4.7 Health Centres for Mouzas under Survey 64-65

2.4.8 Schools, Colleges and Research Institutes for

Mouzas under Survey 65

2.4.9 Rural Library Facilities of Mouzas under Survey 65-66

2.4.10 Other Available Facilities of Mouzas under Survey 66-67

References 68-72

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2.1 Tribal Heritage

It is essential to be aware of the Santals i.e., their tribal heritage, origin,

behavioural characteristics, standard of living etc., before detail discussion about

the information needs and information seeking behaviour of this community.

India has a rich tribal heritage. Population wise, globally, tribals in India are next

only to Africa (Singh, 1988). In the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes

Order (Amendment) Act, 1976 (Number 108 of 1976 dated 18.09.76) as many as

564 groups of tribes besides a number of sub-tribes inhabit different parts of the

Indian sub-continent and constitute about 8% of its population. There are 38

groups of tribes are inhabited in West Bengal (Baskey, 1999, p.1 0). The Santa Is

are one of the most important and numerically the largest homogenous tribe of

India, mainly concentrated in the South-Eastern plateau of Jharkhand (formerly

Bihar), especially in its division of Santal Parganas. They inhabitate in West

Bengal, Orissa and Assam also. Moreover, they are also found in neighbouring

countries like Nepal and Bangladesh. According to Skrefsrud the word 'Santal'

comes from 'Saontal' and Acharya Suniti Kumar Chatterji says that 'Santal'

comes from 'Samantapal' (i.e., Samantapal ~ Samanta-al ~ Saontal ~santal).

Tribes (i.e., adibasis) are earliest inhabitants of India. They are neglected till now.

Other developed communities of India are thinking about their rights. They are

pre-Aryan inhabitants, forced to keep shelter in forest or mountain due to Aryan

invasion in India. Actually, Aryan are retrenched them from their own site Hihri

Pipri. It was also good for the existence of tribal culture because they survive

their culture inspite of such tragedy. There is a slight touch of modern culture in ·

their life.

Many anthropologists have defined the term 'Tribe'. According to Dr. Rivers

'They belong to the society where life is free from the complexity, speak in one

language, having similarities in appearance and culture, having Panchayat

system for law and order and they fight or move unitedly in need' (Baskey, 1999,

p.1).

On the basis of bodily and facial appearance tribes of India are divided into three

groups: i) Negroito ii) Proto-Australoid and iii) Mongoloid. Santals belong to

Proto-Australoid group.

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West Bengal can be geographically divided into three distinct regions. Those are

foothills and plains lying below the Himalayas in the North; a portion of the

Ganga delta in the South; and the uplands in the West which is actually the fag

end of the Chhotanagpur plateau. Most of the Santals live in the red soil. Out of

the thirty eight tribal groups living in West Bengal, the largest group consists of

the Santal. According to 1981, 1991 and 2001 census of West Bengal, the total

population of Santa Is are 16,66,61 0; 20,64,348 and 24,64,391 respectively which

is 54% of total tribal population (Baskey, 1999, p.37).

On the basis of languages, tribes are divided into four groups: i) Austro-Asiatic ii)

Dravidian iii) Tibet-China or Sino-Tibet group and iv) Indo-Aryan.

Santallanguage belongs to Munda branch of Austro-Asiatic group.

Santa I inhabitate mainly in the sixteen districts of India namely 1) Sarguja 2)

Palamou 3) Hazaribagh 4) Giridih 5) Santal Pargana 6) Ranchi 7) Dhanbad 8)

Singbhum (of Jharkhand State) 9) Purulia 10) Bankura 11) East Midnapore 12)

West Midnapore 13) Birbhum (of West Bengal State) 14) Sundargarh 15)

Mayurbhanj and 16) Keonjhar (of Orissa State).

As per tribal population strength of West Bengal, West Midnapore District comes

first, Purulia District takes the second position and the third place comes to

Bankura District.

, The Santals are no more a nomad race; they are now, by and large settled

agriculturists. Of course, the small and marginal farmers have to migrate for

earning their livelihood seasonally. Santals were not a poor community in the

earlier times. Some of them were Zamindar or King.

They are conspicuous for their bright historical records and distinct socio-cultural

background.

They are also noted for their unique characteristics and temperamental

constituents which have fairly distinguished them from the rest of the Indian

population. Patriotic zeal and fervour excellently embedded in their temperament

have not only enabled them in occupying paramountcy in Indian tribal life. but

have also helped them in achieving an important ·albeit unrecognised position in

Indian polity. After independence various measures have been adopted by

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governmental and non-governmental agencies to develop and promote their

living standard woven with the plight of isolation, frustration and hardship. Three

important Protestant Christian Missions are trying to develop the tribes in West

Bengal are 1) American Baptist Mission 2) Methodist Missionary Society and 3)

Church Missionary Society.

Roman Catholic Mission also works for this purpose. Establishment of Santali

medium schools or hospitals are very important developmental work of those

missionaries. For the development of tribal society government provide special

facilities in the Constitution. Section 46 of the Indian Constitution (Baskey, 1999,

p.9) declares that State will consider the weaker section in special care

particularly for the scheduled castes and tribes regarding educational and

economical development and defend them from social injustice and Section 342

declares about the process of categorization as Scheduled Tribes (Baskey, 1999,

p.9).

First 'The Scheduled Tribes Order' was published in 1950 and then 'The

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Order (Amendment) Act' was published

in 1956.

Jawaharlal Nehru's Panchashil Policy (1958) (Baskey, 1999, p.1 0) for tribal

development are given below:

i) Tribal development should provide through awakening of creative

culture among them but not forcibly. They should encourage for the

progress of their own art and culture.

ii) We should respect the tribal rights on forest and surrounding lands.

iii) Making of eligible candidate from them for administrative and

developmental work. Outsiders appointment for technical work is

necessary in the early stage but not too much.

iv) Excessive administrative burden is unhealthy for tribal region. We

should develop them thorough social and cultural development

avoiding the competitive mentality.

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v) Statistically improved data of various aspects of tribal development or

level of purchasing power is not the basis of tribal development but the

qualitative achievement is more important for them.

These principles were neglected.

However, the telling impact of westernization coupled with industrialization and

urbanization upon the Santals has yielded a significant change in their life style

(Mohsin, 1964). With the increasing impact of Hinduism, Christianity and other

religious and philanthropic missionaries, the leitmotif of the Santals' culture is

gradually languishing (Jha, 1968; Prasad, 1971 ). They are now in a state of flux

and in a process of putting on a new social identity and image over their

crumbling norms. However, the Santals still retain the essential core of their

unique socio-cultural background notwithstanding the diverse influence on them.

They are distinct from the rest of the Indian population in many ways.

2.2 Origin of the Santa Is

Descriptive ethnology of Bengal records the following legend in connection with

the origin of the Santals. Once upon a time 'a wild goose' coming from the great

ocean alighted at Hihri Pipri, and laid two eggs - one germinated the breed of

male and another rightly shaped the genus of female. They were the parents of

the Santa! race. The first parents of Santals who sprang from the mythological

eggs are remembered as Pilchu Haram and Pilchu Budhi. Out of their wedlock

were born fourteen children equally divided into sons and daughters. When all

• the sons and daughters were married with each other and had their children, the

seven parents decided that henceforth brothers and sisters should not marry.

They, therefore, according to O'Malley (1938) divided themselves into seven

exogamous sects. Each of seven children of the first parents founded a tribe.

The descendents of the first born son are the Hansdaks/Hansdas (i.e.,

Blacksmith/Lohar & Musician), of the second born the Murmus (i.e.,

Priest/Brahmin), of the third born the Kiskus (i.e., Kshatriya!King), of the fourth

born the Hembroms (i.e., Kumar/Dewan), of the fifth born the Mandis/Marandis

(i.e., Zamindar!Landlord) whom the first parents appointed to offer sacrifice to the

great mountain, of the sixth born the Sorens (i.e., Army) and of the seventh born

the Tudus (i.e., Blacksmith/Lahar & Musician) (Archer, 1975). The Santals are

31

further divided into a number of sects and sub-sects, mostly named after some

animals, plants, fruits or other material objects. They have thus more than a

hundred cts (Dubey, 1965).

s so far been impossible to determine conclusively the origin of the Santals.

Santals have no written records of their own (Hembrom, 1948; Troisi. 1976). On '

the basis of their tradition various conjectural views have been advanced

regarding the origin of the Santal Pre-Dravidian aboriginals who, according to

their traditions, are represented as a race wandering from one country to

another. But whatever their original habitat might have been, authentic records

reflect that during the 18th century many Santals began settling down in

Chhotonagpur and in the neighbouring districts of Midnapore (now East

Midnapore & West Midnapore) and Birbhum. These people who were endowed

with essential skills of clearing of jungles for cultivation began to migrate to the

Rajmahal Hills on the North-Eastern side of Chhotonagpur plateau. Skrefsrud

(1887) is of the opinion that the Santals entered India from the North-West and

first settled in Punjab and then made their way to their present habitat -

Chhotonagpur plateau. ../

According to Waddell ~) the Santals story of their advancement from Hihri

Pipri via Champa to their present location in the Santal Parganas is manifestly a

record of actual tribal progress, not as is usually believed, from one part of the

Hazaribagh Hills to another but from the central alluvial valley of the Ganges

South-Westwards to the hills, under pressure of the Aryan invasion of the valley

from the North. But Chattopadhyay (194§ criticises- the views advances by

Skrefsrud, Waddell and others and having hinged upon geographical evidence

points out that the Santals probably came from Kaimeer range through the

Champa pass and neighbouring passes into the Chhotonagpur plateau. Dalton

(1872) reports that the Santals came to the present abode from North-East India

and found their way to Chhotonagpur plateau and adjoining high lands by the

side of their sacred stream, the Damodar river. Campbell (1894) indicates that - -the Santals occupied the country on both sides of the Ganges but more specially

the area to the north of it. Starting from the North-East, they gradually walked

their way upto the valley of the Ganges till we find them in the neighbourhood of

-Banaras with their headquarters near Mirzapur. Here the main body, which has

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kept to the Northern bank of the river, crossed and headed Southwards to the

left, and finally reached the tableland of Chhotonagpur. The Campbell theory is

not supported by Risley (1903) who is of the opinion that legend of Santals does

not appear to deserve serious consideration as a record of their actual wandering

nor as an example of the working of the mythmaking faculty of the story of

wandering of the Santals appear to deserve serious consideration.

