Chapter 2

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The Individual

CHAPTER OUTLINE

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Biographical Characteristics Ability Personality Learning

FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR

Be yourself is the worst advice you can give some people. T. Masson

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LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter studying this chapter, you should be able to1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Define the key biographical characteristics Identify two types of ability Explain the factors that determine an individuals personality Describe the impact of job typology on the personalityjob performance relationship Summarize how learning theories provide insights into changing behavior Distinguish between the four schedules of reinforcement Clarify the role of punishment in learning

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When friends and colleagues describe the personality of Chrysler Corporations president, Robert A. Lutz, they use terms such as flamboyant, assertive, and daring.1 Lutz provides an excellent illustration of how an individuals personality shapes his or her behavior. Robert Lutz was born in Zurich in 1932. He moved to New York City as a child, when his father, a banker, was transferred. He became a U.S. citizen at 11. Because he moved around so much, he didnt finish high school until he was 22. But he wasnt letting grass grow under his feet. During his teenage years he learned to speak French, German, and Italian, as well as English. Fascinated from an early age with motorcycles, cars, and planes anything, in fact, that went fast he joined the Marine Corps with the intention of becoming a fighter pilot. He flew jets for five years, then flew with the U.S. Marine Corps reserves while pursuing his higher education. By age 30, he had a BS and an MBA from the University of California at Berkeley. In 1963, Lutz went to work for General Motors as a product planner. In his eight years with GM, he eventually moved up to become head of sales and marketing for GMs Opel unit in Germany. Then he spent three years in Munich as BMWs executive vice president of sales and marketing. From there, he went to Fords European operations, where he quickly moved up the ranks to eventually head up Ford of Europe. At the age of 50, he returned to the United States as executive vice president of Fords international operations. In 1986,

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at the age of 54, he was picked by Chrysler to become its President and Chief Operating Officer. Lutz personifies Chryslers image as Detroits most aggressive auto maker. His flamboyant and strong personality probably cost him the chairmanship because of clashes with his previous boss. But his blunt opinions and bold approach to management make him a standout. And he is widely given credit for Chryslers current success. He revamped Chryslers engineering ranks into flexible, cross-functional teams and championed daring styling to match the sporty performance of models such as the Dodge Intrepid sedan and Ram pickup. His success in reorganizing the companys product development groups allows the company to develop cars faster and cheaper than its competition and has unleashed staffers creativity, leading to betterlooking, better-performing vehicles. Neither age nor responsibilities have lessened Lutzs love for speed. In addition to owning a fleet of fast cars and motorcycles, he pilots his own helicopter and jet aircraft. His latest toy is a Czech-made L-39C Albatros jet fighter. On weekends, he and his wife can be found streaking across the Michigan sky at nearly 600 miles per hour. x

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obert Lutz assertiveness and risk-seeking personality characteristics were in place long before he joined Chrysler Corp. But they play an important role in shaping his actions. Of course, Robert Lutz isnt unique. All our behavior is somewhat shaped by our personalities and experiences. In this chapter, we will look at four individual-level variables biographical characteristics, ability, personality, and learning and consider their effect on employee performance and satisfaction.

Biographical CharacteristicsAs discussed in the previous chapter, this text is essentially concerned with finding and analyzing the variables that have an impact on employee productivity, absence, turnover, and satisfaction. The list of those variables as shown in Exhibit 1-8 on page 28 is long and contains some complicated concepts. Many of the concepts motivation, say, or power and politics or organizational culture are hard to assess. It might be valuable, then, to begin by looking at factors that are easily definable and readily available; data that can be obtained, for the most part, simply from information available in an employees personnel file. What factors would these be? Obvious characteristics would be an employees age, gender, marital status, and length of service with an organization.

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Fortunately, there is a sizable amount of research that has specifically analyzed many of these biographical characteristics.

AgeThe relationship between age and job performance is likely to be an issue of increasing importance during the next decade. Why? There are at least three reasons. First, there is a widespread belief that job performance declines with increasing age. Regardless of whether its true or not, a lot of people believe it and act on it. Second is the reality that the workforce is aging. For instance, workers 55 and older are the fastest-growing sector of the labor force; between 1990 and 2005, their ranks are expected to jump 43.7 percent.2 The third reason is recent U.S. legislation that, for all intents and purposes, outlaws mandatory retirement. Most U.S. workers today no longer have to retire at the age of 70. What is the perception of older workers? Evidence indicates that employers hold mixed feelings.3 They see a number of positive qualities that older workers bring to their jobs: specifically, experience, judgment, a strong work ethic, and commitment to quality. But older workers are also perceived as lacking flexibility and as being resistant to new technology. And in a time when organizations strongly seek individuals who are adaptable and open to change, the negatives associated with age clearly hinder the initial

biographical characteristics Personal characteristics such as age, gender, and marital statusthat are objective and easily obtained from personnel records.

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hiring of older workers and increase the likelihood that they will be let go during downsizing. Now lets take a look at the evidence. What effect does age actually have on turnover, absenteeism, productivity, and satisfaction? The older you get, the less likely you are to quit your job. That conclusion is based on studies of the age-turnover relationship.4 Of course, it should not be too surprising. As workers get older, they have fewer alternative job opportunities. In addition, older workers are less likely to resign than are younger workers because their long tenure tends to provide them with higher wage rates, longer paid vacations, and more-attractive pension benefits. Its tempting to assume that age is also inversely related to absenteeism. After all, if older workers are less likely to quit, wont they also demonstrate higher stability by coming to work more regularly? Not necessarily! Most studies do show an inverse relationship, but close examination finds that the age-absence relationship is partially a function of whether the absence is avoidable or unavoidable.5 In general, older employees have lower rates of avoidable absence than do younger employees. However, they have higher rates of unavoidable absence, probably due to the poorer health associated with aging and the longer x The evidence contradicts recovery period that older workers need when injured. the belief that older workers How does age affect productivity? There is a widespread are less productive. belief that productivity declines with age. It is oftenQuit Chapter Start Contents Video Chapter End Web Site

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assumed that an individuals skills particularly speed, agility, strength, and coordination decay over time and that prolonged job boredom and lack of intellectual stimulation all contribute to reduced productivity. The evidence, however, contradicts that belief and those assumptions. For instance, during a three-year period, a large hardware chain staffed one of its stores solely with employees over 50 and compared its results with those of five stores with younger employees. The store staffed by the over-50 employees was significantly more productive (measured in terms of sales generated against labor costs) than two of the other stores and held its own with the other three.6 One comprehensive review of the research found that age and job performance were unrelated.7 Moreover, that finding seems to be true for almost all types of jobs, professional and nonprofessional. The natural conclusion is that the demands of most jobs, even those with heavy manual labor requirements, are not extreme enough for any declines in physical skills due to age to have an impact on productivity; or, if there is some decay due to age, it is offset by gains due to experience. Our final concern is the relationship between age and job satisfaction. On this issue, the evidence is mixed. Most studies indicate a positive association between age and satisfaction, at least up to age 60.8 Other studies, however, have found a U-shaped relationship.9 Several explanations could clear up these results, the most plausible being that these studies are intermixing professional andQuit Chapter Start Contents Video Chapter End Web Site

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nonprofessional employees. When the two types are separated, satisfaction tends to continually increase among professionals as they age, whereas it falls among nonprofessionals during middle age and then rises again in the later years.

