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After studying this chapter, you should be able to:– Characterize the nature of motivation, including its
importance and basic historical perspectives.– Identify and describe the major content perspectives on
motivation.– Identify and describe the major process perspectives on
motivation.– Describe reinforcement perspectives on motivation.– Identify and describe popular motivational strategies.– Describe the role of organizational reward systems in
motivation.
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:– Characterize the nature of motivation, including its
importance and basic historical perspectives.– Identify and describe the major content perspectives on
motivation.– Identify and describe the major process perspectives on
motivation.– Describe reinforcement perspectives on motivation.– Identify and describe popular motivational strategies.– Describe the role of organizational reward systems in
The motivation processes through a series of discreet steps. Content, process, and reinforcement perspectives on motivation address different parts of this process.
Historical Perspectives on Historical Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)Motivation (cont’d)
• The Human Resource Approach– Assumptions:
• Employee contributions are important and valuable to the employee Employee contributions are important and valuable to the employee and the organization.and the organization.
• Employees want to and are able to make genuine contributions.Employees want to and are able to make genuine contributions.
• Management’s job is to encourage participation Management’s job is to encourage participation and create a work environment that and create a work environment that motivates employees. motivates employees.
• The Human Resource Approach– Assumptions:
• Employee contributions are important and valuable to the employee Employee contributions are important and valuable to the employee and the organization.and the organization.
• Employees want to and are able to make genuine contributions.Employees want to and are able to make genuine contributions.
• Management’s job is to encourage participation Management’s job is to encourage participation and create a work environment that and create a work environment that motivates employees. motivates employees.
Content Perspectives on Motivation Content Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)
• The Need Hierarchy Approach– Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• People must, in a hierarchical order, satisfy five groups of needs:People must, in a hierarchical order, satisfy five groups of needs:– Physiological needs for basic survival and biological function.– Security needs for a safe physical and emotional environment.– Belongingness needs for love and affection.– Esteem needs for positive self-image/self-respect and recognition
and respect from others.– Self-actualization needs for realizing one’s potential for personal
growth and development.
– Weakness of Maslow’s theory• Five levels of need are not always present.Five levels of need are not always present.• Ordering or importance of needs is not always the same.Ordering or importance of needs is not always the same.• Cultural differences.Cultural differences.
• The Need Hierarchy Approach– Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• People must, in a hierarchical order, satisfy five groups of needs:People must, in a hierarchical order, satisfy five groups of needs:– Physiological needs for basic survival and biological function.– Security needs for a safe physical and emotional environment.– Belongingness needs for love and affection.– Esteem needs for positive self-image/self-respect and recognition
and respect from others.– Self-actualization needs for realizing one’s potential for personal
growth and development.
– Weakness of Maslow’s theory• Five levels of need are not always present.Five levels of need are not always present.• Ordering or importance of needs is not always the same.Ordering or importance of needs is not always the same.• Cultural differences.Cultural differences.
Content Perspectives on Motivation Content Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)
• The ERG Theory (Alderfer)– People’s needs are grouped into three overlapping
categories—existence, relatedness, and growth.– Maslow’s hierarchy is collapsed into three levels:
• Existence needsExistence needs related to physiological and security needs. related to physiological and security needs.
• Relatedness needsRelatedness needs that are similar to belongingness and esteem by that are similar to belongingness and esteem by others.others.
• Growth needsGrowth needs encompass needs for self-esteem and self- encompass needs for self-esteem and self-actualization.actualization.
– ERG theory assumes that:• Multiple needs can be operative at one time (there is no absolute Multiple needs can be operative at one time (there is no absolute
hierarchy of needs).hierarchy of needs).
• If a need is unsatisfied, a person will regress to a lower-level need and If a need is unsatisfied, a person will regress to a lower-level need and pursue that need (pursue that need (frustration-regressionfrustration-regression).).
• The ERG Theory (Alderfer)– People’s needs are grouped into three overlapping
categories—existence, relatedness, and growth.– Maslow’s hierarchy is collapsed into three levels:
• Existence needsExistence needs related to physiological and security needs. related to physiological and security needs.