However, the history of Santa! migration does nof remain conjectural from the

18th century onwards there are authentic records regarding their movements.

According to O'Malley (191 0) this is certain that the Santa Is settled within historic

times in the Chhotonagpur plateau and in the adjoining districts of Birbhum,

Burdwan and Midnapore (presently East and West Midnapore). Towards the

close of 18th century they occupied their present abode the Santal Parganas.

Houlton ~records that in 1833 the Government declared the Damin-i-Koh

area including the portion of Dumka, Godda, Pakur and Rajmahal subdivisions to

be Government estate. According to him the Santals first began to settle in the

area in the year 1790. Sherwill (1851) reports that there were no less than

83,265 Santals in the Damin-i-Koh area in 1851. According to Dalton (1872) the

Santals also colonised in other parts of the country and it is chiefly by migration

from Hazaribagh and Birbhum districts that the modern Santal Parganas was

formed. It extends over 5,470 square miles in size and according to Archer

(1975) may perhaps be compared to several English countries merged into one.

The anatomy of Santa! Parganas of Jharkhand (formerly Bihar) includes Dumka,

Godda, Sahibganj and Deoghar districts; Dumka being the divisional

headquarters. The total tribal population of the division, according to 2001

census, is about 37 percent of the total population of the division. Its population is

mainly composed of three distinct groups, Santa I, Paharias and Plains-men.

The Santa Is are the largest tribe (34.12% of the total population of the division as

per 2001 census report) of Santal Parganas.

2.3 General Characteristics and Community Life of the Santals

According to 2001 census, 30% of total population of Jamboni Block belongs to

Santa! community. To work with this community is very interesting so the survey

regarding this community is an example of such interest.

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As per self observation and questionnaire-cum-interview following characteristics

of this community has been found:

2.3.1 Good Temperament

Generally anyone who comes in contact with the Santals is naturally enticed by

their sturdy, swarthy and hefty profile. They have phenomenal stamina and

patience to work incessantly with smiling face and zeal. Temperament wise, the

Santals appear to be frank, open, honest and gentle. They believe in leading a

calm and happy life. They have firm faith in pacifism and social liberty. They are

generally shy of fighting (Singh, 1981 ). They are also well remembered for their

patriotic zeal and fervour. Santals according to RoyChoudhury (1961), have a

simple but highly respected social code of morality which helps the tribe to keep

its solidarity. They are inflexible and nothing in the world can turn their 'no' into

'yes'. The Santals are of cheerful disposition and quick-witted.

2.3.2 Love for Music and Dance

They are generally found roaming about with ready laughter or piping some

melodious tune on a flute despite their abject poverty and constant exploitation.

Both men and women in Santal community are very fond of music and dance.

Archer (1946) rightly called them a 'musical people'. They have elaborate song

cycles for festival occasions and for the various stages of agricultural cycles.

2.3.3 Community Working

Both men and women prefer to work in the company of others. These two

characteristics, namely love for music and dance, and community working can be

clearly noticed during the transplanting season.

2.3.4 Drinks Habit

Handi (rice-beer) is the real harbinger of joy for Santals. It permeates their life

style (Kerketta, 1960). Mukherji (1967) also indicates the constant striving of

Santals for rice-beer. Everything of ceremonial nature is ratified by Hand~ and it

plays a dominant role in their culture. Parua (alcohol made out of Mohua flowers)

is equally common among Santa Is but it is not available in sufficiency.

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2.3.5 Vegetarian and Non-Vegetarian Diet

The staple food of the Santals is rice. They generally live on a vegetarian diet.

But they like to eat rat, squirrel, pig, bird etc. They rear up pig for family

consumption as well as for sale. Sometimes they also eat beef. Those who have

faith iri Sari/Srijana Dharma live on vegetarian diet. Thus, the quintessential

philosophy guiding the life of Santals has best been described as 'eat, drink and

be merry and care naught for the morrow'.

2.3.6 Variable Occupation

The Santals are not bound to follow a fixed occupation by any caste rules. There

was a time when they used to live a semi-nomadic life, always on the move in the

search of food. Now they have the life of agriculturists and lead a settled village

life (Verma, 1977). In fact, their social life, philosophy and thinking, rites and

rituals, practically centred on different agricultural activities. They cling to their

land as their principal occupation and means of subsistence. Hunting, fishing,

fruit gathering and wood gathering (faggot), leaf picking (sa/ leaves, palash

leaves etc), though subsidiary, are still considered important source of

subsistence. This has forced the Santa Is to settle down in permanent villages.

2.3. 7 Mud House

Physically the Santal village is decorated with a long winding street with houses

on either side of it. Though made of mud Santal houses are kept very clean and

they are beautiful to look at. The walls have fascinating paintings of gods and

goddesses, human, flower and animal figures. There is a 'Salkunj' (the holy place

covered with sal trees) near their houses. That place is famous for Jaher Than

dedicated to Marang Buru, Jaher-Era and other gods and goddesses. Manjhi

than (the holy place) is situated near the house of Village Headman (i.e., Manjht),

soul of first Manjhi and thereafter exist there.

2.3.8 Artistic Mind

Wall paintings on the one hand enable them to utilise their spare time and show

their love for art and craft on the other hand.

·'I

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2.3.9 Unity

Psychologically speaking, the Santa! villages are not mere clusters of families

living in physical proximity but human habitations bound together by bonds of

blood and commonality of interest. Though illiterate, rustic and semi-civilised, the

community life of the Santals is well organi?ed and may be called a 'model of

corporate living'. It is based on the concept and practice of equality, fraternity and

social justice permeated with the idealism inherent in socialism and democracy

(Sinha, 1972).

' 2.3.10 Strong Religious and Superstition faith

I

The Santals have a strong religious background (Majumdar, 1956; Singh and

Sinha, 1982). Their convictions and beliefs in religion shape and control their

lives from birth to death. Religiously, the Santals believe that Thakur Jiu, the I

Supreme Being, is not only the creator of heaven, earth and man but He is also

the keeper and supporter of life. He provides all that a man needs and allots

each man his span of life. He is sometimes identified as Sing Chando,. the Sun. I

He organises the days and nights and is responsible for heat and cold, rain and

sunshine. The religion of the Santals is centred around the worship and

ceremonies of numerous gods, deities and spirits whom they propitiate on I

different occasions and festivals (Kochar, 1963, 1966a; Prasad, 1972). The

Santals believe that they are totally surroupded by Bongas or Spirits. There are

spirits in the house, in the village, in the forest and even on the mountains. These

gods, deities and spirits are thought to IJe responsible for their welfare. They I

believe in two kinds of god - one who is worshipped by all, and another who is I

worshipped only by different households. The Santa Is have great respect for their

ancestors whom they venerate on variollls occasions. Besides their beliefs in

different bongas or sub-bongas, their blind faith in numerous evil spirits locally I

known as bhut (ghost), rakas (giantldevil)etc., (Bhowmick, 1971; Kochar, 1964),

witchcraft (Rout, 1966-67), Ojha or medicire man, amulets and magical formulae

(Bhowmick, 1971 ), immortality of soul, its 'transmigration, concept of heaven and

hell and reincarnation (Sachchidananda, 1965; Sinha, 1957) is well known. The

Santals sincerely observe different religious festivals but they do not observe I

fasting on any occasion except marriagei The parents and near relatives of the

bride and groom observe fasting for two or three days. Their religious practices

36 I

have remained unchanged over the centuries. The itnportant gods and deities of

Santa! community are Marang Buru/Lita (Lord Sbiva), Sing Bonga, Moreko­

Turuiko, Jaher-Era, Gosain-Era, Sima-Bonga (Area Spirits) etc. I

2.3.11 Non Existence of Caste System I

Despite the significant impact of Hinduism, caste system is almost unknown to I

the Santals. They have different clans and sub clans without anyone of them I

feeling superior or inferior.

2.3.12 Keeper of Traditional Values

The spirits of brotherhood, responsible for the survival and integrity of the

community, is highly valued by the Santals. Kochar1(1966b) has rightly remarked I

that the Santals have a very high level of social 1cohesion and social identity.

According to him the Santals' strong and almost: inseparable bond with their

community is one of the reasons why they have beEm able to maintain traditional I

values and norms. Soren (1979) also reports the deep attachment of the Santals I

to their society. According to him the Santals place the consideration of 'society' I

above the ambitions of individuals.

I

2.3.13 Family Structure Same to Other Indian Community I

Like other Indian communities, family in the Santa'! community is considered as '

the primary social unit which consists of parents and their offspring, uncles,

aunts, and their offspring and grand parents also c~nstitute the demography and

structure of a family. The Santals firmly believe in the joint family system but one

would hardly find any Santa! joint family now-a-days.