GenderFew issues initiate more debates, misconceptions, and unsupported opinions than whether women perform as x There are few, if any, well on jobs as men do. In this section, we review the important differences research on that issue. between men and women The evidence suggests that the best place to begin is that will affect their job with the recognition that there are few, if any, important performance. differences between men and women that will affect their job performance. There are, for instance, no consistent malefemale differences in problem-solving ability, analytical skills, competitive drive, motivation, sociability, or learning ability.10 Psychological studies have found that women are more willing to conform to authority and that men are more aggressive and more likely than women to have expectations of success, but those differences are minor. Given the significant changes that have taken place in the last 25 years in terms of increasing female participation rates in the workforce and rethinking what constitutes male and female roles, you should operate on the assumption that there is no significant

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difference in job productivity between men and women. Similarly, there is no evidence indicating that an employees gender affects job satisfaction.11 One issue that does seem to differ between genders, especially where the employee has preschool children, is preference for work schedules.12 Working mothers are more likely to prefer part-time work, flexible work schedules, and telecommuting in order to accommodate their family responsibilities. But what about absence and turnover rates? Are women less stable employees than men? First, on the question of turnover, the evidence is mixed.13 Some studies have found that women have higher turnover rates; others have found no difference. There doesnt appear to be enough information from which to draw meaningful conclusions. The research on absence, however, is a different story. The evidence consistently indicates that women have higher rates of absenteeism than men do.14 The most logical explanation for this finding is that the research was conducted in North America, and North American culture has historically placed home and family responsibilities on the woman. When a child is ill or someone needs to stay home to wait for the plumber, it has been the woman who has traditionally taken time off from work. However, this research is undoubtedly time-bound.15 The historical role of the woman in caring for children and as secondary breadwinner has definitely changed since the 1970s, and a large proportion of menQuit Chapter Start Contents Video Chapter End Web Site

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nowadays are as interested in day care and the problems associated with child care in general as are women.

Marital StatusThere are not enough studies to draw any conclusions about the effect of marital status on productivity. But research consistently indicates that married employees have fewer absences, undergo less turnover, and are more satisfied with their jobs than are their unmarried coworkers.16 Marriage imposes increased responsibilities that may make a steady job more valuable and important. But the question of causation is not clear. It may very well be that conscientious and satisfied employees are more likely to be married. Another offshoot of this issue is that research has not pursued other statuses besides single or married. Does being divorced or widowed have an impact on an employees performance and satisfaction? What about couples who live together without being married? These are questions in need of investigation.

TenureThe last biographical characteristic well look at is tenure. With the exception of the issue of male-female differences, probably no issue

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is more subject to misconceptions and speculations than the impact of seniority on job performance. Extensive reviews of the seniority-productivity relationship have been conducted.17 If we define seniority as time on a particular job, we can say that the most recent evidence demonstrates a positive relationship between seniority and job productivity. So tenure, expressed as work experience, appears to be a good predictor of employee productivity. The research relating tenure to absence is quite straightforward. Studies consistently demonstrate seniority to be negatively related to absenteeism.18 In fact, in terms of both frequency of absence and total days lost at work, tenure is the single most important explanatory variable.19 Tenure is also a potent variable in explaining turnover. Tenure has consistently been found to be negatively related to turnover and has been suggested as one of the single best predictors of turnover.20 Moreover, consistent with research that suggests that past behavior is the best predictor of future behavior,21 evidence indicates that tenure on an employees previous job is a powerful predictor of that employees future turnover.22 The evidence indicates that tenure and satisfaction are positively related.23 In fact, when age and tenure are treated separately, tenure appears to be a more consistent and stable predictor of job satisfaction than is chronological age.Quit Chapter Start Contents Video Chapter End Web Site

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AbilityContrary to what we were taught in grade school, we werent all created equal. Most of us are to the left of the median on some normally distributed ability curve. Regardless of how motivated you are, it is unlikely that you can act as well as Meryl Streep, run as fast as Michael Johnson, write horror stories x Contrary to what we were as well as Stephen King, or sing as well as Whitney taught in grade school, we Houston. Of course, just because we arent all equal in abilwerent all created equal. ities does not imply that some individuals are inherently inferior to others. What we are acknowledging is that everyone has strengths and weaknesses in terms of ability that make him or her relatively superior or inferior to others in performing certain tasks or activities.24 From managements standpoint, the issue is not whether people differ in terms of their abilities. They do! The issue is knowing how people differ in abilities and using that knowledge to increase the likelihood that an employee will perform his or her job well. What does ability mean? As we will use the term, ability refers ability to an individuals capacity to perform the various tasks in a job. It An individuals capacity to is a current assessment of what one can do. An individuals overall perform the various tasks in a job. abilities are essentially made up of two sets of factors: intellectual and physical abilities.

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Intellectual AbilitiesIntellectual abilities are those needed to perform mental activities. Intelligence quotient (IQ) tests, for example, are designed to ascertain ones general intellectual abilities. So, too, are popular college admission tests such as the SAT and ACT and graduate admission tests in business (GMAT), law (LSAT), and medicine (MCAT). The seven most frequently cited dimensions making up intellectual abilities are number aptitude, verbal comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, spatial visualization, and memory.25 Exhibit 2-1 describes those dimensions.Exhibit 2-1 Dimensions of Intellectual Abilityintellectual ability That required to do mental activities.

Dimension Number aptitude Verbal comprehension

Description Ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic Ability to understand what is read or heard and the relationship of words to each other Ability to identify visual similarities and differences quickly and accuratelyContents Video

Job Example Accountant: Computing the sales tax on a set of items Plant manager: Following corporate policies

Perceptual speed

Fire investigator: Identifying clues to support a charge of arsonWeb Site

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Inductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning

Spatial visualization

Memory

Ability to identify a logical sequence in a problem and then solve the problem Ability to use logic and assess the implications of an argument Ability to imagine how an object would look if its position in space were changed Ability to retain and recall past experiences

Market researcher: Forecasting demand for a product in the next time period Supervisor: Choosing between two different suggestions offered by employees Interior decorator: Redecorating an office

Salesperson: Remembering the names of customers

Jobs differ in the demands they place on incumbents to use their intellectual abilities. Generally speaking, the more information-processing demands that exist in a job, the more general intelligence and verbal abilities will be necessary to perform the job successfully.26 Of course, a high IQ is not a prerequisite for all jobs. In fact, for many jobs in which employee behavior is highly routine and there are little or no opportunities to exercise discretion a high IQ may be unrelated to performance. On the other hand, a careful review of the evidence demonstrates that tests that assessQuit Chapter Start Contents Video Chapter End Web Site

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OB in the NewsThe Bell Curve Evidencet was undoubtedly the most controversial social science book published during the first half of the 1990s. The Bell Curve (The Free Press, 1994) by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray presents evidence that IQ, not education or opportunity, is the key factor determining where a person ends up on the American social scale. Importantly, the evidence they offered to support their point was not the reason for the books controversy. What stirred up most reviewers, scientists, politicians, and journalists was the authors claim that economic inequalities between racial groups are related to differences in average IQ levels between races. But we are interested only in

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that segment of their work that is related to the issue of IQ and job performance. Herrnstein and Murray began by making six statements that they categorized as beyond significant technical dispute: (1) There is such a thing as a general factor of cognitive ability on which human beings differ; (2) all standardized tests of academic aptitude or achievement measure this general factor to some degree, but IQ tests expressly designed for that purpose measure it most accurately; (3) IQ scores closely match whatever it is that people mean when they use the word intelligent or smart in ordinary language; (4) IQ scores are stable, although not perfectly so, over much of a persons life; (5)

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properly administered IQ tests are not demonstrably biased against social, economic, ethnic, or racial groups; and (6) a substantial portion of cognitive ability (no less than 40 percent and no more than 80 percent) is inherited through genes. Using these six points as a foundation, the authors then argued forcefully that IQ is a powerful predictor of job performance. Or to use their terms, A smarter employee is, on average, a more proficient employee. According to Herrnstein and Murray, all jobs require cognitive ability. This fact is relatively self-evident in professional occupations such as accounting, engineering, science, architecture, and medicine. But its also true for semiskilled blue-collar jobs and holds, although weakly, even among people in unskilled manual jobs. For instance, they point out that there are better and worse busboys in restaurants. The really

good busboy uses his intelligence to solve jobrelated problems, and the higher his intelligence the more quickly he comes up with solutions and can call on them when appropriate. But as jobs become more complex, IQ becomes more important in determining performance. And this advantage holds over time. Work experience doesnt significantly close the gap. The cost of hiring less intelligent workers may last as long as they stay on the job. The views expressed by Herrnstein and Murray, by the way, arent radical. They represent mainstream science on intelligence. At the peak of the controversy surrounding the publication of The Bell Curve, 52 of the most respected experts in intelligence research reaffirmed Herrnstein and Murrays conclusions in a Wall Street Journal editorial (December 13, 1994, p. A18).