• Relatedness needsRelatedness needs that are similar to belongingness and esteem by that are similar to belongingness and esteem by others.others.
• Growth needsGrowth needs encompass needs for self-esteem and self- encompass needs for self-esteem and self-actualization.actualization.
– ERG theory assumes that:• Multiple needs can be operative at one time (there is no absolute Multiple needs can be operative at one time (there is no absolute
hierarchy of needs).hierarchy of needs).
• If a need is unsatisfied, a person will regress to a lower-level need and If a need is unsatisfied, a person will regress to a lower-level need and pursue that need (pursue that need (frustration-regressionfrustration-regression).).
Content Perspectives on Motivation Content Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)
• The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)– People’s satisfaction and dissatisfaction are influenced by
two independent sets of factors—motivation factors and hygiene factors.
– Theory assumes that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are on two distinct continuums:• Motivational factorsMotivational factors (work content) are on a continuum that ranges (work content) are on a continuum that ranges
from satisfaction to no satisfaction.from satisfaction to no satisfaction.
• Hygiene factorsHygiene factors (work environment) are on a separate continuum (work environment) are on a separate continuum that ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.that ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.
• Motivation is a two-step process:Motivation is a two-step process:– Ensuring that the hygiene factors are not deficient and not blocking
motivation.
– Giving employees the opportunity to experience motivational factors through job enrichment.
• The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)– People’s satisfaction and dissatisfaction are influenced by
two independent sets of factors—motivation factors and hygiene factors.
– Theory assumes that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are on two distinct continuums:• Motivational factorsMotivational factors (work content) are on a continuum that ranges (work content) are on a continuum that ranges
from satisfaction to no satisfaction.from satisfaction to no satisfaction.
• Hygiene factorsHygiene factors (work environment) are on a separate continuum (work environment) are on a separate continuum that ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.that ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.
• Motivation is a two-step process:Motivation is a two-step process:– Ensuring that the hygiene factors are not deficient and not blocking
motivation.
– Giving employees the opportunity to experience motivational factors through job enrichment.
Process Perspectives on Motivation Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)
• Expectancy Theory– Motivation depends on how much we want something and
how likely we are to get it.– Assumes that:
• Behavior is determined by a combination of personal and Behavior is determined by a combination of personal and environmental forces.environmental forces.
• People make decisions about their own behavior in organizations.People make decisions about their own behavior in organizations.
• Different people have different types of needs, desires, and goals.Different people have different types of needs, desires, and goals.
• People choose among alternatives of behaviors in selecting one that People choose among alternatives of behaviors in selecting one that that leads to a desired outcome.that leads to a desired outcome.
• Motivation leads to effort, when combined with ability and Motivation leads to effort, when combined with ability and environmental factors, that results in performance which, in turn, environmental factors, that results in performance which, in turn, leads to various outcomes that have value (leads to various outcomes that have value (valencevalence) to employees.) to employees.
• Expectancy Theory– Motivation depends on how much we want something and
how likely we are to get it.– Assumes that:
• Behavior is determined by a combination of personal and Behavior is determined by a combination of personal and environmental forces.environmental forces.
• People make decisions about their own behavior in organizations.People make decisions about their own behavior in organizations.
• Different people have different types of needs, desires, and goals.Different people have different types of needs, desires, and goals.
• People choose among alternatives of behaviors in selecting one that People choose among alternatives of behaviors in selecting one that that leads to a desired outcome.that leads to a desired outcome.
• Motivation leads to effort, when combined with ability and Motivation leads to effort, when combined with ability and environmental factors, that results in performance which, in turn, environmental factors, that results in performance which, in turn, leads to various outcomes that have value (leads to various outcomes that have value (valencevalence) to employees.) to employees.
Process Perspectives on Motivation Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)
• Elements of Expectancy Theory– Effort-to-Performance Expectancy
• The employee’s perception of the probability that effort will lead to a The employee’s perception of the probability that effort will lead to a high level of performance.high level of performance.
– Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy• The employee’s perception of the probability The employee’s perception of the probability
that performance will lead to a specific that performance will lead to a specific outcomeoutcome——the consequence or reward the consequence or reward for behaviors in an organizational for behaviors in an organizational setting.setting.
• Elements of Expectancy Theory– Effort-to-Performance Expectancy
• The employee’s perception of the probability that effort will lead to a The employee’s perception of the probability that effort will lead to a high level of performance.high level of performance.
– Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy• The employee’s perception of the probability The employee’s perception of the probability
that performance will lead to a specific that performance will lead to a specific outcomeoutcome——the consequence or reward the consequence or reward for behaviors in an organizational for behaviors in an organizational setting.setting.
Process Perspectives on Motivation Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)
• Elements of Expectancy Theory (cont’d)– Valence
• An index of how much an individual values a particular outcome.An index of how much an individual values a particular outcome.
• It is the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.It is the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.– Attractive outcomes have positive valences and unattractive
outcomes have negative valences.
– Outcomes to which an individual is indifferent have zero valences.
– For motivated behavior to occur:• Both effort-to-performance expectancy and performance-to-outcome Both effort-to-performance expectancy and performance-to-outcome
expectancy probabilities must be greater than zero.expectancy probabilities must be greater than zero.
• The sum of the valences must be greater than zero.The sum of the valences must be greater than zero.
• Elements of Expectancy Theory (cont’d)– Valence
• An index of how much an individual values a particular outcome.An index of how much an individual values a particular outcome.
• It is the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.It is the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.– Attractive outcomes have positive valences and unattractive
outcomes have negative valences.
– Outcomes to which an individual is indifferent have zero valences.
– For motivated behavior to occur:• Both effort-to-performance expectancy and performance-to-outcome Both effort-to-performance expectancy and performance-to-outcome
expectancy probabilities must be greater than zero.expectancy probabilities must be greater than zero.
• The sum of the valences must be greater than zero.The sum of the valences must be greater than zero.
Process Perspectives on Motivation Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)
• The Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory– Assumptions:
• If performance in an organization results in equitable and fair If performance in an organization results in equitable and fair rewards, people will be more satisfied.rewards, people will be more satisfied.
• High performance can lead to rewards and high satisfaction.High performance can lead to rewards and high satisfaction.
– Types of rewards:• Extrinsic rewards are outcomes set and awarded by external parties Extrinsic rewards are outcomes set and awarded by external parties
(e.g., (e.g., pay and promotions).pay and promotions).
• Intrinsic rewards are outcomes that are internal to the individual (e.g., Intrinsic rewards are outcomes that are internal to the individual (e.g., self-esteem and feelings of accomplishment).self-esteem and feelings of accomplishment).
• The Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory– Assumptions:
• If performance in an organization results in equitable and fair If performance in an organization results in equitable and fair rewards, people will be more satisfied.rewards, people will be more satisfied.
• High performance can lead to rewards and high satisfaction.High performance can lead to rewards and high satisfaction.
– Types of rewards:• Extrinsic rewards are outcomes set and awarded by external parties Extrinsic rewards are outcomes set and awarded by external parties
(e.g., (e.g., pay and promotions).pay and promotions).
• Intrinsic rewards are outcomes that are internal to the individual (e.g., Intrinsic rewards are outcomes that are internal to the individual (e.g., self-esteem and feelings of accomplishment).self-esteem and feelings of accomplishment).
• Reinforcement Theory– The role of rewards as they cause behavior to change or
remain the same over time.– Assumes that:
• Behavior that results in rewarding consequences is likely to be Behavior that results in rewarding consequences is likely to be repeated, whereas behavior that results in punishing consequences is repeated, whereas behavior that results in punishing consequences is less likely to be repeated.less likely to be repeated.