2.3.14 Father is the Supreme Authority of Any Family Property

A Santa! family centres around the father who experiences supreme authority in

the family festivals. If any of his sons or daughters 1

earn wages they must deposit

the amount with him. No son has the right to keep 'them for himself. Even the I

"baretial" received by the sons on the occasion of their sister's marriage is I

considered as part of the family property. If at' any time an unmarried son I

quarrels or disobeys his father the later can decline to keep him with the family I

and drive him away even from the home. However, punishment on this account I

37

requires approval of the village community. A son has no remedy against such

punishment. The only course is to leave the fa~ily and earn his livelihood. In his

old age, the father relinquishes control over t~e family affairs but can demand

that his son care and maintain him. As in the Hindu society, a son in Santal

community is expected to support his old parents. According to the customise

laws of Santal inheritance, the son steps into the shoes of his father. But in case '

father is without a son the near relatives of father such as father's own brother

and their sons generally get possession over his property. I

2.3.15 Women is Inferior to Men

The women do not inherit property in the San~al society. They can at best get a

maintenance allowance or may act as custodians of property on behalf of their

minor male offspring, the real inheritors. A ;piece of father's land and other

movables are preserved to finance the marriage ceremony of the daughters, if

the father has expired. A Santa! woman after getting married generally lives in '

her husband's house throughout her married life except, of course, during

occasional visit to her parents' place. Thus the type of Santa! family is patriarchal

and patrimonial. But a father having no son , more often desires to transfer his

property to his daughter and likes to settle her: in his own house with her husband

known as Ghar Jawae (inducted son-in-law). ~owever, after the settlement of the

groom as a family member the daughter loss~s her control over parental property

and ownership of the same is transferred to the hands of the inducted son-in-law I

(i.e., Ghar Jawae). Thus it seems that women in Santal community are

considered intrinsically inferior to men. However, their role in the Santal social life

and organisation can in no way be ignored or unrated. They enjoy their own

rights along with obligations according to Santal custom and tradition.

2.3.16 Freedom of Women

So far as the division of labour in Santal family is concerned the females have a . '

freehand in all the household chores and ar~ also free to engage themselyes in

jobs outside the family to support the economy and welfare of the family. Thus to

some extent both men and women in the Sa11tal community enjoy equal rights as '

far as jobs are concerned. However, the males are generally dominant in social '

38

life where emphasis is on pleasure and on the maintenance of reciprocal and

obligatory relationship.

2.3.17 Traditional Political Institution

Frequent social and political upheavals have raised the politi.cal and social

awareness of the Santals. They are meeting the new challenge;s squarely and

taking the innovations in the stride. All the same they have not gi.Ven a complete

go-by to their traditional political institutions. Though they believ~ in the principle

of democracy, socialism and the value civic liberty, they still stron'gly like to follow

a well-developed pattern of traditional leadership. Santa! law is actually a

synthesis of tribal attitude expressed through a hierarchy of trib~l courts (Risley,

1981 ). The first original court of tribal justice is the Village Council. It is presided

over by the Manjhi or village headman. Its duty is to duly observe the rites of

birth, imitation and death, the conduct of year's festivals, the l,aws of exogamy,

and the canons of sex. Seven village officials are the servants c;>f Village Council.

The names of the posts of those seven officials are:

1. Manjhi or Headman 2. Paranik or Deputy Headman .: 3. Jogmanjhi or

Sacerdotal 4. Jog Paranik or Assistant Sacerdotal 5. Godet or Headman's

Messenger 6. Naeke or Principal Priest 7. Kudamnaeke or Assistant Priest. The

functions of the village officials are discussed below:

1. Manjhi or Headman

He is the chief official of the village. He is the overall guardi~n of the village. No

public sacrifice, no festival, no ceremony can be properly qone without Manjhi

participating or taking the initiative. When a dispute arises :'or any offence has

been committed, he summons the village meeting a~d presides at its

discussions. At the end of the meeting he announces its decision. In case of

major criminal offences, he does not decide in the village, ne refers the case to

police station. His position in fact is that of general disciplinarian and a communal

custodian. He is functionary of central importance in the Santa! village. Because

of his vital role in the life of the village, he commands gen~ral respect. He is the

living book of law.

39

2. Paranik or Deputy Headman

He assists Manjhi in the process of justice and decision making. Next to the

Manjhi he is the most important official. This man is virtually a deputy Manjhi. He

officiates for the Manjhi in the latter's absence. Instances have been found where

he had been appointed as a manjhi where ithe manjhi died without heir or male

relation.

3. Jogmanjhi or Sacerdotal I

He is the guardian of the young people ,of the village. He is the headman's

second assistant. He keeps the young men and women of the village in order. In '

Sohrai and Karam festivals he directs the young people to dance. He is

responsible for the behaviour of the young men and women during festivals. At

the birth of a child and at marriages he is master of ceremonies. However, if he is

careless to perform his duties of maintainin'g morality of the village youth and any

act of shamelessness occurs he has to facb punishment in the village council.

4. Jogparanik or Assistant Sacerdotal

He is the assistant of Jogmanjhi. During Jogmanjhi's absence he officiates for the I

Jogmanjhi.

5. Godet or Headman's Messenger

He is the orderly or messenger of the manjhi. He calls the village people together

to council meetings at Manjht's comma,nd. He collects subscriptions for the

village festivals including sacrificial fowls., A good communicator is selected for

this post.

6. Naeke or Principal Priest

He is the principal priest. His main function is to worship in the village festivals. I

Moreover, he interprets the religious rules and customs. I

7. Kudamnaeke or Assistant Priest

He is Naeke's assistant. He is the field p~iest and does worship of the Bongas of I

outskirts and offers him own blood to the Pargana Bonga.

The above officials are dispensing indigenous justice in majority of the Santal

villages of West Bengal. From the time; immemorial these officials are running

Santa! villages.

40

The tasks of the Village Council I

The Santa Is call the council more hor. 'More' in Santali is five and 'hor means

man. Actually five men constitute the quorum of the council. If any customary law

has been violated or any offence has been committeCJ the manjhi is informed. He

directs the Godet to call villagers for 'Kulhi durup' or meeting. The Village Council

must give to each household head an equal voice and permit free access to the

discussions. Each household head has right to say in the meeting. When the

discussion is over the Manjhi interprets the sense of 1the meeting and announces

the decision. If the offender breaks the customary law he is fined, the whole fine I

amount is appropriated by the meeting. 1 I

Apart from trying offences and setting disputes, ~he council in the meeting

decides whether permission should be accorded in the following cases: I

i) induction of a ghar Jawae (inducted son-in-law)

ii) adoption of a son or daughter

iii) gift or exchange of land

Moreover, the council should be informed of marriage and be shown elder I

brother's share and bride price. It is the duty of the council to partition family

properties on prayer.

Mapanjhi, the Counqil of Five Manjhis

If a Santa I is aggrieved against the decision of manjhi of his own Village Council,

he may appeal before the Council of the five Manjhis. This body consists of

village headman drawn from the vicinity. This is the1 first appellate council of the

Santals. The number of Manjhis of the neighbourhc;>Od need not necessarily be

confined to five only it may be seven, nine, eleven, thirteen and even more in odd I

numbers. Only complicated cases are heard by the body. I

Pargana or Parganait

Pargana is the second appellate authority agains1t the decision of Manjhi of

Santal Village Council. Of course, appeal may directly lie from the decision of a I

Manjhi of a village. The aggrieved party may prefer an appeal before the Council I

of five Manjhis. It is the direction of the aggrieved party. A Parganait or Pargana

41

has two assistants namely, Chakladar and Deshmajhi. Chak/adar acts as a I

messenger of Pargana. Oeshmanjhi assists Pargana in the process of taking

decision. A Chakladar is a regional Godet. Normally all these posts are

hereditary.

Lo Bir or Forest Council

The ultimate authority to decide the Santal disputes and the last appellate court I ,

for the Santals is Lo Bir or Lo Mahal where the body meets once a year in the

forest. Because of the denudation of forest, the charm of local hunts has almost I

been lost but in some of the villages under study the young and old still join the I

annual hunt. But there is no Forest Council in the districts of Bankura and East

and West Midnapore. The Santa Is from' the district of Purulia attend the annual

hunt on the day of 'Buddha Pumima', the full moon day in the month of Baishakh

(May) on the Ayodhya Hills around which there are about eighty Santal villages in I

the district of Purulia. The Convener of the hunt is called 'Dihrt. The dihri is the ' -

priest, sacrificer and the master of hunt. After the hunt is over under the

residency of Dihri any matter of dispute whether great or small can be brought for I

justice. A person who is aggrieved against the decision of Manjhi or Pargana can

put forward his case for decision in the annual hunt. But in fact, none of the

people interviewed could recollect any 9ase which was decided by the Lo Bir or

Lo Mahal. Moreover, the informants of the villages of Jamboni Block say that

some of them join the annual hunt on the Ayodhya Hills where justice is available

and they also attend the local hunts twice or thrice during summer every year.

There, they do not have any judicial proceedings. These hunts are only for I

enjoyment and merriment. The Manjhis could not remember whether Dihri

referred back any quarrel to them. However, the Santals of the studied villages

are well aware of the supreme power of the Forest Council or Lo Bir. The poor I

people have great trust in the judgement of the burnt forest. "All the hunts judging

they judge very righteously, they do riot let any injustice pass to all" (Bacon,

1980).