Take It to the NetWe invite you to visit the Robbins page on the Prentice Hall Web site at:

http://www.prenhall.com/robbinsorgbehfor this chapters World Wide Web exercise.

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verbal, numerical, spatial, and perceptual abilities are valid predictors of job proficiency at all levels of jobs.27 So tests that measure specific dimensions of intelligence have been found to be strong predictors of job performance. The major dilemma faced by employers who use mental ability tests for selection, promotion, training, and similar personnel decisions is that they may have a negative impact on racial and ethnic groups.28 The evidence indicates that some minority groups score, on the average, as much as one standard deviation lower than whites on verbal, numerical, and spatial ability tests.

Physical AbilitiesTo the same degree that intellectual abilities play a larger role in complex jobs with demanding information-processing requirements, specific physical abilities gain importance for successfully doing less-skilled and more-standardized jobs. For example, jobs in which success demands stamina, manual dexterity, leg strength, or similar talents require management to identify an employees physical capabilities. Research on the requirements needed in hundreds of jobs has identified nine basic abilities involved in the performance of physical tasks.29 These are described in Exhibit 2-2. Individuals differ in the extent to which they have each of these abilities. Not surprisingly, there is also little relationship between them: A high score onQuit Chapter Start Contents Video Chapter End Web Site

physical ability That required to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics.

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Exhibit 2-2 Nine Basic Physical Abilities

Strength Factors 1. Dynamic strength 2. Trunk strength 3. Static strength 4. Explosive strength Flexibility Factors 5. Extent flexibility 6. Dynamic flexibility Other Factors 7. Body coordination 8. Balance 9. Stamina

Ability to exert muscular force repeatedly or continuously over time Ability to exert muscular strength using the trunk (particularly abdominal) muscles Ability to exert force against external objects Ability to expend a maximum of energy in one or a series of explosive acts Ability to move the trunk and back muscles as far as possible Ability to make rapid, repeated flexing movements Ability to coordinate the simultaneous actions of different parts of the body Ability to maintain equilibrium despite forces pulling off balance Ability to continue maximum effort requiring prolonged effort over time

Source: Reprinted from the June 1979 issue of Personnel Administrator, copyright 1979, The American Society for Personnel Administration; 606 North Washington Street; Alexandria, Virginia 22314, pp. 82 92.

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one is no assurance of a high score on others. High employee performance is likely to be achieved when management has ascertained the extent to which a job requires each of the nine abilities and then ensures that employees in that job have those abilities.

The Ability-Job FitOur concern is with explaining and predicting the behavior of people at work. In this section, we have demonstrated that jobs make differing demands on people and that people differ in the abilities they possess. Employee performance, therefore, is enhanced when there is a high ability-job fit. x Employee performance is The specific intellectual or physical abilities required for enhanced when there is a adequate job performance depend on the ability requirehigh ability-job fit. ments of the job. So, for example, airline pilots need strong spatial-visualization abilities; beach lifeguards need both strong spatial-visualization abilities and body coordination; senior executives need verbal abilities; high-rise construction workers need balance; and journalists with weak reasoning abilities would likely have difficulty meeting minimum job-performance standards. Directing attention at only the employees abilities or only the ability requirements of the job ignores the fact that employee performance depends on the interaction of the two.

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What predictions can we make when the fit is poor? As alluded to previously, if employees lack the required abilities, they are likely to fail. If you are hired as a word processor and you cannot meet the jobs basic keyboard typing requirements, your performance is going to be poor irrespective of your positive attitude or your high level of motivation. When the ability-job fit is out of sync because the employee has abilities that far exceed the requirements of the

Body coordination, balance, stamina, and strength and flexibility factors are physical abilities required for job performance at Black Diamond Equipment in Salt Lake City. The rock-climbing equipment company ensures a high ability-job fit by hiring customerssports enthusiasts who use its products and have a passion for climbing.

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job, our predictions would be very different. Job performance is likely to be adequate, but there will be organizational inefficiencies and possible declines in employee satisfaction. Given that pay tends to reflect the highest skill level that employees possess, if an employees abilities far exceed those necessary to do the job, management will be paying more than it needs to. Abilities significantly above those required can also reduce the employees job satisfaction when the employees desire to use his or her abilities is particularly strong and is frustrated by the limitations of the job.

PersonalityWhy are some people quiet and passive, while others are loud and aggressive? Are certain personality types better adapted for certain job types? What do we know from theories of personality that can help us explain and predict the behavior of people like Robert Lutz at Chrysler, whom we described at the opening of this chapter? In this section, we will attempt to answer such questions.

What is Personality?When we talk of personality, we dont mean that a person has charm, a positive attitude toward life, a smiling face, or is a finalist for Happiest and Friendliest in this years Miss America contest.

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When psychologists talk of personality, they mean a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a persons whole psychological system. Rather than looking at parts of the person, personality looks at some aggregate whole that is greater than the sum of the parts. The most frequently used definition of personality was produced by Gordon Allport more than sixty years ago. He said personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment.30 For our purposes, you should think of personality as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others. It is most often described in terms of measurable traits that a person exhibits.

personality The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others.

Personality DeterminantsAn early argument in personality research was whether an individuals personality was the result of heredity or of environment. Was the personality predetermined at birth, or was it the result of the individuals interaction with his or her environment? Clearly, there is no simple black-and-white answer. Personality appears to be a result of both influences. In addition, today we recognize a third factor the situation. Thus, an adults personality is now generally

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From Concepts to SkillsSelf-Awareness: Do You Know Yourself?famous cartoonist once attended a cocktail party with some friends. Someone asked him to draw a caricature of everyone present, which he proceeded to do with a few skilled strokes of his pencil. When the sketches were passed around for the guests to identify, everyone recognized the other persons, but hardly anyone recognized the caricature of himself.31 Many of us are like the people at that cocktail party. We really dont know ourselves. But you can expand your self-awareness. And when you do, you will better understand your personal strengths and weaknesses and how you are perceived by others.

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You will also gain insights into why others respond to you as they do. A major component in gaining selfunderstanding is finding out how you rate on key personality characteristics. Later in our discussion of personality, we will review six major personality attributes: locus of control, Machiavellianism, self-esteem, selfmonitoring, risk taking, and the Type A personality. Included with the review will be a series of self-awareness questionnaires that have been designed to measure these personality characteristics. Individually, the questionnaires will give you insights into how you rate on each attribute. In aggregate, they will help you to better understand who you are.