• Reinforcement Theory– The role of rewards as they cause behavior to change or
remain the same over time.– Assumes that:
• Behavior that results in rewarding consequences is likely to be Behavior that results in rewarding consequences is likely to be repeated, whereas behavior that results in punishing consequences is repeated, whereas behavior that results in punishing consequences is less likely to be repeated.less likely to be repeated.
Reinforcement Perspectives on Reinforcement Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)Motivation (cont’d)
• Kinds of Reinforcement in Organizations– Positive reinforcement
• Strengthens behavior with rewards or positive outcomes after a Strengthens behavior with rewards or positive outcomes after a desired behavior is performed.desired behavior is performed.
– Avoidance • Strengthens behavior by avoiding unpleasant consequences that Strengthens behavior by avoiding unpleasant consequences that
would result if the behavior is not performed.would result if the behavior is not performed.
– Punishment• Weakens undesired behavior by using negative outcomes or Weakens undesired behavior by using negative outcomes or
unpleasant consequences when the behavior is performed.unpleasant consequences when the behavior is performed.
– Extinction• Weakens undesired behavior by simply ignoring or not reinforcing Weakens undesired behavior by simply ignoring or not reinforcing
that behavior.that behavior.
• Kinds of Reinforcement in Organizations– Positive reinforcement
• Strengthens behavior with rewards or positive outcomes after a Strengthens behavior with rewards or positive outcomes after a desired behavior is performed.desired behavior is performed.
– Avoidance • Strengthens behavior by avoiding unpleasant consequences that Strengthens behavior by avoiding unpleasant consequences that
would result if the behavior is not performed.would result if the behavior is not performed.
– Punishment• Weakens undesired behavior by using negative outcomes or Weakens undesired behavior by using negative outcomes or
unpleasant consequences when the behavior is performed.unpleasant consequences when the behavior is performed.
– Extinction• Weakens undesired behavior by simply ignoring or not reinforcing Weakens undesired behavior by simply ignoring or not reinforcing
Reinforcement Perspectives on Reinforcement Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)Motivation (cont’d)
• Providing Reinforcement in Organizations– Reinforcement schedules
• Fixed interval scheduleFixed interval schedule——reinforcement applied at fixed time reinforcement applied at fixed time intervals, regardless of behavior.intervals, regardless of behavior.
• Variable intervalVariable interval—r—reinforcement applied at variable time intervals.einforcement applied at variable time intervals.
• Fixed ratioFixed ratio —r—reinforcement applied after a fixed number of einforcement applied after a fixed number of behaviors, regardless of time.behaviors, regardless of time.
• Variable RatioVariable Ratio—r—reinforcement applied after a variable number of einforcement applied after a variable number of behaviors, regardless of time.behaviors, regardless of time.
– Behavior modification (OB mod)• A method for applying the basic elements of reinforcement theory in A method for applying the basic elements of reinforcement theory in
an organizational setting.an organizational setting.
• Specific behaviors are tied to specific forms of reinforcement.Specific behaviors are tied to specific forms of reinforcement.
• Providing Reinforcement in Organizations– Reinforcement schedules
• Fixed interval scheduleFixed interval schedule——reinforcement applied at fixed time reinforcement applied at fixed time intervals, regardless of behavior.intervals, regardless of behavior.
• Variable intervalVariable interval—r—reinforcement applied at variable time intervals.einforcement applied at variable time intervals.
• Fixed ratioFixed ratio —r—reinforcement applied after a fixed number of einforcement applied after a fixed number of behaviors, regardless of time.behaviors, regardless of time.
• Variable RatioVariable Ratio—r—reinforcement applied after a variable number of einforcement applied after a variable number of behaviors, regardless of time.behaviors, regardless of time.
– Behavior modification (OB mod)• A method for applying the basic elements of reinforcement theory in A method for applying the basic elements of reinforcement theory in
an organizational setting.an organizational setting.
• Specific behaviors are tied to specific forms of reinforcement.Specific behaviors are tied to specific forms of reinforcement.
Popular Motivational StrategiesPopular Motivational Strategies
• Empowerment and Participation– Empowerment
• The process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make The process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of influence. decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of influence.