2.3.18 Oaths

Administering is the function of officials of justice. The Santal Councils have to

administer oaths whenever necessary to discover the truth. Sodding (1942)

42

writes "speak the truth; if I speak what is false a tiger spirit will eat thee". The

witness has to swear like this. When there is difficl;Jity in finding out facts the

Councils have recourse to oaths.

i) Oaths by snake or tiger

The following are the forms of tiger or snake oath respectively: 'I am speaking the

truth. If I tell a lie, a tiger will eat me on the way in the jforest.' I

i

'I am speaking the truth. If I tell a lie, may a snake bite me as I pass on the way.'

ii) Oaths by Bamboo or Bansmati

'I am speaking the truth. If I do not speak the truth Chanda Bonga!Sing Chanda

(The Sun) is above and he will judge me. If I do not speak the truth, may my I

I

family die out like a clump of bamboos.' This is the most common form of oath

recited by the manjhi and the witness repeats them a~er him.

iii) Oaths by Child or Hopon Bohok

In this oath the witness says, "With my hand on my ichild's head I am ·speaking I

the truth. If speak false, may my child die."

Another Variation is (Oaths by Deaf and Blind):

'With my hands on my ears and eyes I am speaking ,the truth. If I do not tell the I

truth, may I become deaf and blind.' :

iv) Oaths with Hindu influence

There are oaths with clear Hindu influence. It runs like this: 'Holding this copper I

coin and tulsi (one type of herbal plant leaves), I am speaking the truth. If I tell a

lie may Chanda (The Sun) judge me (Allen, 1964)-: The Santals follow all the

forms of oaths.

The most of the disputes whether civil or criminal· are settled by the Village I

Council where the Santal Manjhi is a recognised catalyst in the process of

attaining consensus. Manjhi represents the customs and the expectations of the

ancestors. He is the protector of rights and is re$ponsible for ensuring the

performance of duties. He is the champion of culture and its continuity. He

maintains the discipline in the village. I

43

"-•~• I >I llfiQI I IQ~'V Ql IU ,_,I If VI""'

There are unique and interesting customs of $antal marriage. It touches upon the

most fundamental part of Santa! life. A Santa! marriage is full of joy and gusto. In

Santa I language marriage stands for 'Bap/a', "Possibly the word has been

derived from 'Bal-pala' which means passionate life, sex life through social

recognition. It also means extension of soci~l relation through legislation of sex

life between man and woman" (Risley, 1981). There is no custom of child I

marriage among the Santa!. They have levirate and surrogate marriages but the

elder brother never marries the widow of hip younger brother (Russel and Lal,

1975).

The younger brother may marry the widow-wife of his elder brother. A Santa! can

also marry his sister-in-law. About their marriage W.W.Hunter writes "With such I

freedom of intercourse, it follows that marriages are generally love matches, and,

on the whole, happy ones; but it is co1

nsidered more respectable if the

arrangements are made by parents or guardians, without any acknowledged

reference to the young people" (Archer, 1984). This is the real feeling of a Santa!

even today same as Hunter perceived in 1877. According to Risley (1981) "Girls

are married as adults mostly to men of their own choice. Sexual intercourse

before marriage is tactically recognised, it being understood that if the girl

becomes pregnant the young man is bound :to marry her. Should he attempts to

evade this obligation, he would be severely beaten up by the Jogmanjhi, and in !

addition to this his father would be requireq to pay a heavy fine". What Risley

found in 1981 is still found in operation in sc;ntal society. Polygamy is not barred

but not favoured by custom. During interview the villagers say that a man may

take a second if his first wife is barren, or if his elder brother dies he marries the

widow provided the original wife consents. In practice, sometimes the consent of I

the first wife is not obtained. But the society does not look upon it favourably.

Risley (1981) hints at indications of fraternal polyandry through using a comment, I

"A man's younger brother may share his wife with impunity; only they must not go i

about very openly. Similarly a wife will admit1 her younger sister intimate relations

with her husband, and if pregnancy occurs scandal is avoided by him marrying

the girl as a second wife". During field study ~he truth of above custom was tested

and confirmed.

44

Forms of marriage existed earlier

Archer (1984) finds fourteen types of marriage against the Santal of the Santal

Parganas. They are follows:

' i. Dol bapla - a full dress wedding celebrate with dancing and drumming

in the two villages.

ii. Golaeti - public celebration but on a smaller scale. An exchange of

brothers and sisters.

iii. Tunki dipil- a poor man's wedding.

iv. Sangha- weddings of divorced girls and :widows.

v. Jawae kirinok - marriage by the pur,chase of a husband for an

unmarried mother.

vi. Hiram cetan- the public induction of a cb-wife.

vii. lputut - marriage by the forcible sm~aring of a girl with vermilion

(sindur) or its substitute.

viii. Or arder- marriage by capture, when a:' boy or girl pulls the other into a

house.

ix. Nir bolok- marriage by intrusion, when a boy or girl forces themselves

into a family.

x. Kunda/ napam- meeting at bedtime.

xi. Apangir- elopement.

xii. Ghardi Jawae - the taking of a temporary serving son-in-law.

xiii. Ghar Jawae - the induction of a p~rmanent serving son-in-law, the

wedding being celebrated as in dol bapla but with certain differences

and the roles of boy and girl reversed.'

xiv. Agu hatar - a ghar jawae (inducted son-in-law) wedding by

anticipation.

Risley mentions only seven types of marriages among the Santals. They are i)

Kiring bahu (bride purchase) ii) Ghardi jawae ·iii) ltut iv) Nir bolok v) Sangha vi)

Kiring jawae vii) Golaeti (The Calcutta Gazette,: 1994). O'Malley (1984) has also

45

identified seven types of marriage. In place of Golaeti he found Tunki dipil which

literally means carrying a basket on t,he head.

Forms of marriage found at present !

During interview in the studied villages the following popular ways of marriage

have been informed by the v"illagers:~

i. Ouwar Bapla which is same as Dol Bapla or Kiring Bahu. It is also locally

called as Raebar Bapla. 'Rpebar' is a Santali word meaning marriage

broker or match-maker.

'

ii. Sangha - it is marriage of widows or divorced women. It is a very

common form of marriage. This is no real marriage, a temporary hire. I

iii. Hirom cetan- idea already given. I

iv. Kunda/ napam- idea already given.

v. Ghar jawae (inducted son-in;law)- idea already given.

vi. Matkom buta or love marriage - when a boy and girl fall in love and

submit before the Jogmanjh~ and in turn, before the Village Council which

consider the matter and decide in favour of the marriage.

vii. ltut - forcible application of. vermilion (sindur) to a girl. Sometimes it is I

with the knowledge and consent of the girl when the parents are unwilling i

and sometimes by force without right or reason.

viii. Tunki dipil- idea already given.

ix. Agu gasa - bringing the w~fe in anticipation of formal marriage. In the

district of East and West Midanapore, Bankura and Purulia this form of I

marriage is resorted to. In Purulia and Bankura it is also called 'idi gasa'.

Bride-price among the Santals

In Santali, bride-price is called 'Gonon Pon'. In all kinds of Santa! marriages '

except Kiring jawae, golaeti, ghar jawae and agu hatar the boy's father or

guardian pays bride-price within the range of rupees three to thirteen, as the

case may be, to bride's father or guardian. "This price has no relation with bride's

economic value, neither it is an indemnity for the expense of her rearing nor it is

her capitalised value as maid serv~nt. It is in fact a highly conventional gift rather

46

than an act of business. It confirms the family's responsibilities for the girl's

fidelity. It is a way of formally recognising a son-in-law. It stresses the conception

of woman as property. The price is symbolic. It is a legal payment that acts as

the foundation of the rights of the husband and his family" (Archer, 1984). In the

area studied the rate of bride price is guided by the customary practices. During

interview the Manjhis (Headmen) informed that in majority of cases the bride

price is rupees five. They make the following classification of the boys and girls

for purpose of marriage:

i. Dangua -A bachelor.

ii. Chadwa- A divorced man.

I

iii. Bapla Kora- A boy whose marriage is still subsisting.

iv. Randi- A widower.

v. Erwellet- A younger brother of a widow's husband.

Girls

i. Dangua - Spinster.

ii. Cupi or Panda Depot Chadwi- One who has undergone abortion or given

birth to a child after marriage and has never had vermilion (sindur).

iii. Chadwi- A divorced woman.

iv. Bapla maejiu- A girl whose marriage is still subsisting.

v. Randi- Widow.

Bride price is less if the girl is chadwi or bapla ma~jiu or randi (widow). In the i

studied villages it is three rupees only. The customary gifts will also be less. In I

that case, only two clothes and one calf are given but in the marriage of dangua

(spinster) girl, three clothes and two cows or bullocks are gifted by the boy's

parents to the parents of a dangua girl are more desirable than the others.

Moreover, as a mark of respect one rupee is given to the Manjhi of girl's village. It

is not a bride price. In case the contract of marriage fails bride-price must be I

returned and the Village Councils have to come forWard to resolve the dispute.

The clashes over forcible recovery of bride price and customary gifts are also not

47

uncommon. The police and court records substantiate that. In case of divorce, a

ghar jawae (inducted son-in-law) married daughter will have custody of her

children in preference to her husband (Bandyopadhyay, 1999).