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considered to be made up of both hereditary and environmental factors, moderated by situational conditions.HEREDITY Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical stature, facial attractiveness, gender, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are generally considered to be either completely or substantially influenced by who your parents were: that is, by their biological, physiological, and inherent psychological makeup. The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individuals personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes. Three different streams of research lend some credibility to the argument that heredity plays an important part in determining an individuals personality. The first looks at the genetic underpinnings of human behavior and temperament among young children. The second addresses the study of twins who were separated at birth. The third examines the consistency in job satisfaction over time and across situations. Recent studies of young children lend strong support to the power of heredity.32 Evidence demonstrates that traits such as shyness, fear, and distress are most likely caused by inherited genetic characteristics. This finding suggests that some personality traits

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may be built into the same genetic code that affects factors such as height and hair color. Researchers have studied more than 100 sets of identical twins who were separated at birth and raised separately.33 If heredity played little or no part in determining personality, you would expect to find few similarities between the separated twins. But the researchers found a lot in common. For almost every behavioral trait, a significant part of the variation between the twins turned out to be associated with genetic factors. For instance, one set of twins who had been separated for 39 years and raised 45 miles apart were found to drive the same model and color car, chain-smoked the same brand of cigarette, owned dogs with the same name, and regularly vacationed within three blocks of each other in a beach community 1,500 miles away. Researchers have found that genetics accounts for about fifty percent of the personality differences and more than 30 percent of the variation in occupational and leisure interests. Further support for the importance of heredity can be found in studies of individual job satisfaction. Research has uncovered an interesting phenomenon: Individual job satisfaction is remarkably stable over time. Even when employers or occupations change, job satisfaction remains relatively stable during ones lifetime.34 This result is consistent with what you would expect if satisfaction is

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determined by something inherent in the person rather than by external environmental factors. If personality characteristics were completely dictated by heredity, they would be fixed at birth and no amount of experience could alter them. If you were relaxed and easygoing as a child, for example, that would be the result of your genes, and it would not be possible for you to change those characteristics. But personality characteristics are not completely dictated by heredity. Among the factors that exert pressures on our personality formation are the culture in which we are raised, our early conditioning, the norms among our family, friends, and social groups, and other influences that we experience. The environment we are exposed to plays a substantial role in shaping our personalities. For example, culture establishes the norms, attitudes, and values that are passed along from one generation to the next and create consistencies over time. An ideology that is intensely fostered in one culture may have only moderate influence in another. For instance, North Americans have had the themes of industriousness, success, competition, independence, and the Protestant work ethic constantly instilled in them through books, the school system, family, and friends. North Americans, as a result, tend to be ambitious and aggressive relative to individuals raised in cultures that haveENVIRONMENT

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emphasized getting along with others, cooperation, and the priority of family over work and career. Careful consideration of the arguments favoring either heredity or environment as the primary determinant of personality forces the conclusion that both are important. Heredity sets the parameters or outer limits, but an individuals full potential will be deter-

The cultural environment in which people are raised plays a major role in shaping personality. In India, children learn from an early age the values of hard work, frugality, and family closeness. This photo of the Harilela family illustrates the importance that Indians place on close family ties. Six Harilela brothers own real estate and hotels throughout Asia. Not only do the brothers work together, but their six families and that of a married sister also live together in a Hong Kong mansion.

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mined by how well he or she adjusts to the demands and requirements of the environment.SITUATION A third factor, the situation, influences the effects of heredity and environment on personality. An individuals personality, although generally stable and consistent, does change in different situations. The different demands of different situations call forth different aspects of ones personality. We should not, therefore, look at personality patterns in isolation.35 It seems only logical to suppose that situations will influence an individuals personality, but a neat classification scheme that would tell us the impact of various types of situations has so far eluded us. Apparently we are not yet close to developing a system for clarifying situations so that they might be systematically studied.36 However, we do know that certain situations are more relevant than others in influencing personality. What is of interest taxonomically is that situations seem to differ substantially in the constraints they impose on behavior. Some situations e.g., church, an employment interview constrain many behaviors; other situations e.g., a picnic in a public park constrain relatively few.37 Furthermore, although certain generalizations can be made about personality, there are significant individual differences. As we shall see, the study of individual differences has come to receive

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greater emphasis in personality research, which originally sought out more general, universal patterns.

Personality TraitsThe early work in the structure of personality revolved around attempts to identify and label enduring characteristics that describe an individuals behavior. Popular characteristics include shy, aggressive, submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal, and timid. Those characteristics, when they are exhibited in a large number of situations, are called personality traits.38 The more consistent the characteristic and the more frequently it occurs in diverse situations, the more important that trait is in describing the individual.EARLY SEARCH FOR PRIMARY TRAITS Efforts to isolate traits have been hindered because there are so many of them. In one study, 17,953 individual traits were identified.39 It is virtually impossible to predict behavior when such a large number of traits must be taken into account. As a result, attention has been directed toward reducing these thousands to a more manageable number. One researcher isolated 171 traits but concluded that they were superficial and lacking in descriptive power.40 What he sought was a reduced set of traits that would identify underlying patterns. The result was the identification of sixteen personality factors, which he

personality traits Enduring characteristics that describe an individuals behavior.

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called the source, or primary, traits. They are shown in Exhibit 2-4. These sixteen traits have been found to be generally steady and constant sources of behavior, allowing prediction of an individuals behavior in specific situations by weighing the characteristics for their situational relevance. One of the most widely used personality frameworks is called the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).41 It is essentially a 100-question personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in particular situations. On the basis of the answers individuals give to the test, they are classified as extroverted or introverted (E or I), sensing or intuitive (S or N), thinking or feeling (T or F), and perceiving or judging (P or J). These classifications are then combined into sixteen personality types. (These types are different from the sixteen primary traits in Exhibit 2-4.) To illustrate, lets take several examples. INTJs are visionaries. They usually have original minds and great drive for their own ideas and purposes. They are characterized as skeptical, critical, independent, determined, and often stubborn. ESTJs are organizers. They are realistic, logical, analytical, decisive and have a natural head for business or mechanics. They like to organize and run activities. The ENTP type is a conceptualizer. He or she is innovative, individualistic, versatile, and attracted to entrepreneurial ideas. This person tends to be resourceful in solving challenging problems but may neglectTHE MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into one of 16 personality types.

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Exhibit 2-4 Sixteen Primar y Traits

1. Reserved vs. Outgoing 2. Less intelligent vs. More intelligent 3. Affected by feelings vs. Emotionally stable 4. Submissive vs. Dominant 5. Serious vs. Happy-go-lucky 6. Expedient vs. Conscientious 7. Timid vs. Venturesome 8. Tough-minded vs. Sensitive 9. Trusting vs. Suspicious 10. Practical vs. Imaginative 11. Forthright vs. Shrewd 12. Self-assured vs. Apprehensive 13. Conservative vs. Experimenting 14. Group-dependent vs. Self-sufficient 15. Uncontrolled vs. Controlled 16. Relaxed vs. Tense

routine assignments. A recent book that profiled thirteen contemporary businesspeople who created supersuccessful firms including Apple Computer, Federal Express, Honda Motors, Microsoft, PriceQuit Chapter Start Contents Video Chapter End Web Site

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Club, and Sony found that all thirteen are intuitive thinkers (NTs).42 This result is particularly interesting since intuitive thinkers represent only about five percent of the population. More than 2 million people a year take the MBTI in the United States alone. Organizations using the MBTI include Apple Computer, AT&T, Citicorp, Exxon, GE, 3M Co., plus many hospitals, educational institutions, and even the U.S. Armed Forces. Ironically, there is no hard evidence that the MBTI is a valid measure of personality. But lack of evidence doesnt seem to deter its use in a wide range of organizations. The MBTI may lack for valid supporting evidence, but that cant be said for the five-factor model of personality more typically called the Big Five.43 In recent years, an impressive body of research supports the notion that five basic personality dimensions underlie all others. The Big Five factors are:THE BIG FIVE MODEL

x Extraversion. This dimension captures ones comfort level with relationships. Extraverts (high in extraversion) tend to be friendly and outgoing and to spend much of their time maintaining and enjoying a large number of relationships. Introverts tend to be reserved and to have fewer relationships, and they are more comfortable with solitude than most people are. x Agreeableness. This dimension refers to an individuals propensity to defer to others. High agreeable people value harmony more

extraversion A personality dimension describing someone who is sociable, talkative, and assertive. agreeableness A personality dimension that describes someone who is good-natured, cooperative, and trusting.

