Chapter 11

©2011, Cengage Learning, Brooks/ Col©2011, Cengage Learning, Brooks/ Cole Publishinge Publishing

Becoming an Effective Becoming an Effective Policy AdvocatePolicy Advocate

Bruce Jansson, University of Southern CaliforniaBruce Jansson, University of Southern California

PowerPoint created byPowerPoint created by

Gretchen Heidemann, MSW, PhD CandidateGretchen Heidemann, MSW, PhD Candidate

University of Southern CaliforniaUniversity of Southern California

School of Social WorkSchool of Social Work


Chapter 11Chapter 11Developing Political Strategy And Developing Political Strategy And

Putting It Into Action Putting It Into Action


Developing Political StrategyDeveloping Political Strategy

Developing political strategy is part of Developing political strategy is part of Task #6 (policy-enacting) of the Policy Task #6 (policy-enacting) of the Policy Practice and Advocacy ModelPractice and Advocacy Model

Political strategy: A sequence of actions and verbal exchanges that advocates believe will increase the likelihood that a proposal will be enacted


Establishing Some ObjectivesEstablishing Some Objectives

To develop intelligent strategy, policy To develop intelligent strategy, policy advocates must:advocates must:

1.1. Answer the question: Why am I participating Answer the question: Why am I participating in the political process? in the political process?

2.2. Decide which side they are taking and the Decide which side they are taking and the degree and kind of policy changes they seekdegree and kind of policy changes they seek


Determining a PositionDetermining a Position

Strategists must first decide whether to do Strategists must first decide whether to do the following:the following:– Initiate their own proposal (an affirmative Initiate their own proposal (an affirmative

position)position)– Change others’ proposals (an amending Change others’ proposals (an amending

position)position)– Oppose others’ initiatives (an opposing or Oppose others’ initiatives (an opposing or

blocking position)blocking position)– Assume no role (a bystander position)Assume no role (a bystander position)


Determining a PositionDetermining a Position

These choices commit the strategist to These choices commit the strategist to certain obligations and riskscertain obligations and risks

Strategists’ roles often depend on their Strategists’ roles often depend on their analysis of a proposal’s analysis of a proposal’s prospectsprospects

Policy advocates must select the Policy advocates must select the extentextent of of policy changes they wish to makepolicy changes they wish to make

They also need to select a They also need to select a time frametime frame


Grounding Strategy in Current Grounding Strategy in Current RealitiesRealities

Political strategy must be firmly linked to Political strategy must be firmly linked to existing realities, including: existing realities, including: – Power distributionPower distribution– Contextual factorsContextual factors– Past stancesPast stances– Vested interestsVested interests– Cohesion of likely opponents and proponentsCohesion of likely opponents and proponents– Situational realitiesSituational realities– The settingThe setting


The Power DistributionThe Power Distribution

Force field analysis* can be used to assess the distribution of power in specific situations– List people by name and indicate the strength of their

support or opposition in a diagram (Figure 11.1)

Although useful, it lacks important information:– It does not tell us the relative power of a person to

shape policy on a specific issue– It does not tell us the importance that specific

individuals attach to an issue– It does not tell us to what extent advocates can

mobilize persons who will support a policy initiative*As proposed by Kurt Lewin



Coplin and O’Leary developed an alternative system Coplin and O’Leary developed an alternative system that scores the distribution of that scores the distribution of sentimentsentiment, , saliencesalience, , and and powerpower on specific issues (Table 11.1) on specific issues (Table 11.1)Legislators sometimes use this kind of numeric Legislators sometimes use this kind of numeric analysis to determine the prognosis for pieces of analysis to determine the prognosis for pieces of legislationlegislationIdentifying the important participants, as well as their Identifying the important participants, as well as their sentiment, salience, and power, helps policy sentiment, salience, and power, helps policy practitioners develop strategypractitioners develop strategyAlthough not included in the table, advocates could Although not included in the table, advocates could also use coalitional power, where they augment also use coalitional power, where they augment their power by teaming with otherstheir power by teaming with others



Force field analysis can be useful in:Force field analysis can be useful in:– Gauging support and oppositionGauging support and opposition– Knowing when to take actions that can change the Knowing when to take actions that can change the

positions of participants in policy deliberationpositions of participants in policy deliberation– Estimating the time and political resources required to Estimating the time and political resources required to

get a specific policy enactedget a specific policy enacted

However, it can lead to 2 types of errors:However, it can lead to 2 types of errors:– Refraining from pursuing a proposal that could be Refraining from pursuing a proposal that could be

enactedenacted– Supporting a policy only to find that it cannot be Supporting a policy only to find that it cannot be

enactedenacted


Identifying Contextual FactorsIdentifying Contextual Factors

In addition to knowing a policy’s relative In addition to knowing a policy’s relative support and opposition, we need to know: support and opposition, we need to know: – Why people take certain positionsWhy people take certain positions– How they are likely to act when an issue How they are likely to act when an issue

enters policy deliberationsenters policy deliberations


Past StancesPast Stances

The responses of decision makers, interest The responses of decision makers, interest groups, and the general public to policies groups, and the general public to policies depend on their recollections or accounts of the depend on their recollections or accounts of the prior deliberationsprior deliberations– Deliberations are more likely to be conflictual when an Deliberations are more likely to be conflictual when an

issue has previously been associated with ideological issue has previously been associated with ideological polarizationpolarization