2.3.20 Dress, Ornament and Furniture

Upto 1980s most of the poor and :illiterate or semi-literate Santa I males used

napkins or clothes. These napkins/¢1othes are knee length. Santa! females used

two clothes, one part on the upper section and other part on the lower section. In

the modern times large number of Santa! males use pant, shirt, ganjee and

females use saree, saya, blouse etc. I

I

Santa! women use silver made jewellery items generally viz. Hansu/i (crescent

necklace), Bracelet, Wristlet, Chain, Earring etc. Rich families use gold jewellery

items. Females do not use glass made churi because it is easily broken item not

suitable for hard labours. They like to decorate her with flowers in festival time.

Santa! men and women like to tattoo on the body mainly on the hands.

Tattooing was must items in the earlier times for Santal females (Baskey, 1999,

p. 192).

They use different traditional furniture viz., mat made of palm or date leaves,

Khatia (i.e., cot) made of rope, soil made utensils for cooking and drinking water

reservoir, aluminium and brass utensils, iron/tin made box for safely keeping of I

clothing, jewellery items, and la:nd deeds. They also use bow an.d arrow for

hunting and cutlass and hoe for tr;ansportation and ploughing.

2.3.21 Economy

At the beginning of British reign .'in India the economy of Santa! community was

good. Santa! Community was retrenched by British from Santal Parganas (of

Jharkhand State formerly Bihar State) to various districts of other states of India

so most of the Santa! are landless. As they are educationally backward so the

number of service holders like ~ailway employee, Bank staff, Post Office staff or

School teacher etc. (approx. 0.25% of total Santa! population of Jamboni Block)

is very few among them and 90.% of the population of this community belongs to

below poverty line (monthly income is not more than Rs. 1500.00). Most of them

are daily wage earners. When the work is not available in the locality they go to

48

far away places in search of livelihood. It is very astonishing that they take their

dinner/lunch through cooking of stone soup (one type of white coloured stone

used for preparation of soup) at the time of less availability of work. Maximum

people of this community inhabitate in unfertile land area so they are unable to

produce paddy/wheat/vegetables in large quantity th,rough cultivation. They drink

wine (made of mohua flower or sugarcane), handi,(made of rice). They dislike

savings. Though family crisis exist but they are smiley and energetic. Forest I

resource like animals, leaves, wood, honey, fruit etc. collection is also the source

of their income (Baskey, 1999, p. 219-228).

2.3.22 Education

According to 2001 census, 30% of the population of Jamboni Block belongs to

scheduled tribe community and 60% population of1 total tribal population of this

Block belongs to Santa! Community.

Though the literacy rate of this Block is 75.82% but Santa! literacy is- not more I

than 40%. Most of them are poor and landless and living below the poverty line

so they think that livelihood through daily wage earning is better than study. I

Shortage of primary schools and high schools as well as no opportunity to study

in Santali language are also the causes of illiteracy. 1

2.3.23 Sports Activities

Strong and healthy Santa! people like to play football, volleyball and athletic

items viz., race, long jump, high jump, walking, archery, relay race, hurdles, yoga I

etc. They also love hunting. Their food habits and hard working make them fit.

They have some similarities with Negro or Black people of Africa.

2.3.24 Language and Script

There are two scripts of Santali language viz. Manjdhad's Ank Lipi and Alchiki.

i) Manjdhad's Ank Lipi - Inventor Sadhu Ramchandra Murmu. Besides Sadhu

Ramchandra Murmu others like Mahadev Murmu, Doman Sahu Samir, Ramdulal

Murmu, Chandranath Murmu, Mahadev Hansda, $aradaprasad Kisku, Gomasta

Prasad Soren have contributions in script language: invention.

49

ii) Alchiki Script - The inventor of this popular ~cript is Pandit Raghunath Murmu

(Sarkar, 1987 -1988). '

Few schools are established to teach in Alchiki script in the districts of Bankura,

Purulia and East and West Midnapore with the help of various missionaries like

American Baptist Mission, Methodist Missio'nary Society, Church Missionary

Society, and Roman Catholic Mission.

Recently Santali language is recognised as :a regional language. West Bengal

State already recognised the Santali language as first language for the Santa!

students in the Secondary and Higher Secondary level and Santali as a

combination subject in undergraduate level. .·

2.3.25 Taboo and Totem

Santals respect various totems. Each clan has different totem. All clans are

divided into sub-clan. Sub-clans are called 'khunf in Santali language. 'Khunf

focuses family heritage. They believe that if they belong to same khunt they

belong to same blood relation. During puja (worship) sects and sub-sects of

Santa! obey their own totem so they understand that there is a blood relation

among the common sects/sub-sects. Santa! Clans and their respective totems

are given below:

Hansda

Kisku

Murmu

Mandi

Hembram

Soren

Bas key

Besra

Chanre

Paunria

Totem

Duck

Sankha Kite (a species of white-breasted kite)

Nilgai (the blue sheep of Tibet, the bharal)

Merda grass

Nut

Saptarshi (the seven' great ancient sages of India)

Wild rice

Hawk

Lizard

Pigeon

:so

Sub-clans and their respective totems are given below:

Sub- clan

Hansda

Kisku

Murmu

Mandi

Hembram

Soren

Bas key

Besra

Tudu

Chanre

Panuria

Totem

Vermilion, White colour, Mushroom, Verbena grass.

Screwpine flower, White colour, Vulture, Horse, Silver, I

Squirrel.

Mag noli flower, Kurchi (Herbal) flower, Palash (kind of

beautiful red flower having no fragrance) flower, White

colour.

Pial (kind of nut tree) tree, Dha tree, Horse, Gold,

Mirubaha, Hammer (Mugur).

Amlaki (the emblic myrobalan), White colour, Vulture,

Silkworm, Conch.

Amlaki, Silkworm, White colour, Vermilion. I

Squirrel, Gold, Vulture.

Crow, Vulture, Margosa stick, Rice beer. i

Rice-beer, Gold.

Vulture, White colour.

Squirrel, White colour.

Clans, respective signs and particulars are given below:

Particulars

Kisku Stick I

Hansda u Hansuli (Crescent necklace)

Murmu Long ladder

Soren 0 Round Hansuli (Crescent necklace)

Hembram Ankshi (a pole w,ith a hook fixed to one

of its ends)

51

Mandi --7 Arrow

Baskey --4 Hoe

Tudu e Cross ([),hera) mark on the round

Besra -t Dhera (Gross mark)

(Baskey~ 1999, p. 197) I

2.3.26 Festivals

Santa I community celebrates very few 1 festivals as compared to Hindu

community. The main community festivals qf the Santals are: i) Sohrai or Sarhool

or harvest festival (December-January) ii) Sakrat (January) iii) Magsim (January­

February) iv) Baha (February - March) v) Erok-sim (June - July) vi) Mamore

(Between January to June, every third or fifth year) (Baskey, 1999, p. 212-219).

The festivals are followed by customary 'law and breach of religious rules is

looked into by the Village Council. The chief imageless gods and goddesses of

the Santa Is are Marang Buru, Jaher-Bra and Moreko-Turuiko. They have

tremendous influence in their life.

2.3.27 Birth and Naming of the Child

During pregnancy there are some restric~'ions for Santal women like weaving of

leaves for utensils (made of leaves) -preparation, oven making, crossing the

river/stream/pond, festival attaining without husband, outing alone in the evening, I

outing strictly prohibited at the time of lunar eclipse or solar eclipse. After the

birth of the child they maintain some traditional culture like i) throwing something

on the top of the house for courageous 9hild, this is called 'Sarim daf in Santali

language; ii) naval cutting is made by bivalve mollusc for daughter and by thin

and tapering end of arrow for son; iii) ~·hole village is profane if any baby was

born and no worship will be held in this· period as well as villagers do not take

food in the house of new born baby; iv) Purity (Janum Chatiar) festival being held '

at the fifth day in case of son and at the third day in case of daughter. In that day

villagers go to the new born baby's hous?.

52

Naming of the Santa! is very important. This is called 'Chacho Chatiar' in Santali

language. It is important because this festival stands for social recognition and I

rights of the Santals. The dead body of the Santa! is not burnt or thrown in the

river before Chacho Chatiar (Baskey, 1999, p. 199-2,01 ).

2.3.28 Disease and Treatment

Generally Santals are strong and healthy. The Santals of Jamboni Block take I

their drinking water from dug wells or tube wells. Water is not purified. They do

not boil the water or use any purifier for hygienic drinking water. They are poor

but clean. They use soap, mustard oil, hair oil for taking bath. They take bath I

regularly. The Santals take medicine from hospital or from multi purpose workers

or anganwadi workers. They also use ayurvedic (i.ef, herbal) medicine (generally

raw) extracted from herbal plants/trees as a traditional therapy. They are

conscious in a certain extent so they want to take fhe opportunity of hospital for

safe and better treatment. The traditional beliefs of the Santals about disease I

and treatment have undergone slow changes. Traditional belief about diseases

among the Santals is that diseases were caused by malevolent spirits, evil eyes,

mal air or witchcraft. They believed that there was a definite cause behind the I

origin of a disease. Diseases may be caused due to. curse and displeasure of the

Ancestral Spirits and Deities. These are eye disease, to fell down from the tree or \

from the hill, to meet any injury, sore, leucoderma, leprosy, scabies and cancer

etc. The medium of treatment is with the help of Pri~st by offering worships to the

prescribed deity with requisite items like black hefl, white pigeon or black goat

etc. I

Due to evil eye and spells of wizards are miscarriage, child death, mishap during

delivery, divorce, quarrel, breathing trouble, pain in ,the part of the body, asthma

etc. Medium of treatment is with the help of Jhakri dr Exorcists through Exorcism

and offering the prescribed animals or birds and oth$r ingredients to the spirits.