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than they value having their say or their way. They are cooperative and trusting of others. People who score low on agreeableness focus more on their own needs than on the needs of others. x Conscientiousness. This dimension refers to the number of goals on which a person focuses. A high conscientious person pursues fewer goals, in a purposeful way, and tends to be responsible, persistent, dependable, and achievement-oriented. Those who score low on this dimension tend to be more easily distracted, pursuing many goals, and more hedonistic. x Emotional stability. This dimension taps a persons ability to withstand stress. People with positive emotional stability tend to be characterized as calm, enthusiastic, and secure. Those with high negative scores tend to be nervous, depressed, and insecure. x Openness to experience. The final dimension addresses ones range of interests. Extremely open people are fascinated by novelty and innovation. They tend to be imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intellectual. Those at the other end of the openness category appear more conventional and find comfort in the familiar.

conscientiousness A personality dimension that describes someone who is responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement oriented. emotional stability A personality dimension that characterizes someone as calm, enthusiastic, secure (positive) versus tense, nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative). openness to experience A personality dimension that characterizes someone in terms of imaginativeness, artistic sensitivity, and intellectualism.

In addition to providing a unifying personality framework, research on the Big Five also has found important relationships between these personality dimensions and job performance.44 A broad spectrum of occupations were looked at: professionals (including engineers, architects, accountants, attorneys), police, managers, salespeople, and semiskilled and skilled employees. Job

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performance was defined in terms of performance ratings, training proficiency (performance during training programs), and personnel data such as salary level. The results showed that conscientiousness predicted job performance for all occupational groups. The preponderance of evidence shows that individuals who are dependable, reliable, careful, thorough, able to plan, organized, hardworking, persistent, and achievement-oriented tend to have higher job performance in most if not all occupations.45 For the other personality dimensions, predictability depended upon both the performance criterion and the occupational group. For instance, extraversion predicted performance in managerial and sales positions. This finding makes sense since those occupations involve high social interaction. Similarly, openness to experience was found to be important in predicting training proficiency, which, too, seems logical. What wasnt so clear was why positive emotional stability wasnt related to job performance. Intuitively, it would seem that people who are calm and secure would do better on almost all jobs than people who are anxious and insecure. The researchers suggested that the answer might be that only people who score fairly high on emotional stability retain their jobs. So the range among those people studied, all of whom were employed, would tend to be quite small.

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Major Personality Attributes Influencing OBIn this section, we want to more carefully evaluate specific personality attributes that have been found to be powerful predictors of behavior in organizations. The first is related to where one perceives the locus of control in ones life. The others are Machiavellianism, self-esteem, self-monitoring, propensity for risk taking, and Type A personality. In this section, we shall briefly introduce these attributes and summarize what we know about their ability to explain and predict employee behavior.LOCUS OF CONTROL Some people believe that they are masters of their own fate. Other people see themselves as pawns of fate, believing that what happens to them in their lives is due to luck or chance. The first type, those who believe that they control their destinies, have been labeled internals, whereas the latter, who see their lives as being controlled by outside forces, have been called externals.46 A persons perception of the source of his or her fate is termed locus of control. A large amount of research comparing internals with externals has consistently shown that individuals who rate high in externality are less satisfied with their jobs, have higher absenteeism rates, are more alienated from the work setting, and are less involved on their jobs than are internals.47

internals Individuals who believe that they control what happens to them. externals Individuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance. locus of control The degree to which people believe they are masters of their own fate.

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Why are externals more dissatisfied? The answer is probably because they perceive themselves as having little control over those organizational outcomes that are important to them. Internals, facing the same situation, attribute organizational outcomes to their own actions. If the situation is unattractive, they believe that they have no one else to blame but themselves. Also, the dissatisfied internal is more likely to quit a dissatisfying job. The impact of locus of control on absence is an interesting one. Internals believe that health is substantially under their own control through proper habits, so they take more responsibility for their health and have better health habits. Consequently, their incidences of sickness and, hence, of absenteeism, are lower.48 We shouldnt expect any clear relationship between locus of control and turnover, because there are opposing forces at work. On the one hand, internals tend to take action and thus might be expected to quit jobs more readily. On the other hand, they tend to be more successful on the job and more satisfied, factors associated with less individual turnover.49 The overall evidence indicates that internals generally perform better on their jobs, but that conclusion should be moderated to reflect differences in jobs. Internals search more actively for information before making a decision, are more motivated to achieve, and make a greater attempt to control their environment. Externals, however, are more compliant and willing to follow directions.Quit Chapter Start Contents Video Chapter End Web Site

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Increase Your Self-Awareness: Assess Your Locus of ControlInstructions: Read the following statements and indicate whether you agree more with choice A or choice B.

A1. Making a lot of money is largely a matter of getting the right breaks. 2. I have noticed that there is a direct connection between how hard I study and the grades I get. 3. The number of divorces indicates that more and more people are not trying to make their marriages work. 4. It is silly to think that one can really change another persons basic attitudes. 5. Getting promoted is really a matter of being a little luckier than the next person. 6. If one knows how to deal with people, they are really quite easily led. 7. The grades I make are the result of my own efforts; luck has little or nothing to do with it. 8. People like me can change the course of world affairs if we make ourselves heard.

B1. Promotions are earned through hard work and persistence. 2. Many times, the reactions of teachers seem haphazard to me. 3. Marriage is largely a gamble.

4. When I am right I can convince others. 5. In our society, a persons future earning power is dependent upon his or her ability. 6. I have little influence over the way other people behave. 7. Sometimes I feel that I have little to do with the grades I get. 8. It is only wishful thinking to believe that one can readily influence what happens in our society.

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9. A great deal that happens to me is probably a matter of chance. 10. Getting along with people is a skill that must be practiced.

9. I am the master of my fate. 10. It is almost impossible to figure out how to please some people.

Source: Adapted from J.B. Rotter, External Control and Internal Control, Psychology Today, June 1971, p. 42. Copyright 1971 by the American Psychological Association. Adapted with permission. Scoring Key: Give yourself 1 point for each of the following selections: 1B, 2A, 3A, 4B, 5B, 6A, 7A, 8A, 9B, and 10A. Scores can be interpreted as follows:8 10 = High internal locus of control 6 7 = Moderate internal locus of control 5 = Mixed 3 4 = Moderate external locus of control 1 2 High external locus of control

Therefore, internals do well on sophisticated tasks which include most managerial and professional jobs that require complex information processing and learning. In addition, internals are more suited to jobs that require initiative and independence of action. In contrast, externals should do well on jobs that are well structured and routine and in which success depends heavily on complying with the direction of others.

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The personality characteristic of Machiavellianism (Mach) is named after Niccolo Machiavelli, who wrote in the sixteenth century on how to gain and use power. An individual high in Machiavellianism is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means. If it works, use it is consistent with a high-Mach perspective. A considerable amount of research has been directed toward relating high- and low-Mach personalities to certain behavioral outcomes.50 High Machs manipulate more, win more, are persuaded less, and persuade others more than do low Machs.51 Yet these high Mach outcomes are moderated by situational factors. It has been found that high Machs flourish (1) when they interact face to face with others rather than indirectly; (2) when the situation has a minimum number of rules and regulations, thus allowing latitude for improvisation; and (3) when emotional involvement with details irrelevant to winning distracts low Machs.52 Should we conclude that high Machs make good employees? That answer depends on the type of job and whether you consider ethical implications in evaluating performance. In jobs that require bargaining skills (such as labor negotiation) or that offer substantial rewards for winning (as in commissioned sales), high Machs will be productive. But if ends cant justify the means, if there are absolute standards of behavior, or if the three situational factors noted in theMACHIAVELLIANISM

Machiavellianism Degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means.