– Participation• The process of giving employees a voice in making decisions about The process of giving employees a voice in making decisions about
their work.their work.
– Areas of Participation for Employees• Making decisions about their jobs.Making decisions about their jobs.
• Decisions about administrative matters (e.g., work schedules).Decisions about administrative matters (e.g., work schedules).
• Participating in decision making about broader issues of product Participating in decision making about broader issues of product quality.quality.
• Empowerment and Participation– Empowerment
• The process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make The process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of influence. decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of influence.
– Participation• The process of giving employees a voice in making decisions about The process of giving employees a voice in making decisions about
their work.their work.
– Areas of Participation for Employees• Making decisions about their jobs.Making decisions about their jobs.
• Decisions about administrative matters (e.g., work schedules).Decisions about administrative matters (e.g., work schedules).
• Participating in decision making about broader issues of product Participating in decision making about broader issues of product quality.quality.
Popular Motivational Strategies Popular Motivational Strategies (cont’d)(cont’d)
• Techniques and Issues in Empowerment– Using work teams
• Collections of employees empowered to plan, organize, direct, and Collections of employees empowered to plan, organize, direct, and control their work.control their work.
– Changing the overall method of organizing the firm by becoming more decentralized.
– Conditions necessary for empowerment:• Organization must be sincere about spreading power to lower levels.Organization must be sincere about spreading power to lower levels.
• Organization must be committed to empowering workers.Organization must be committed to empowering workers.
• Organization must be systematic and patient in its efforts to empower Organization must be systematic and patient in its efforts to empower workers.workers.
• Organization must be prepared to increase its commitment to training.Organization must be prepared to increase its commitment to training.
• Techniques and Issues in Empowerment– Using work teams
• Collections of employees empowered to plan, organize, direct, and Collections of employees empowered to plan, organize, direct, and control their work.control their work.
– Changing the overall method of organizing the firm by becoming more decentralized.
– Conditions necessary for empowerment:• Organization must be sincere about spreading power to lower levels.Organization must be sincere about spreading power to lower levels.
• Organization must be committed to empowering workers.Organization must be committed to empowering workers.
• Organization must be systematic and patient in its efforts to empower Organization must be systematic and patient in its efforts to empower workers.workers.
• Organization must be prepared to increase its commitment to training.Organization must be prepared to increase its commitment to training.
Popular Motivational Strategies Popular Motivational Strategies (cont’d)(cont’d)
• New Forms of Working Arrangements– Variable Work Schedules
• Compressed work scheduleCompressed work schedule—W—Working a full forty-hour week in less orking a full forty-hour week in less than five days.than five days.
• Flexible work schedules (flextime)Flexible work schedules (flextime)—Allowing employees to select, —Allowing employees to select, within broad parameters, the hours they will work.within broad parameters, the hours they will work.
• Job sharingJob sharing—When two part-time employees share one full-time job.—When two part-time employees share one full-time job.
• TelecommutingTelecommuting—Allowing employees to spend —Allowing employees to spend part of their time working off-site, usuallypart of their time working off-site, usuallyat home, by using e-mail, the Internet, and at home, by using e-mail, the Internet, and other forms of information technology.other forms of information technology.
• New Forms of Working Arrangements– Variable Work Schedules
• Compressed work scheduleCompressed work schedule—W—Working a full forty-hour week in less orking a full forty-hour week in less than five days.than five days.
• Flexible work schedules (flextime)Flexible work schedules (flextime)—Allowing employees to select, —Allowing employees to select, within broad parameters, the hours they will work.within broad parameters, the hours they will work.
• Job sharingJob sharing—When two part-time employees share one full-time job.—When two part-time employees share one full-time job.
• TelecommutingTelecommuting—Allowing employees to spend —Allowing employees to spend part of their time working off-site, usuallypart of their time working off-site, usuallyat home, by using e-mail, the Internet, and at home, by using e-mail, the Internet, and other forms of information technology.other forms of information technology.