Due to mal air and climate changes-diseases ars cold and cough, diarrhoea,

fever, stomach pains, rheumatism etc. The medium of treatment was with the '

help of traditional medicine man's herbal medicines, oils, roots, leaves, bones

etc.

53

Death is generally believed to be due to disease which is caused by malevolent

spirits. Death is the end of life. Disposal of dead bodies is by burning. All

personal belonging except jewellery items, books, necessary deeds and papers

have been sent with the dead bodies. D~ad body of babies and pregnant women

is cremated not burnt. After death, dead body is massaged by oil and turmeric

powder and then sent for burning/cremation scattering rice and cotton seed for

avoiding hindrance of non-existing soul:· and smooth burning/cremation of dead I

body. A black chick has been killed :after fulfilment of burning preparation.

Generally the oldest son can apply the fire to the dead body first then other

relatives. After burning the dead body, :bones of the dead person is preserved '

carefully and in a fixed day charred . bones have been thrown in the river

Damodar - the 'sea' where Santal legend flows just outside a portion of its vast

area. At the fifth day 'Telnahan' occasion or small obsequies (sraddh) is

observed. Chick and handi (rice-beer) are dedicated to Marang Buru and '

ancestors. At 'Bhandan' or big obsequi~s (sraddh), goat and chick is dedicated to

Marang Buru and ancestors and some rituals like discussion about the dead

person and fooding arrangement for relatives etc. are performed. At 'Telnahan'

occasion the relatives cut their hair/nail and freshen up themselves. Before

throwing the bones the relatives of d~ad person donate some money to the

beggars (Baskey, 1999, p. 209-210).

2.4 Jamboni Block and Mouzas under Survey

The present research work is based on, six mouzas (division of village, belongs to

in the hierarchy of Country~State-;tDistrict~Sub-Division~Biock~Village~

Mouza) viz. Kapgari, Gidhni, Kherejora, Chilkigarh, Kadopindra and Chiapara of

Jamboni block of West Midnapore district, West Bengal. With the help of

electoral list of each mouza the rese13rcher selected the respondents through

stratified sampling method. Moreoveri the above mouzas are scheduled tribe

(basically Santal) populated. This is a survey research. The sample population is

450 taking 75 respondents from each mouza. On the basis of questionnaire, '

researcher collected the necessary , information through interview with the

respondents.

'54

6..-r. 1 '-""'"'::1' ... ,..,,,,"'w' ._vvw••v-•• "'' v..-,,,...,,,,, ..,.,,...,,. ,

Jamboni has been my labour of love. The name of the place is Jungle Mahals

(the block is a part of Jungle Mahals). Once known as Mahal Jamboni or

Pargana Jamboni. Though it is a tract of Jungle mahals, the jungle in the sense

of dense woods is almost extinct. Some areas s~ill show traces of the old dark

forests through the tall and branched big sa/,: piyasal and mahul trees still

covering the sun in some places. The goverhment sponsored afforestation

signboards will keep you company as you travel along the main road from Gidhni

station to Chilkigarh. At Tulsibani, knee length sa'! plants welcome the visitor. And

a tree never known in the jungle Mahals is also f9und there now- eucalyptus.

Jamboni Development Block is situated in the western side of Jhargram

subdivision of West Midnapore district, West Bengal. Its longitude is 86°43' E to

8r32' E and latitude is 22°24' N to 21 °46' N. Gidhni is the headquarters of this

Block. From Jhargram, the distance by railway is 16 k.m. and by road through

Parihati, Kapgari, Dahijuri is nearly 15 k.m. ~nd via Chilkigarh, Jamboni is 18

k.m. In 1962, this block started its work in Ch.ilkigarh, 5 k.m. apart from Gidhni.

Block Primary Health Centre and Police Station is situated in Chilkigarh and

Jamboni respectively. Jamboni is situated 8 k.m. apart from Gidhni. The bridge

on Dulung river in Chilkigarh has reduced the· distance from Gidhni to Jhargram.

Binpur Police Station (P.S.) is situated in the north side of Jamboni, Jhargram

P.S. in the east, Gopiballavpur P.S. in the sol;lth and Jharkhand state in the west.

The National Highway No. 6 (Kolkata - Mumbai) runs through Chichra, the far

west end of this Block, District and State.

The earth remains dry almost round the year. the monsoon brief and the shallow

tube wells very often prove ineffective against the laterite soil of this Block.

2.4.2 Historical Background of Jamboni Block

Nirmalesh Chandra Deo Dhabaldeb, the.: descendent of the last Raja, more

accurately the last Zamindar, late Jagadish Chandra Deo Dhabaldeb, was telling

me of various local dances like Chhou, Pata, Kathi, and then of the rites and

vows of Jungle Mahals like bhadu, tusu also the goddess Rankini Devi and the

temple. The Zamindar had long lost his Zamindari. But Nirmalesh, with a true

artist's mind and sensibility, had accepted .·all that as the quirk of time or fate. And

now in that surrounding darkness, the old .aristocratic man had turned to things of

5q

the celestial world. The night had turned into ~he introvert, the talkative and the

urban conversationalists into a silent audience: The Dulung is a local river, not to

be confused with the wide rivers of Deltaic Bengal. The water is not muddy, but

clean, and you can see white pebbles on the bed. The jungle starts from the

edge of the Dulung. A priest had been the chi.eftain of the pargana some hundred

years ago. He was beheaded by the new: king who then replaced him. The

remains should still be found in a huge pit hidden somewhere in the jungle on

Dulung. It is said that a large boulder covers it (Samaddar, 1998).

The famous site of this block are the ol~ palace of the Jamboni Zamindars,

popularly known as the Chilkigarh Raj Palace (Rajban), the Kanak Durga Temple

is situated at Chilkigarh on the bank of DulLing river, now a stream, around with a

dark forest. Darkness had enveloped the.· temple. It is maintained by Jamboni

Development Block, formerly by Jamboni Zamindars. After being stolen the

original alloy of eight metals (astadhatu) idol is now replaced by an idol made of

brass. Other important sites of this block are Anukul Chandra Ashram (Gidhni)

and Krishi Bigyan Kendra (Kapgari).

Though Jamboni Block is not the Mecca··of Santals like Santa! Parganas but they

have established their rights in this block. Member of Parliament seat is reserved

for Scheduled Tribes (in the true sense it is for Santals) so they are developing

themselves through various tribal deyelopment programmes adopted by the

officers like BOO (Block Development Officer), SDO (Sub-Divisional Officer),

AEO (Agricultural Extension Officer) Offices etc.

2.4.3 Jamboni Block Statistical Data At A Glance

According to 2001 census Jamboni Block statistical data are as follows:

Table 2.1

Jamboni Block Statistical Data

Sl. No. Item Particulars

1 Name ofthe Block Jamboni Development Block

2 Geographical Area 326.60 sq. km. (32,636.34 hec./126.01 sq. mile)

3 No. of Gram Panchayats 10

4 No. of Mouzas 338 (Populated-286,Depopulated- 52)

56 Contd.

SI. No. Item Particulars I

5 No. of Villages 285

6 Area under Non-Agricultural Use 6256.92 hec.

7 Area under Forest 7385.85

8 Barren and Uncultivated Land 874.00 hec.

9 Permanent Pasture and Other Grass 150.00 hec. I

Land 10 Area under Orchard 225.00 hec.

11 Cultivable Wasteland 1,519.07 hec.

12 Follow and other than Current Nil Follow

13 Current Follow 800.00 hec.

14 Gross Cropped Area 23,065.00 hec. '

15 Net Cropped Area 18,265.40 hec. I

16 Area Cultivated more than Once 4,800.00 hec.

17 Total Agricultural Land 20,450.00 hec.

18 ' No. of Assignees 3,655 19 Cropping Intensity 129%

20 Net Irrigated Area 3,785 hec. i

21 Gross Irrigated Area 7,365 hec.

22 Total Population 90,150 (Male- 46,090, Female-44,060) '

23 Literate 68,349 (Male- 36,438, Female- 31,911, 75.82% oftotal population)

24 No. of Agricultural Labourers 14,868 (Male -7,780, Female -7,088) 25 No. ofBargadars 8,711

26 No. ofPattaholders 3,655 27 No. of Landless Labour 3,200 28 No. of Rural Artisans 8,927 29 No. of Scheduled Castes 14,727 (Male -7,517, Female -7,210) 30 No. of Scheduled Tribes 27,050 (Male-13,900, Female-13,150,

30% of total Q_opulation) 31 No. of Other Backward Classes 2,500 (Male-1,350, Female-1,150)

32 No. of Small Farmers 4,892 (5.42% of total population)

33 No. of Marginal Farmers 8,625 I

34 Total Illiterate 21,801 (Male-9,635, Female-12,166, 24.18% of total population)

35 Total Tribal Village Ill

36 Total Depopulated Tribal Village 8

37 No. of Mouza Electrified 300

38 No. of Pump set energised 40 39 Total Household Industry 1,900 (Male- 1,241, Female- 659)

57 Contd.

'

Sl. No. Item Particulars

40 Types of Small Industries Bidi, Printex (Bed Sheet or Bed Cover printing), Grill, Ring, Pottery, Preparation of Bamboo products (under DWCRA Project), Utensils from Sa/leaves

41 No. of Deep Tube Wells 10 42 No. of River Level Irrigation 2'6

43 No. of Shallow Tube Wells 250 44 No. of Tanks 59 (Area 200 hec.)

45 No. of Dug Well, Ponds etc. 2,200 I

46 Projects have been Launched National Water Shed Development Programme in Rain shed Area (NWDPRA), Integrated Cereal Development Programme (ICDP) m Rain shed Area, Oil Seed Production ,Programme (OPP) for Pulse, Area :Expansion Scheme on Horticulture [All , governed from Agriculture Development , Office], Draught Prone Area Programme , (DPAP)- Watershed on DPAP [Governed · by Block Development Office], Fishery, New Programme 'Self Help Group' launched for proper co-ordination between IRDP (Integrated Rural

' 1

Development Programme), TRYSEM (Training of Rural Youth for Self

, Employment), CITRA (Community Information Training in Rural Areas), for

' Women and Children - DWCRA (Development of Women and Children in

' Rural Areas) scheme is more suitable than DRDA (District Rural Development Authority) programme.

