Chapter 18 The four major victors against Napoleon gathered in Vienna in 1814, as did representatives of almost every European state, to consolidate their.

Chapter 18

• The four major victors against Napoleon gathered in Vienna in 1814, as did representatives of almost every European state, to consolidate their victory with a treaty imposing their vision of order on Europe as a whole.

The Congress of Vienna: A Gathering of Victors

– The Victors• Great Britain, Russia, and Austria set peace terms with

France in April, and dominated the congress

– Legitimacy and Stability• Legitimacy – territories should once more be placed under

the control of the old ruling houses of the traditional order• Stability – establishing and maintaining a balance of power

within Europe, with particular focus on restraining France

– Territorial Arrangements• The powers established strong buffer states along France’s

borders• The four main powers took new territories

The Congress of Vienna: A Gathering of Victors

• The Concert of Europe: Securing the Vienna Settlement– The Holy Alliance

• Conceived by Alexander I to establish and safeguard the principles of Christianity included Russia, Austria, and Prussia

– The Concert of Europe• Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain created

this military alliance in November 1815 to guarantee the Vienna settlement

Chapter 18

• As aristocrats and traditional leaders attempted to preserve their conservative worldview, new ideologies exploring the repercussions of the French Revolution and Industrial Revolution emerged to challenge them in Europe.

Ideologies: How the World Should Be

• Conservatism: Restoring the Traditional Order– Burke

• He argued monarchy, nobility, and the church should be preserved and they were the best hopes for preserving order

– de Maistre and de Bonald• Attacked everything about the French Revolution and

Enlightenment as contrary to religion, order, and civilization

– Appeal of Conservatism• Epitomized by Metternich’s policies, the Holy Alliance, and

the Concert of Europe

• Liberalism: Individual Freedom and Political Reform

Ideologies: How the World Should Be

– Sources of Liberalism• The Enlightenment and the theories of John Locke, political

thinkers such as Montesquieu, and the French and American Revolutions

– Smith• The Wealth of Nations argued that economics had its own

natural laws– Malthus and Ricardo

• Argued that popluation would always increase more than food supplies, resulting in poverty and death by wars, disease, epidemics, plague, and famine

• Iron law of wages– Bentham

utilitarianism – all activities and policies should be judged by the standard of usefulness

Ideologies: How the World Should Be

– Mill• Arguing for major social programs to protect workers and

even the right to vote for women

• Nationalism: A Common Identity and National Liberation– The French Revolution

• Revolution transformed the kingdom into a nation– Cultural Nationalism

• Organizations and intellectuals created interest in national languages, folk culture, and elevated myths to national histories

– Sense of Community• Nationalism offered a sense of strength and unity

Ideologies: How the World Should Be

– National Liberation and Unification• Nationalism acquired attributes of a religion and became a

powerful political force

• Romanticism: Freedom, Instinct, and Spontaneity– Rousseau

• Stressed feeling, instinct, emotions, and love of nature

– “Storm and Stress” Literature• Writers gave weight to inner feelings fully experienced and

expressed by sensitive individuals

– Reviving the Middle Ages• Romantics expressed a new interest in the Middle Ages

Ideologies: How the World Should Be

– History• History was literary and exciting, featuring heroic individuals,

great accomplishments, and national struggles

– Christianity• According to romantic theologians, the important part of

religion was the feeling of dependence on an infinite God rather than religious dogma or institutions

– Literature• William Wordsworth• Samuel Taylor Coleridge

– Art• Leading romantic painters stressed emotional images• Karl Friedrich Schinkel

Ideologies: How the World Should Be

– Music• The music overflowed the bounds of classic forms, becoming

freer, more individualistic, and emotional

– Connections to Nationalism• Works brought together romantic and nationalistic themes

– Connections to Liberalism• Romanticism attracted liberal and revolutionary spirits• Many romantic writers and artists sided with liberal causes

– Connections to Conservatism• Certain dimensions of romanticism appealed to

conservatives especially the return to the past, the emphasis on Christianity, and the stand against the rationalism of the Enlightenment

Ideologies: How the World Should Be

• Early Socialism: Ending Competition and Inequities– Utopian Socialists

• Intellectuals contended that society should be based on cooperation rather than competitive individualism and that property should be owned communally

– Saint-Simon• “from each according to his capacity, to each according to

his desserts”– Fourier

• Advocated doing away with economic competition– Owen

• Early in the nineteenth century, he set out to make a model community

Ideologies: How the World Should Be

– Tristan• When Tristan’s abusive husband was awarded their children

after a martial separation, she fought back

• “Scientific Socialism”: Karl Marx and the Communist Manifesto– Economic Interest

• Marx argued that economic interest, more than anything else, drove human behavior

– Class Struggle• Divided into the “haves” and the “have-nots”• The haves owned the means of economic production and

controlled the state• The have-nots were the exploited laborers

Ideologies: How the World Should Be

– Industrial Capitalism• The capitalists exploited workers by paying them

only subsistence wages rather than compensating them for the true value created by their work

– Socialist Society• The elimination of capitalism would end the

division of society into classes• All people would lead more varied, cooperative,

creative lives

– Appeal of Socialism• It attracted intellectuals, students, and workers

Chapter 18

• After 1815, the forces representing conservatism, liberalism, and nationalism struggled for influence in Europe; for the time being, conservatism prevailed in domestic and international politics.