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preceding paragraph are not in evidence, our ability to predict a high Machs performance will be severely curtailed.SELF-ESTEEM People differ in the degree to which they like or dislike themselves. This trait is called self-esteem.53 The research on self-esteem (SE) offers some interesting insights into organizational behavior. For example, self-esteem is directly related to expectations for success. High SEs believe that they possess the ability they need in order to succeed at work. Individuals with high self-esteem will take more risks in job selection and are more likely to choose unconventional jobs than people with low self-esteem. The most generalizable finding on self-esteem is that low SEs are more susceptible to external influence than are high SEs. Low SEs are dependent on the receipt of positive evaluations from others. As a result, they are more likely to seek approval from others and more prone to conform to the beliefs and behaviors of those they respect than are high SEs. In managerial positions, low SEs will tend to be concerned with pleasing others and, therefore, are less likely to take unpopular stands than are high SEs. Not surprisingly, self-esteem has also been found to be related to job satisfaction. A number of studies confirm that high SEs are more satisfied with their jobs than are low SEs.

self-esteem Individuals degree of liking or disliking of themselves.

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Increase Your Self-Awareness: How Machiavellian Are You?Instructions: For each statement, circle the number that most closely resembles your attitude.

Disagree Statement1. The best way to handle people is to tell them what they want to hear. 2. When you ask someone to do something for you, it is best to give the real reason for wanting it rather than giving reasons that might carry more weight. 3. Anyone who completely trusts anyone else is asking for trouble. 4. It is hard to get ahead without cutting corners here and there. 5. It is safest to assume that all people have a vicious streak, and it will come out when they are given a chance. 6. One should take action only when it is morally right. 7. Most people are basically good and kind. 8. There is no excuse for lying to someone else. 9. Most people more easily forget the death of their father than the loss of their property.

Agree Neutral3

A Lot1

A Little2

A Little4

A Lot5

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2 2 2

3 3 3

4 4 4

5 5 5

1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3

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10. Generally speaking, people wont work hard unless theyre forced to do so.

1

2

3

4

5

Source: R. Christie and F.L. Geis, Studies in Machiavellianism. Academic Press 1970. Reprinted by permission. Scoring Key: To obtain your Mach score, add the number you have checked on questions 1, 3, 4, 5, 9, and 10. For the other four questions, reverse the numbers you have checked: 5 becomes 1, 4 is 2, 2 is 4, and 1 is 5. Total your ten numbers to find your score. The higher your score, the more Machiavellian you are. Among a random sample of American adults, the national average was 25.

A personality trait that has recently received increased attention is called self-monitoring.54 It refers to an individuals ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors. Individuals high in self-monitoring show considerable adaptability in adjusting their behavior to external situational factors. They are highly sensitive to external cues and can behave differently in different situations. High self-monitors are capable of presenting striking contradictions between their public persona and their private self. Low self-monitors cant disguise themselves in that way. They tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes in every situation; hence, there is high behavioral consistency between who they are and what they do. The research on self-monitoring is in its infancy, so predictions must be guarded. However, preliminary evidence suggests that highQuit Chapter Start Contents Video Chapter End Web Site

SELF-MONITORING

self-monitoring A personality trait that measures an individuals ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors.

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Increase Your Self-Awareness: Hows Your Self-Esteem?Instructions: Answer each of the following questions honestly. Next to each question write a 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 depending on which answer best describes you. 1 2 3 4 5 = = = = = Very often Fairly often Sometimes Once in a great while Practically never

1. How often do you have the feeling that there is nothing that you can do well? 2. When you talk in front of a class or group of people your own age, how often do you feel worried or afraid? 3. How often do you feel that you have handled yourself well at a social gathering? 4. How often do you have the feeling that you can do everything well? 5. How often are you comfortable when starting a conversation with people you dont know? 6. How often do you feel self-conscious? 7. How often do you feel that you are a successful person? 8. How often are you troubled with shyness? 9. How often do you feel inferior to most people you know? 10. How often do you feel that you are a worthless individual? 11. How often do you feel confident that your success in your future job or career is assured?

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12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

How often do you feel sure of yourself when among strangers? How often do you feel confident that some day people will look up to you and respect you? In general, how often do you feel confident about your abilities? How often do you worry about how well you get along with other people? How often do you feel that you dislike yourself? How often do you feel so discouraged with yourself that you wonder whether anything is worthwhile? 18. How often do you worry about whether other people like to be with you? 19. When you talk in front of a class or a group of people of your own age, how often are you pleased with your performance? 20. How often do you feel sure of yourself when you speak in a class discussion?

Source: Developed by A.H. Eagly and adapted from J.R. Robinson and P.R. Shaver, Measures of Social Psychological Attitudes (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Institute of Social Research, 1973), pp. 79 80. With permission. Scoring Key: Add up your score from the left column for the following ten items: 1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, and 18. For the other ten items, reverse your scoring (i.e., a 5 becomes a 1; a 4 becomes a 2). The higher your score, the higher your self-esteem.

self-monitors tend to pay closer attention to the behavior of others and are more capable of conforming than are low self-monitors.55 In addition, high self-monitoring managers tend to be more mobile in their careers and receive more promotions (both internal and cross-organizational).56 We might also hypothesize that high selfQuit Chapter Start Contents Video Chapter End Web Site

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Increase Your Self-Awareness: Are You a High Self-Monitor?Instructions: Indicate the degree to which you think the following statements are true or false by circling the appropriate number. For example, if a statement is always true, circle the 5 next to that statement. 5 4 3 2 1 0 = = = = = = Certainly, always true Generally true Somewhat true, but with exceptions Somewhat false, but with exceptions Generally false Certainly, always false 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1. In social situations, I have the ability to alter my behavior if I feel that something else is called for. 2. I am often able to read peoples true emotions correctly through their eyes. 3. I have the ability to control the way I come across to people, depending on the impression I wish to give them. 4. In conversations, I am sensitive to even the slightest change in the facial expression of the person Im conversing with. 5. My powers of intuition are quite good when it comes to understanding others emotions and motives. 6. I can usually tell when others consider a joke in bad taste, even though they may laugh convincingly. 7. When I feel that the image I am portraying isnt working, I can readily change it to something that does.

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8. I can usually tell when Ive said something inappropriate by reading the listeners eyes. 9. I have trouble changing my behavior to suit different people and different situations. 10. I have found that I can adjust my behavior to meet the requirements of any situation I find myself in. 11. If someone is lying to me, I usually know it at once from that persons manner of expression. 12. Even when it might be to my advantage, I have difficulty putting up a good front. 13. Once I know what the situation calls for, its easy for me to regulate my actions accordingly.