47 No. of Recipients of Agricultural ' 287 Farmers Old Age Pension I

48 Percentage of Dependency on ' 80% Farming

49 No. of Rural Libraries ' 5 (At Gidhni, Chichra, Dubra, Parihati and Bahirgram)

50 No. of Krishi Bigyan Kendra 1 (At Kapgari) (Agricultural Science Centre) '

51 No. of Block Primary Health ' 1 (At Chilkigarh) Centre(s)

52 No. of Primary Health Centres ' 2 (At Kapgari and Chichra) 53 No. of Pre-Basic School(s) 1 (At Kapgari) 54 No. of Junior Basic Schools

I 4

55 No. of Higher Secondary Schools 4 (At Kapgari, Gidhni, Chichra and Dubra) 56 No. of High Schools (Secondary) 2 (At Dumuria and Chi1kigarh) 57 No. of Junior High Schools ' 8 (At Barsole, Barunsole, Beida, Jamboni,

I

Dharsa, Parihati, Parsuli & Bamundiha '

Contd. 58

Sl. No. Item Particulars

58 No. of Primary Schools 109

59 No. of Colleges I (At Kapgari)

60 No. of Bankers 6 [Punjab National Bank- 2 (At Parihati and Chilkigarh)i Mallabhum Gramin Bank - 2 (At Gidhni and Kapgari); United Bank of India- 1 (At Jamboni); State Bank of India- 1 (At Chichra)]

61 No. of Co-operative Bank 1 (Vidyasagar .·central Co-operative Bank Ltd at Gidhni) :

62 Types of Co-operative Society 3 (Lamp Society, Thana Marketing, SKUS Ltd)

63 Loan Provided by Block DRDA through IRDP (Integrated Rural Development Office (for Needy Development Programme) People)

64 Subsidy Provided by Agricultural Subsidy for P,ower Tiller Rs. 12,000, Development Office, if any Subsidy for Tractor Rs. 30,000.

65 Oil Seed Production Programme Contains Ground Nut Production Programme, :Sunflower (including seasamum), ~ashew Nut, Mustard, Til Production Rrogramme

66 New Projects has been launched Distribution: of Minikits-Wheat and Paddy, Distribution ofDaincha (all products)

67 Projects to be launched Dryland Farming, Pulse Development Scheme (Arahar and Kalai), Sugarcane Development Scheme, Moong and Lentil Scheme, Gram and Moong Scheme (Minikit), farmers Study Tour

68 Source of Irrigation River Irrigation Project, Small Irrigation Project, Shallow Tube Wells, Kangsabati Canal, W~lls (i.e., Dugwells), Tanks

[Source: Census of India 2001]

59

2.4.4 Statistical Data of Each Mouza under Survey

This survey type research work is based on the information collected on six

mouzas (i.e., five villages) (viz. Kapgari, Gidhni, Kherejora, Chilkigarh,

Kadopindra and Chiapara of Jamboni Block through questionnaire-cum-interview

method. There are 30 percent population of this block belongs to Scheduled

Tribe Community out of which 60 percent Santals. The proposed research work

is based on the information needs and patterns of information seeking behaviour '

of the Santa! community. The above six mouzas are densely populated Santals

than other mouzas so these mouzas have been selected as a sample.

The details are given below about the s~mple mouzas.

Table 2.2

Kapgari (Gram,Panchayat No.3)

Item I

Particulars J.L. No. 151 No. of Household 241 Population ' 1,406 (M -735, F- 671) sc 320 (M- 167, F -153) ST 149(M-85,F-64) Literate 1,108 (M- 613, F -495) Illiterate 300(M-122,F-178) Agricultural Labourer ' 53 (M-40, F-13) Household Industry 19(M-17,F-2) Children 0-6 227(M-114,F-113) Institutions/Sites ' Higher Secondary School, Colleges (General

' and B.Ed.), Primary School, Pre-Basic School, ' Bank (Mallabhum Gram in Bank), Krishi

Bigyan Kendra (Agricultural Science Centre), Post Office

60

Table 2.3

Gidhni (Gram Pancha~at No. 4)

Item Particulars J.L. No. 112 No. of Household 286 I

Population 1,236 (M- 614, F- 622) sc 56 (M- 32, F- 24) ST 621 (M - 296, F- 325) Literate 786 (M- 449, F- 337) Illiterate 450 (M __: 165, F- 285) Agricultural Labourer 295 (M-"-ll2,F-183) Household Industry_ 4 (M-2, F -2) Children 0-6 236 (M-;- 111, F- 125) Institutions/Sites Primary School, Model School (Primary

Section); High Secondary School, B.D.O Office, I Electricity Office (W.B.S.E.B.),, Telephone Exchange, Kali (Goddess) Temple,, Anukul Chandra Ashram, Railway Station,. Vidyasagar Central Co-Operative Society,' Sub-Post Office

Table 2.4:

Kherejora (Gram Panchayat No. 4)

Item Particulars J.L. No. I 13 No. of Household 308 Population 1,630 (M- 900, F- 730) sc 183 (M - 99, F - 84) ST 129,(M- 91, F- 38) Literate 1,413 (M -793, F- 620) Illiterate 217 (M - 107, F- 1 I 0) Agricultural Labourer 16l'(M- 58, F -103) Household Industry 5 (M- 5, F- 0) Children 0-6 207, (M- 107, F- 1 00) Institutions/Sites BL~LRO Office

61

Table 2.5

Chilkigarh (Gram Panchayat No. 6)

Item Particulars J.L. No. 131 No. of Household 160 I

Population I, 189 (M- 610, F- 579) sc 644 (M- 330, F- 314) ST 134 (M- 73, F ~ 61) Literate 833 (M- 446, F- 387) Illiterate 356(M- 163, F- 193) Ag!icultural Labourer 249 (M- 129, F- 120) Household Industry 2 (M- 2, F- 0) Children 0-6 270 (M- 134, f- 136) Institutions/Sites Chilkigarh High School (Secondary),

Chilkigarh Block Primary Health Centre, Raj (Zamindar) P~lace, Kanak Durga (Goddess) Temple, Dulung River, Dense Forest, Punjab National Bank, Primary School

Table 2.6

Kadopindra (Gram Panchayat No. 1 0)

Item Particulars J.L. No. 267 No. of Household 146 I

Population 688 (M- 331, F- 357) sc Nil

' ST 268 (M- 128~ F- 140) Literate 580 (M- 282, F- 298) Illiterate 108 (M- 49, iF- 59) Agricultural Labourer 254_(M- 108, F- 146) Household Industry 100 (M- 55, F- 45) Children 0-6 108(M- 48, F- 56) Institutions/Sites Primary School, Palpala Canal, Forest

62

Table 2.7

Chiapara (Gram Panchayat No. 10)

Item I Particulars J.L. No. 255 No. of Household 168 Population · 795 (M- 406, F- 389) sc , 213 (M- I 03, F- II 0) ST 443 (M- 224, F- 219) Literate . 58 8 (M - 31I, F - 2 771 Illiterate 207 (M- 95, F- 112) Agricultural Labourer 204 (M - 87, F - 1I7) Household Industry 63 (M-25, F-38) Children 0-6 152 (M -77, F -75) Institutions/Sites ' Primary School

[Source: Census of India 2001]

2.4.5 Nearest Market Place for Each Mouza

I

There are own market places in Kapgar.i, Gidhni and Chilkigarh mouzas. Gidhni !

is the nearest market place of Kherejora mouza, at a distance of 0.5 k.m. from I

this mouza. Ghutia is the nearest market place of Kadopindra mouza, at a I

distance of 1.5 k.m. from this mouza. Chichra is the nearest market place of I

Chiapara, 0.5 km apart from the moyza. Chichra market is also nearer to

Kadopindra, 2.5 km apart from Kadopindra mouza and Ghutia market is only 0.5

km. apart from this mouza. Fekoghat hat (market) is popular market of

Kadopindra and Chiapara, 5 km and 1.5 km distance from Kadopindra and

Chiapara mouzas respectively. Fekoghat market (hat) takes place on Tuesday.

Large number of vegetable stalls, grocery shops, tea stalls, textile shops,

stationary shops, hotels, liquor shops, rice-beer (hand1) shops, ayurvedic (herbal)

medicine shops, mutton shops, chicken' shops, salt stalls, utensil shops, black

smith shops etc. and cow, goat, sheep,' hen, cock, duck are also available in a

large number in this market (hat). As a Cow market Fekoghat market (hat) is I

placed No. 1 and as a whole No. 2 ranking after Howrah Mangala market (hat) in

West Bengal. Huge numbers of cows are sold from this market (hat) to export in I

Bangladesh. Gidhni, Chichra and Ghuti~ markets are large in size and Kapgari

and Chilkigarh markets are in a workinS position. There are very few stalls in

Kherejora, Kadopindra and Chiapara mwkets so these are insufficient to fulfil all

the necessities.