– Skillful policy advocates try to offset the negative Skillful policy advocates try to offset the negative effects of past stances by emphasizing developments effects of past stances by emphasizing developments that now make change more feasiblethat now make change more feasible


Vested InterestsVested Interests

People often base their position on an People often base their position on an issue on their own interestsissue on their own interests

They may support a policy because they They may support a policy because they believe it will enhance their power, believe it will enhance their power, prestige, or resourcesprestige, or resources


Cohesion of Likely Opponents Cohesion of Likely Opponents and Proponentsand Proponents

Our analysis is incomplete if we fail to Our analysis is incomplete if we fail to examine the relationships among examine the relationships among proponents and opponentsproponents and opponents– If proponents are cohesive and opponents If proponents are cohesive and opponents

splintered, proponents will likely winsplintered, proponents will likely win– If leaders with knowledge, commitment, If leaders with knowledge, commitment,

political expertise, and considerable power political expertise, and considerable power support a specific proposal, it is more likely to support a specific proposal, it is more likely to be successfulbe successful


Situational RealitiesSituational Realities

The success of proposals is often influenced by The success of proposals is often influenced by such situational factors as:such situational factors as:– Coming electionsComing elections– The balance of power between the contending partiesThe balance of power between the contending parties– Rivalries among powerful legislators and among Rivalries among powerful legislators and among

members of the two legislative chambersmembers of the two legislative chambers– The budgetThe budget– Changes in leadershipChanges in leadership– Other proposals vying for attentionOther proposals vying for attention– The time remaining in a legislative sessionThe time remaining in a legislative session


Adapting Strategy to the SettingAdapting Strategy to the Setting

Policy practitioners must adapt their tactics Policy practitioners must adapt their tactics to the idiosyncrasies inherent in legislative to the idiosyncrasies inherent in legislative and agency settingsand agency settings– For example, some Congressional For example, some Congressional

committees are accustomed to wide-open committees are accustomed to wide-open conflict between liberals and conservatives conflict between liberals and conservatives

– Others pride themselves on quiet, private Others pride themselves on quiet, private deliberationsdeliberations


Developing Alternative Developing Alternative ScenariosScenarios

Creative strategists consider various what-if Creative strategists consider various what-if scenarios, exploring which actions or statements will scenarios, exploring which actions or statements will help them obtain their policy preferenceshelp them obtain their policy preferencesFor example:For example:– Scenario 1Scenario 1:: Make a singleMake a single presentation to a decision presentation to a decision

maker, suggesting a course of actionmaker, suggesting a course of action– Scenario 2Scenario 2: Couple the presentation with discussions with : Couple the presentation with discussions with

key decision makers to gain support for the proposalkey decision makers to gain support for the proposal– Scenario 3Scenario 3: Create a coalition, cultivate a constituency, : Create a coalition, cultivate a constituency,

couple presentations with many personal discussions, couple presentations with many personal discussions, allocate specific roles and tasks to a range of people, and allocate specific roles and tasks to a range of people, and mix internal pressure with external pressuremix internal pressure with external pressure


Developing Alternative Developing Alternative ScenariosScenarios

Another option is to forego developing a strategy Another option is to forego developing a strategy and and improviseimproviseIn this case, policy advocates seize In this case, policy advocates seize opportunities as they ariseopportunities as they ariseThis can be useful when advocates lack the time This can be useful when advocates lack the time or knowledge of the situation to develop more or knowledge of the situation to develop more refined strategiesrefined strategiesHowever, it does not enable the advocate to However, it does not enable the advocate to mobilize and use power resources mobilize and use power resources systematicallysystematically


Selecting and Revising a Selecting and Revising a StrategyStrategy

The selection of a strategy depends on:The selection of a strategy depends on:– Pragmatic considerationsPragmatic considerations– Stylistic preferencesStylistic preferences

Strategies often need to be revisedStrategies often need to be revised– A proposal might have attracted far greater A proposal might have attracted far greater

support or opposition than anticipatedsupport or opposition than anticipated


Seven Recurring Steps in Seven Recurring Steps in StrategyStrategy

Policy advocates take seven recurring steps Policy advocates take seven recurring steps when they develop strategywhen they develop strategyThe steps are not taken in any particular orderThe steps are not taken in any particular order– Organizing a team or coalition– Establishing policy goals– Specifying a proposal’s content and getting early

sponsors– Establishing a style– Selecting power resources and framing strategy– Implementing strategy– Revising the strategy