5 5 5 5 5 5

4 4 4 4 4 4

3 3 3 3 3 3

2 2 2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1 1 1

0 0 0 0 0 0

Source: R.D. Lennox and R.N. Wolfe, Revision of the Self-Monitoring Scale, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, June 1984, p. 1361. Copyright 1984 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted by permission. Scoring Key: To obtain your score, add up the numbers circled, except reverse scores for questions 9 and 12. On those, a circled 5 becomes a 0, 4 becomes 1, and so forth. High self-monitors are defined as those with scores of 53 or higher.

monitors will be more successful in managerial positions in which individuals are required to play multiple, and even contradicting, roles. The high self-monitor is capable of putting on different faces for different audiences.Quit Chapter Start Contents Video Chapter End Web Site

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People differ in their willingness to take chances. This propensity to assume or avoid risk has been shown to have an impact on how long it takes managers to make a decision and how much information they require before making their choice. For instance, seventy-nine managers worked on simulated personnel exercises that required them to make hiring decisions.57 High risktaking managers made more rapid decisions and used less information in making their choices than did the low risk-taking managers. Interestingly, the decision accuracy was the same for both groups. While it is generally correct to conclude that managers in organizations are risk-aversive,58 there are still individual differences on this dimension.59 As a result, it makes sense to recognize these differences and even to consider aligning risk-taking propensity with specific job demands. For instance, a high risk-taking propensity may lead to more effective performance for a stock trader in a brokerage firm because that type of job demands rapid decision making. On the other hand, a willingness to take risks might prove a major obstacle to an accountant who performs auditing activities. The latter job might be better filled by someone with a low risk-taking propensity.RISK TAKING

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Increase Your Self-Awareness: Are You a Risk Taker?Instructions: For each of the following situations, you will be asked to indicate the minimum odds of success you would demand before recommending that one alternative be chosen over another. Try to place yourself in the position of the adviser to the central person in each of the situations. 1. Mr. B, a 45-year-old accountant, has recently been informed by his physician that he has developed a severe heart ailment. The disease would be sufficiently serious to force Mr. B to change many of his strongest life habits reducing his work load, drastically changing his diet, giving up favorite leisure-time pursuits. The physician suggests that a delicate medical operation could be attempted that, if successful, would completely relieve the heart condition. But its success could not be assured, and, in fact, the operation might prove fatal. Imagine that you are advising Mr. B. Listed below are several probabilities or odds that the operation will prove successful. Check the lowest probability that you would consider acceptable for the operation to be performed. Place a check here if you think that Mr. B should not have the operation no matter what the probabilities. The chances are 9 in 10 that the operation will be a success. The chances are 7 in 10 that the operation will be a success. The chances are 5 in 10 that the operation will be a success. The chances are 3 in 10 that the operation will be a success. The chances are 1 in 10 that the operation will be a success. 2. Mr. D is the captain of College Xs football team. College X is playing its traditional rival, College Y, in the final game of the season. The game is in its final seconds, and Mr. Ds team, College X, is behind in the score. College X has time to run one more play. Mr. D, the captain, must decide whether it would be best to settle for a tie score with a play that would be almost certain to work or, on the other hand, should he try a more complicated and risky play that would bring victory if it succeeded but defeat if it failed. Imagine that you are advising Mr. D. Listed below are several probabilities or odds that the risky play will work. Check the lowest probability that you would consider acceptable for the risky play to be attempted.

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Place a check here if you think that Mr. D should not attempt the risky play no matter what the probabilities. The chances are 9 in 10 that the risky play will work. The chances are 7 in 10 that the risky play will work. The chances are 5 in 10 that the risky play will work. The chances are 3 in 10 that the risky play will work. The chances are 1 in 10 that the risky play will work. 3. Ms. K is a successful businesswoman who has participated in a number of civic activities of considerable value to the community. Ms. K has been approached by the leaders of her political party as a possible congressional candidate in the next election. Ms. Ks party is a minority party in the district, though the party has won occasional elections in the past. Ms. K would like to hold political office, but to do so would involve a serious financial sacrifice, since the party has insufficient campaign funds. She would also have to endure the attacks of her political opponents in a hot campaign. Imagine that you are advising Ms. K. Listed below are several probabilities or odds of Ms. Ks winning the election in her district. Check the lowest probability that you would consider acceptable to make it worthwhile for Ms. K to run for political office. Place a check here if you think that Ms. K should not run for political office no matter what the probabilities. The chances are 9 in 10 that Ms. K will win the election. The chances are 7 in 10 that Ms. K will win the election. The chances are 5 in 10 that Ms. K will win the election. The chances are 3 in 10 that Ms. K will win the election. The chances are 1 in 10 that Ms. K will win the election. 4. Ms. L, a 30-year-old research physicist, has been given a five-year appointment by a major university laboratory. As she contemplates the next five years, she realizes that she might work on a difficult, long-term prob-

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lem that, if a solution could be found, would resolve basic scientific issues in the field and bring high scientific honors. If no solution were found, however, Ms. L would have little to show for her five years in the laboratory and it would be hard for her to get a good job afterward. On the other hand, she could, as most of her professional associates are doing, work on a series of short-term problems for which solutions would be easier to find but that are of lesser scientific importance. Imagine that you are advising Ms. L. Listed below are several probabilities or odds that a solution will be found to the difficult, long-term problem that Ms. L has in mind. Check the lowest probability that you would consider acceptable to make it worthwhile for Ms. L to work on the more difficult long-term problem. The chances are 1 in 10 that Ms. L will solve the long-term problem. The chances are 3 in 10 that Ms. L will solve the long-term problem. The chances are 5 in 10 that Ms. L will solve the long-term problem. The chances are 7 in 10 that Ms. L will solve the long-term problem. The chances are 9 in 10 that Ms. L will solve the long-term problem. Place a check here if you think Ms. L should not choose the long-term, difficult problem, no matter what the probabilities.Source: Adapted from N. Kogan and M.A. Wallach, Risk Taking: A Study in Cognition and Personality (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1964), pp. 256 61. Scoring Key: These situations were based on a longer questionnaire. Your results are an indication of your general orientation toward risk rather than a precise measure. To calculate your risk-taking score, add up the chances you were willing to take and divide by four. For any of the situations in which you would not take the risk regardless of the probabilities, give yourself a 10. The lower your number, the more risk-taking you are.

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Do you know any people who are excessively competitive and always seem to be experiencing a chronic sense of time urgency? If you do, its a good bet that those people have a Type A personality. A person with a Type A personality is aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and, if required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or other persons.60 In the North American culture, such characteristics tend to be highly prized and positively associated with ambition and the successful acquisition of material goods.TYPE A PERSONALITY

Type A personality Aggressive involvement in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time and, if necessary, against the opposing efforts of other things or other people.

T YPE A S1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly Feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place Strive to think or do two or more things at once Cannot cope with leisure time Are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how many or how much of everything they acquire

In contrast to the Type A personality is the Type B, who is exactly opposite. Type Bs are rarely harried by the desire to obtain a wildly increasing number of things or participate in an endless growing series of events in an ever-decreasing amount of time.61

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Increase Your Self-Awareness: Are You a Type A?Instructions: Circle the number on the scale below that best characterizes your behavior for each trait. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Casual about appointments Not competitive Never feel rushed Take things one at a time Slow doing things Express feelings Many interests 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 Never late Very competitive Always feel rushed Try to do many things at once Fast (eating, walking, etc.) Sit on feelings Few interests outside work

Source: Adapted from R.W. Bortner, Short Rating Scale as a Potential Measure of Pattern A Behavior, Journal of Chronic Diseases, June 1969, pp. 87 91. With permission. Scoring Key: Total your score on the seven questions. Now multiple the total by 3. A total of 120 or more indicates that you are a hard-core Type A. Scores below 90 indicate that you are a hard-core Type B. The following gives you more specifics:

Points 120 or more 106 119 100 105 90 99 Less than 90

Personality Type A A A B B

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T YPE B S1. Never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience 2. Feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments unless such exposure is demanded by the situation 3. Play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any cost 4. Can relax without guilt

Type As operate under moderate to high levels of stress. They subject themselves to more or less continuous time pressure, creating for themselves a life of deadlines. These characteristics result in some rather specific behavioral outcomes. For example, Type As are fast workers, because they emphasize quantity over quality. In managerial positions, Type As demonstrate their competitiveness by working long hours and, not infrequently, making poor decisions because they make them too fast. Type As are also rarely creative. Because of their concern with quantity and speed, they rely on past experiences when faced with problems. They will not allocate the time that is necessary to develop unique solutions to new problems. They rarely vary in their responses to specific challenges in their milieu; hence, their behavior is easier to predict than that of Type Bs.