6~

2.4.6 Banks, Co-operative Societies and Post Offices for Mouzas under

Survey

In Kapgari mouza, Mallabhum Gramin Bank and Post Office are located at the

heart of the market place and is functioning regularly.

In Gidhni mouza, Mal lab hum Gram in Bank, : Vidyasagar Central Co-operative

Society and Sub-Post Office are located at the market place or near the market

place. There is no Bank, Co-Operative Society and Post-Office in Kherejora

mouza. This mouza depends on Gidhni for economic activities and postal

service.

In Chilkigarh mouza, Punjab National Bank is ·located at the market place. But for

postal services, this mouza depends on Gidhni Sub-Post Office. In Kadopindra

and Chiapara mouzas, there are no Banks, Co-Operative Society or Post Office.

For these purposes they depend on Chichra Where State Bank of India and Post

Office are located near the market place.

2.4. 7 Health Centres for Moi.Jzas under Survey

There are no Health Centres in Kapgari, Gidhni or Kherejora mouzas. Patients of

these mouzas depend on Anganwadi worke~s or Multipurpose workers in case of

normal diseases but in case of serious condition or critical diseases patients

have to go to Jhargram Sub-Divisional Hospital, Nursing Home or Private

Practitioners in Jhargram or Chilkigarh Block Primary Health Centre.

There are two M.B.B.S doctors, ten nurses, two GDAs (General Duty Assistants),

two sweepers and one cook in Chilkigarh Block Primary Health Centre. Jhargram

Sub-Divisional Hospital is more dependable: than Chilkigarh.

Chilkigarh mouza has Block Primary Health Centre. In critical situations patients

are transferred to Jhargram Sub-Divisional :Hospital. Middle class or rich patients

of Chilkigarh like to go to Jhargram due to ~navailability of all types of facilities in

Chilkigarh Block Primary Health Centre. : Kadopindra and Chiapara have no

Primary Health Centre. Patients of these · mouzas depend on Chichra Primary

Health Centre. In serious condition they prefer to go to Tapsia Block Primary

Health Centre or Chilkigarh Block Primary Health Centre or Jhargram Sub­

Divisional Hospital for better treatment.

64:

X-Ray, Pathology, Endoscopy, CT Scan etc. 'facilities available only in Jhargram

not in Tapsia, Chichra or Chilkigarh.

' There are two veterinary centres in Chichra and Gidhni respectively for cattle

;

treatment.

2.4.8 Schools, Colleges and Research Institutes for Mouzas under Survey

There are one Pre-Basic School, two Primary Schools, one Higher Secondary I

school, one general stream College, one B.Ed. (Bachelor of I

Education)!Teachers' Training College and one Krishi Bigyan Kendra in Kapgari.

This Krishi Bigyan Kendra is the only agricultural research institute of this block.

Research in rice seedling and flower gr'afting and seedling are the main I

programme of this institute. The institute has a great impact on rice and

horticulture development. In Gidhni, two Primary Schools, one High School

(Higher Secondary) are available. Kherejora' has only one primary school so from

Class Sixth standard the students of this place depend on Gidhni High School

(Higher Secondary). There are one Primary School and one High School

(Higher Secondary) in Chilkigarh. There is one Primary School each in

Kadopindra and Chiapara mouzas. The stu'dents of these places are depending

on Chichra Higher Secondary school for studying after fifth ·standard. The

number of Santa! students in the above schools and colleges is not satisfactory

but increasing. Economic development tan remove the poverty of Santa!

community and it will help to increase the nCimber of Santa! students.

2.4.9 Rural Library Facilities of Mouzas ~nder Survey

In Jamboni Block, there are five Rural Libraries at Gidhni, Chichra, Dubra,

Parihati and Bahirgram. The libraries (rural/town/district) received the

Government Grants from the District Library Office (DLO). The amount of grant

may vary from year to year. It is found from the office records of DLO, West

Midnapore that these libraries do not get: any special privilege of Government

Grant. Out of five rural libraries, Chichra Rural Library (Deshbandhu Pathagar) is

the oldest. It was established in 1923. Now it is run by the owner of that property

and some other village administrator and e1ided by the government. Now there is

one Library Peon in this library. In other four libraries the staff strength is two

65 I

each. Aloka Kamila is Library Peon of Deshbandhu ,Pathagar, Chichra. Librarian

of this Library has retired in 2001. Kapgari mouza uses Parihati Rural Library.

Peoples of Gidhni and Kherejora mouzas are the users of Gidhni Rural Library.

Except Chichra Deshbandhu Pathagar (Library), th? collection of books in each

library is not more than five thousand. Every library purchases their books mainly

from Book Fair at the usual 10% commission. In every year Government Grant is

allotted for books and magazines purchasing. Each library procures books and I

magazines according to the demand of the users. All the libraries subscribes

some common magazines like Competition Su,ccess Review, Competition

Master, Kishore Gyan Bigyan, Ananda Me/a, Shuk Tara, Chanda Mama, Desh

etc. for entertainment as well as for the preparatioh of competitive examination

and also subscribes one or two newspapers in B~ngali or Bengali and English I

both. Three librarians are trained in certificate course of Librarianship (duration 6

months after Higher Secondary/Intermediate). Libra,rian of Dubra Rural Library is

Bachelor Degree holder in Library and Information Science course (d~ration one

year after Graduation/Masters' degree).

The number of library users in the five libraries vari~s within 100 to 200 each.

There is no extension programme of these libraries like exhibitions, story hours, I

lectures etc. Mobile library services are not available due to lack of staff. Due to

lack of popular books or extension programm~s library members are not

increasing satisfactorily. Santa! readers are very few in number.

2.4.10 Other Available Facilities of Mouzas under Survey

There is one Tribal Welfare Centre in Gidhni. Also 'the Santa Is of Jamboni Block

can avail the facilities of Sub-Divisional Tribal Welfare Centre of Jhargram and I

other tribal welfare centres of different blocks of West Midnapore District. Tribal

Welfare Centres are established by Departmenti of Information and Culture,

Government of West Bengal. There are various facilities available in the welfare

centres like dancing, singing, drama etc. But the 'Block Tribal Welfare Centres

are not working properly. Jhargram Tribal Welfare Centre is big in size. Besides i

the above facilities, the Centre has a few collection of Santali books and

moderate collection of Bengali books on Santa! origin, background and culture. If

the welfare centres unite the Santa! peoples then it:will be very helpful to create a

66

cultural environment within the district and it w.ill also promote the local talents to

perform the singing, dancing and drama in r.adioff.V. programmes. There are

three Kalyan Samities (Welfare Societies) and three clubs in Jamboni Block in

Kapgari, Gidhni and Chilkigarh. They perform various welfare functions in their

locality.

First film in Santali language was launched. in 2001 in West Bengal. Besides

dancing and singing in various fair and radio ·and TV programmes they entertain

through Santali Yatra (one kind of Theatre) ,which held on Kali (Goddess) puja

occasion in Gidhni every year. Most of the.' mouzas particularly mouzas under

survey of Jamboni Block are having electricity but electric supply is not up-to the

mark.

Only one pitch (pucca) road passes through Chichra to Jhargram route. The

surveyed mouzas are near the pitch road. To go for Kolkata, bus will be

available from Chichra or Jhargram and train will be available from Gidhni and '

Jhargram and to go for Parihati, Shilda, Hank~ra bus will be available from

Gidhni. But to go for Midnapore bus will be available· from Chichra or Jhargram.

Shilda road is available within 4 km to.' 8 km from Gidhni, Kherejora and

Chilkigarh but Kapgari villagers avail thi's road within 1 km. Chiapara and

Kadopindra villagers avail NH-6 (National Highway No. 6) within 1 km and 4 km

respectively.

67

REFERENCES

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tribes. Calcutta: Subarnarekha, 1999, pp. 82-83.

Archer, W.G. (1946). Santal transplantation songs. Quoted in Singh, Lal

Bahadur. Santa/ youths: An unseen talent New Delhi: Wisdom, 1988, p. 6.

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I

Bhowmick, K.L. (1971). Tribal India: A profile in ethnology. Quoted in Singh, Lal

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68

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Houlton, J. (1949). Bihar, the heart of India. Quoted in Singh, Lal Bahadur.

Santa/ youths: An unseen talent. New Delhi: Wisdom, 1988, p. 5. I

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youths: An unseen talent. New Delhi: Wisdom, 1988, p. 2. I

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Wisdom, 1988, p. 6.

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talent. New Delhi: Wisdom, 1988, p. 7.

Kochar, V.K. (1964). Ghosts and Witches among the Santals. Quoted in Singh,

Lal Bahadur. Santa/ youths: An unseen talent. New Delhi: Wisdom, 1988, p. 7.

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in Singh, Lal Bahadur. Santa/ youths: An unseen' talent. New Delhi: Wisdom,

1988, p. 7.

Kochar, V.K. (1966b). Village organisation among the Santals. Quoted in Singh,

Lal Bahadur. Santa/ youths: An unseen talent. New Delhi: Wisdom, 1988, p. 8. I

69

Majumdar, D.N. (1956). The Santal: A study in cultural change. Quoted in Singh, I

Lal Bahadur. Santa/ youths: An unseen talent. New Delhi: Wisdom, 1988, p. 7.

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