Using Reward Systems toUsing Reward Systems toMotivate PerformanceMotivate Performance
• Reward System– The formal and informal mechanisms by which employee
performance is defined, evaluated, and rewarded.
• Effects of Organizational Rewards– Effect of Rewards on Attitudes
• Satisfaction is influenced by how much is received and how much the Satisfaction is influenced by how much is received and how much the person thinks should have been received.person thinks should have been received.
• Satisfaction is affected by comparison with others.Satisfaction is affected by comparison with others.
• The rewards of others are often misperceived.The rewards of others are often misperceived.
• Overall job satisfaction is affected by employee satisfaction with Overall job satisfaction is affected by employee satisfaction with intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.
• Reward System– The formal and informal mechanisms by which employee
performance is defined, evaluated, and rewarded.
• Effects of Organizational Rewards– Effect of Rewards on Attitudes
• Satisfaction is influenced by how much is received and how much the Satisfaction is influenced by how much is received and how much the person thinks should have been received.person thinks should have been received.
• Satisfaction is affected by comparison with others.Satisfaction is affected by comparison with others.
• The rewards of others are often misperceived.The rewards of others are often misperceived.
• Overall job satisfaction is affected by employee satisfaction with Overall job satisfaction is affected by employee satisfaction with intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.
Using Reward Systems toUsing Reward Systems toMotivate Performance (cont’d)Motivate Performance (cont’d)
• Effects of Organizational Rewards (cont’d)– Effect of Rewards on Behaviors
• Extrinsic rewards affect employee satisfaction and reduce turnover.Extrinsic rewards affect employee satisfaction and reduce turnover.
• Rewards influence patterns of attendance and absenteeism.Rewards influence patterns of attendance and absenteeism.
• Employees tend to work harder for rewards based on performance.Employees tend to work harder for rewards based on performance.
– Effect of Rewards on Motivation• Employees will work harder when performance will be measured.Employees will work harder when performance will be measured.
• Employees will work harder if Employees will work harder if performance is closely followed performance is closely followed by rewards.by rewards.
• Effects of Organizational Rewards (cont’d)– Effect of Rewards on Behaviors
• Extrinsic rewards affect employee satisfaction and reduce turnover.Extrinsic rewards affect employee satisfaction and reduce turnover.
• Rewards influence patterns of attendance and absenteeism.Rewards influence patterns of attendance and absenteeism.
• Employees tend to work harder for rewards based on performance.Employees tend to work harder for rewards based on performance.
– Effect of Rewards on Motivation• Employees will work harder when performance will be measured.Employees will work harder when performance will be measured.
• Employees will work harder if Employees will work harder if performance is closely followed performance is closely followed by rewards.by rewards.
Using Reward Systems toUsing Reward Systems toMotivate Performance (cont’d)Motivate Performance (cont’d)
• Designing Effective Reward (cont’d)– Reward system must meet an individual’s needs.– Rewards should compare favorably with other organizations.– Distribution of rewards must be perceived to be equitable.– Reward system must recognize different needs.
• New Approaches– Merit system
• A reward system whereby people get different pay raises at the end of A reward system whereby people get different pay raises at the end of the year depending on their overall job performance.the year depending on their overall job performance.
– Incentive system• A reward system whereby people get different pay amounts at each A reward system whereby people get different pay amounts at each
pay period in proportion to what they do.pay period in proportion to what they do.
• Designing Effective Reward (cont’d)– Reward system must meet an individual’s needs.– Rewards should compare favorably with other organizations.– Distribution of rewards must be perceived to be equitable.– Reward system must recognize different needs.
• New Approaches– Merit system
• A reward system whereby people get different pay raises at the end of A reward system whereby people get different pay raises at the end of the year depending on their overall job performance.the year depending on their overall job performance.
– Incentive system• A reward system whereby people get different pay amounts at each A reward system whereby people get different pay amounts at each
pay period in proportion to what they do.pay period in proportion to what they do.