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Are Type As or Type Bs more successful in organizations? Despite the Type As hard work, the Type Bs are the ones who appear to make it to the top. Great salespersons are usually Type As; senior executives are usually Type Bs. Why? The answer lies in the tendency of Type As to trade off quality effort for quantity. Promotions in corporate and professional organizations usually go to those who are wise rather than to those who are merely hasty, to those who are tactful rather than to those who are hostile, and to those who are creative rather than to those who are merely agile in competitive strife.62

Personality and National CultureThere are certainly no common personality types for a given country. You can, for instance, find high and low risk-takers in almost any culture. Yet a countrys culture should influence the dominant personality characteristics of its population. Lets build this case by looking at two personality attributes locus of control and the Type A personality. There is evidence that cultures differ in terms of peoples relationship to their environment.63 In some cultures, such as those in North America, people believe that they can dominate their environment. People in other societies, such as Middle Eastern countries, believe that life is essentially preordained. Notice the close

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parallel to internal and external locus of control. We should expect a larger proportion of internals in the American and Canadian workforce than in the Saudi Arabian or Iranian workforce. The prevalence of Type A personalities will be somewhat influenced by the culture in which a person grows up. There are Type As in every country, but there will be more in capitalistic countries, where achievement and material success are highly valued. For instance, it is estimated that about 50 percent of the North American population is Type A.64 This percentage shouldnt be too surprising. The United States and Canada both have a high emphasis on time management and efficiency. Both have cultures that stress accomplishments and acquisition of money and material goods. In cultures such as Sweden and France, where materialism is less revered, we would predict a smaller proportion of Type A personalities.

Matching Personalities and JobsIn the discussion of personality attributes, our conclusions were often qualified to recognize that the requirements of the job moderated the relationship between possession of the personality characteristic and job performance. This concern with matching the job requirements with personality characteristics is best articulated in

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Exhibit 2-5

Hollands Typology of Personality and Congruent Occupations

Type

Personality Characteristics Shy, genuine, persistent, stable, conforming, practical Analytical, original, curious, independent Sociable, friendly, cooperative, understanding Conforming, efficient, practical, unimaginative, inflexible Self-confident, ambitious, energetic, domineering

Congruent Occupations Mechanic, drill press operator, assembly line worker, farmer Biologist, economist, mathematician, news reporter Social worker, teacher, counselor, clinical psychologist Accountant, corporate manager, bank teller, file clerk Lawyer, real estate agent, public relations specialist, small business manager Painter, musician, writer, interior decorator

Realistic: Prefers physicalactivities that require skill, strength, and coordination Investigative: Prefers activities that involve thinking, organizing, and understanding Social: Prefers activities that involve helping and developing others Conventional: Prefers rule-regulated, orderly, and unambiguous activities Enterprising: Prefers verbal activities where there are opportunities to influence others and attain power Artistic: Prefers ambiguous and unsystematic activities that allow creative expression

Imaginative, disorderly, idealistic, emotional, impractical

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John Hollands personality job fit theory.65 The theory is based on the notion of fit between an individuals personality characteristics and his or her occupational environment. Holland presents six personality types and proposes that satisfaction and the propensity to leave a job depend on the degree to which individuals successfully match their personalities to an occupational environment. Each one of the six personality types has a congruent occupational environment. Exhibit 2-5 describes the six types and their personality characteristics and gives examples of congruent occupations. Holland has developed a Vocational Preference Inventory questionnaire that contains 160 occupational titles. Respondents indicate which of these occupations they like or dislike, and their answers are used to form personality profiles. Using this procedure, research strongly supports the hexagonal diagram in Exhibit 2-6. 66 This figure shows that the closer two fields or orientations are in the hexagon, the more compatible they are. Adjacent categories are quite similar, whereas those diagonally opposite are highly dissimilar. What does all this mean? The theory argues that satisfaction is highest and turnover lowest when personality and occupation are in agreement. Social individuals should be in social jobs, conventional people in conventional jobs, and so forth. A realistic personQuit Chapter Start Contents Video Chapter End Web Site

personalityjob fit theory Identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover.

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Exhibit 2-6 Relationships Among Occupational Personality Types

ic list ea ) R (R

Inv

est (I)

iga

tive

Conventional (C)

Source: J.L Holland, Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of Vocational Personalities and Work Environments, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1985). Used by permission. The model originally appeared in J.L. Holland et al., An Empirical Occupational Classification Derived from a Theory of Personality and Research, ACT Research, Report No. 29 (Iowa City: The American College Testing Program, 1969).

Artistic (A)

En

ter

pri (E) sing

ial oc S (S)

in a realistic job is in a more congruent situation than is a realistic person in an investigative job. A realistic person in a social job is in the most incongruent situation possible. The key points of this model are that (1) there do appear to be intrinsic differences in perQuit Chapter Start Contents Video Chapter End Web Site

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sonality among individuals, (2) there are different types of jobs, and (3) people in job environments congruent with their personality types should be more satisfied and less likely to voluntarily resign than should people in incongruent jobs.

LearningThe last topic we will introduce in this chapter is learning. It is included for the obvious reason that almost all complex behavior is learned. If we want to explain and predict behavior, we need to understand how people learn.

A Definition of LearningWhat is learning? A psychologists definition is considerably broader than the laypersons view that its what we did when we went to school. In actuality, each of us is continuously going to school. Learning occurs all of the time. A generally accepted definition of learning is, therefore, any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. Ironically, we can say that changes in behavior indicate that learning has taken place and that learning is a change in behavior. Obviously, the foregoing definition suggests that we shall never see someone learning. We can see changes taking place but notlearning Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.

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the learning itself. The concept is theoretical and, hence, not directly observable:You have seen people in the process of learning, you have seen people who behave in a particular way as a result of learning and some of you (in fact, I guess the majority of you) have learned at some time in your life. In other words, we infer that learning has taken place if an individual behaves, reacts, responds as a result of experience in a manner different from the way he formerly behaved.67

Our definition has several components that deserve clarification. First, learning involves change. Change may be good or bad from an organizational point of view. People can learn unfavorable behaviors to hold prejudices or to restrict their output, for example as well as favorable behaviors. x Learning involves Second, the change must be relatively permanent. Tempochange. rary changes may be only reflexive and fail to represent any learning. Therefore, the requirement that learning must be relatively permanent rules out behavioral changes caused by fatigue or temporary adaptations. Third, our definition is concerned with behavior. Learning takes place when there is a change in actions. A change in an individuals thought processes or attitudes, if accompanied by no change in behavior, would not be learning. Finally, some form of experience is necessary for learning. Experience mayQuit Chapter Start Contents Video Chapter End Web Site

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be acquired directly through observation or practice, or it may be acquired indirectly, as through reading. The crucial test still remains: Does this experience result in a relatively permanent change in behavior? If the answer is Yes, we can say that learning has taken place.

Theories of LearningHow do we learn? Three theories have been offered to explain the process by which we acquire patterns of behavior. These are classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. Classical conditioning grew out of experiments to teach dogs to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell, conducted at the turn of the century by a Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov.68 A simple surgical procedure allowed Pavlov to measure accurately the amount of saliva secreted by a dog. When Pavlov presented the dog with a piece of meat, the dog exhibited a noticeable increase in salivation. When Pavlov withheld the presentation of meat and merely rang a bell, the dog did not salivate. Then Pavlov proceeded to link the meat and the ringing of the bell. After repeatedly hearing the bell before getting the food, the dog began to salivate as soon as the bell rang. After