Restoration and Repression

• The Return of the Bourbons in France– Louis XVII

• The brother of the guillotined Louis XVI was placed on the throne as Louis XVIII

– Charles X• He followed more conservative policies that favored the old

aristocracy and the Catholic Church

• Reaction and Repression in the German States– Metternich

• Used all means police, spies, censorship, and travel restrictions to ensure the status quo

– Carlsbad Decrees• Metternich called the princes of the leading German states to

Carlsbad and had them draw up a set of harsh decrees

Restoration and Repression

– Prussia• The conservative, militaristic Hohenzollern kings reigned• The Junkers served as officers in the Prussian army and

filled the key posts in the civil service and administration

• Restoration in Italy• Conservatism in Russia• Holding the Line in Great Britain

– Peterloo Massacre• In 1819 troops charged on a crowd that had assembled in St.

Peter’s Fields, outside Manchester, to listen to reform speeches

• A number were killed and hundreds injured

Chapter 18

– Ireland• In the 1801 Act of Union, Britain formally absorbed

Ireland into the United Kingdom

• In Spite of the conservative effort to maintain order, demands for political participation spread; in some places revolution or revolts broke out, while in others, people gained major reforms.

A Wave of Revolution and Reform

• The Greek War for Independence• Liberal Triumphs in Western Europe

– The July Revolution in France• In July 1830, Liberals in Paris joined with workers outraged

by rising food prices• After three days of haphazard fighting, the insurgents gained

the upper hand– Revolution in Belgium

• The union forced on Belgium and the Netherlands at Vienna had never been a happy one

• National liberation combined with tensions over high food prices fueled a revolt in August 1830

– Switzerland and Spain

A Wave of Revolution and Reform

• Testing Authority in Eastern and Southern Europe– Poland

• In November 1830, a Polish nationalistic movement led by students and army cadets tried to end Russian rule

– Italy• Carbonari – charcoal burners• In 1831, liberal and nationalist revolutions broke out in

central Italy

• Liberal Demands in Great Britain– Reform Bill of 1832

• It lowered property qualifications and redistributed electoral districts

A Wave of Revolution and Reform

– Antislavery• In 1833, Parliament abolished slavery in Britain’s colonies

– Economic and Social Reforms• New laws aimed to ease some of the disturbing harshness of

industrial employment

– Corn Laws• Imposed tariffs on grain imports• In 1846, the repeal of the Corn Laws

– Irish Famine• In 1845, a new, unknown fungus attacked potato plants,

ruining the crop• The crops failed year after year

A Wave of Revolution and Reform

C. 1835 CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH

THE STAGES OF LIFE

– Chartism• In 1838, The People’s Charter

called for universal male suffrage,

election by secret ballot, and the

removal of property qualifications

for office

• The Dam Bursts:

1848

A Wave of Revolution and Reform

• The “Glory Days”– France

• In Paris, more than 40 percent of the workforce were without a job

– National Workshops• Laborers were assigned to hastily arranged projects• Surplus workers were paid almost as much as the employed

ones to remain idle

– Austria• After news of the Paris events arrived in Vienna, Austrian

students, middle class reformers, and workers charged into the streets, clamoring for an end to Metternich’s system

A Wave of Revolution and Reform

– Hungary• The Magyars demanded national autonomy from Austria

– Prussia• Middle-class liberals and artisans demonstrating in the

streets of Berlin

– Frankfurt assembly• A popularly elected assembly representing all German states

to meet at Frankfurt to construct a liberal German nation

– Italy• Several states established new constitutions

• The Return to Order

A Wave of Revolution and Reform

– June Days in France• For four days, war raged in the streets of Paris

between the working class, armed with National Guard rifles, and the regular army

– Austria and Hungary• The revolutionaries’ inexperience gave the

Habsburgs the upper hand

– Prussia• The revolutionaries proved no match for the king’s

forces

• What Happened?

A Wave of Revolution and Reform

– Internal Divisions• After revolutionary forces gained power, the interests of the

various groups proved too divergent for the alliances to endure

– Holding Power: Liberalism VS. Nationalism• Liberal and nationalistic forces worked best together when

out of power; in power, they often stood at cross-purposes– Conservatism

• With industrialization just beginning to emerge in central Europe, the middle and working classes were still weak

– Force• The leaders of the forces of order marshaled their resources,

drew on their own armies and those of allies, and overcame the divided revolutionary forces