Organizing a Team or CoalitionOrganizing a Team or Coalition

Policy advocates need to organize Policy advocates need to organize themselves into a coherent unit in order to:themselves into a coherent unit in order to:– Develop a common strategy Develop a common strategy – Stay united in the face of conflict Stay united in the face of conflict – Give out consistent messagesGive out consistent messages– Implement strategy effectivelyImplement strategy effectively


Establishing Policy GoalsEstablishing Policy Goals

Policy advocates have to establish policy Policy advocates have to establish policy goals within the context that they goals within the context that they encounterencounter– Basic or incremental changeBasic or incremental change– Align with existing advocacy groups and Align with existing advocacy groups and

volunteer to helpvolunteer to help


Specifying a Proposal’s Content and Getting Early Sponsors

Policy advocates have to decide what Policy advocates have to decide what points of a proposal are most important, points of a proposal are most important, and resist efforts to change or delete themand resist efforts to change or delete them– If they are willing to compromise excessively, If they are willing to compromise excessively,

they risk ending up with nothingthey risk ending up with nothing– If they are too rigid or dogmatic, no proposal If they are too rigid or dogmatic, no proposal

at all may be enactedat all may be enacted

They also need to find sponsors who will They also need to find sponsors who will agree to support the proposalagree to support the proposal


Establishing a StyleEstablishing a Style

A strategy needs an overarching styleA strategy needs an overarching style

Examples:Examples:– behind-the-scenes and nonconflictual behind-the-scenes and nonconflictual – conflictual and publicizedconflictual and publicized

The style may change if, for example, a The style may change if, for example, a low-conflict approach is unsuccessfullow-conflict approach is unsuccessful


Selecting Power Resources and Selecting Power Resources and Framing StrategyFraming Strategy

Decisions must be made about who will Decisions must be made about who will use which power resources in which use which power resources in which situationssituationsIf several people are involved in a project, If several people are involved in a project, they may divide the responsibilitiesthey may divide the responsibilitiesDecisions need to be made about whether Decisions need to be made about whether and how to use the Internet to: and how to use the Internet to: – mobilize support mobilize support – influence decision makersinfluence decision makers


Implementing and Revising Implementing and Revising StrategyStrategy

Having devised a strategy, policy Having devised a strategy, policy advocates must implement it skillfullyadvocates must implement it skillfullyThey must use the full range of policy They must use the full range of policy practice skillspractice skillsThey sometimes have to deviate from their They sometimes have to deviate from their planned strategy when circumstances planned strategy when circumstances require improvisationrequire improvisationHolding rigidly to a strategy often imperils Holding rigidly to a strategy often imperils successsuccess


Blocking Ill-Advised Policy Blocking Ill-Advised Policy ProposalsProposals

The The blocking blocking of policies can be as of policies can be as important as initiating themimportant as initiating them– Example: When legislators or heads of Example: When legislators or heads of

government take aim at existing social government take aim at existing social programs, seeking deep cuts in them or even programs, seeking deep cuts in them or even their terminationtheir termination

– Can be done by linking with advocacy groups Can be done by linking with advocacy groups and coalitions, and staging protests and and coalitions, and staging protests and demonstrationsdemonstrations


Strategy in Legislative SettingsStrategy in Legislative Settings

In order to get a specific piece of legislation In order to get a specific piece of legislation enacted, advocates will have to develop an enacted, advocates will have to develop an action system (either alone or with a larger action system (either alone or with a larger coalition or network) that involves:coalition or network) that involves:– Testifying before a legislative committeeTestifying before a legislative committee– Lobbying specific legislators in personLobbying specific legislators in person– Writing a letter to a legislatorWriting a letter to a legislator– Calling a legislator’s office or organizing a phone treeCalling a legislator’s office or organizing a phone tree– Writing a letter to a newspaperWriting a letter to a newspaper– Participating in a demonstrationParticipating in a demonstration– Alerting a legislator to a specific issue or problemAlerting a legislator to a specific issue or problem– Raising funds for a specific projectRaising funds for a specific project


Organizing Legislative Organizing Legislative Advocacy ProjectsAdvocacy Projects

In the legislative arena, policy advocates In the legislative arena, policy advocates will need to organize a legislative will need to organize a legislative advocacy project by:advocacy project by:– Organizing a team or coalitionOrganizing a team or coalition– Establishing policy goalsEstablishing policy goals– Writing a policy briefWriting a policy brief– Establishing a styleEstablishing a style– Selecting power resourcesSelecting power resources– Implementing strategyImplementing strategy



Policy advocates need an organized group Policy advocates need an organized group that will spearhead the drive toward that will spearhead the drive toward enactment of a legislative proposalenactment of a legislative proposalThis group needs leadershipThis group needs leadershipThe team has to create a unified and The team has to create a unified and effective strategyeffective strategy They must identify allies, and should adopt They must identify allies, and should adopt a big-tent philosophya big-tent philosophyThey should compile a resource bookThey should compile a resource book


Establishing Policy Goals in a Establishing Policy Goals in a Legislative ContextLegislative Context

Policy advocates must decide what kinds Policy advocates must decide what kinds of policy changes they seekof policy changes they seek– Develop new legislation or amend existing Develop new legislation or amend existing

legislationlegislation– Modest or ambitious changesModest or ambitious changes– To what extent are they willing to compriseTo what extent are they willing to comprise


Writing a Policy BriefWriting a Policy Brief

Advocates should write a Advocates should write a policy brief, policy brief, which which comprises: comprises: – An analysis of the existing lawAn analysis of the existing law

– The problem or concernThe problem or concern

– How the issue affects other areasHow the issue affects other areas

– An array of possible remedies An array of possible remedies

– An initial proposal that addresses the problemAn initial proposal that addresses the problem

– The likely objections to the proposal (with The likely objections to the proposal (with rebuttals)rebuttals)



Legislative advocates usually have an out-Legislative advocates usually have an out-front, assertive stylefront, assertive style– Personal lobbying, letter writing, and press Personal lobbying, letter writing, and press

coverage are often more effective than coverage are often more effective than demonstrationsdemonstrations

– Yet demonstrations and protests are Yet demonstrations and protests are sometimes essentialsometimes essential

– To be effective, demonstrations and protests To be effective, demonstrations and protests must be supplemented by legislative lobbyingmust be supplemented by legislative lobbying



Policy advocates have to develop a strategy Policy advocates have to develop a strategy book that lays out the tactics for the book that lays out the tactics for the campaigncampaign

It should include:It should include:– Press representationPress representation

– Legislators to be contactedLegislators to be contacted

– A committee to spearhead a letter-writing or e-A committee to spearhead a letter-writing or e-mail campaignmail campaign

– An initial plan for a blitz of the legislatureAn initial plan for a blitz of the legislature


Implementing StrategyImplementing Strategy

Approaching Legislative StaffApproaching Legislative Staff– Advocates usually approach the chief staff person firstAdvocates usually approach the chief staff person first– A condensed version of the policy brief should be A condensed version of the policy brief should be

presentedpresented– Advocates should focus more on the substance of their Advocates should focus more on the substance of their

proposal than on its political meritsproposal than on its political merits– They should be even-tempered but appropriately They should be even-tempered but appropriately

assertive assertive – They must convince the aide that supporting the They must convince the aide that supporting the

proposal will bring the legislator substantial political gainproposal will bring the legislator substantial political gain– If the proposal is supported, advocates will work with a If the proposal is supported, advocates will work with a

legislator’s press aides to develop a press releaselegislator’s press aides to develop a press release



Working with Committee StaffWorking with Committee Staff– Proposals are processed by legislative committeesProposals are processed by legislative committees– Advocates should focus on the actual provisions of a Advocates should focus on the actual provisions of a

proposal with legislative committee membersproposal with legislative committee members– They should brief the committee member, and keep in They should brief the committee member, and keep in

touch with them weekly (maybe more)touch with them weekly (maybe more)– They should also consult with staff members from the They should also consult with staff members from the

opposing partyopposing party– They should seek assistance for proper wording of They should seek assistance for proper wording of

proposed legislationproposed legislation– They should also seek sponsorship for the bill from both They should also seek sponsorship for the bill from both

parties, as well as support from the head of government parties, as well as support from the head of government and director of whichever agency will implement itand director of whichever agency will implement it



Lobbying LegislatorsLobbying Legislators– Advocates Advocates lobby lobby legislators by having personal legislators by having personal

discussions to elicit support for a billdiscussions to elicit support for a bill– Advocates should make an appointment with a legislator’s Advocates should make an appointment with a legislator’s

secretary, and ask that legislative assistants be presentsecretary, and ask that legislative assistants be present– The delegation should include someone from the The delegation should include someone from the

legislator’s home districtlegislator’s home district– They should give the legislator a 1 or 2-page summary of They should give the legislator a 1 or 2-page summary of

their issue and briefly go over its main pointstheir issue and briefly go over its main points– They should present their case succinctly and with They should present their case succinctly and with

appropriate assertivenessappropriate assertiveness– Follow up with a thank you note, and restate the main Follow up with a thank you note, and restate the main

points made in the meetingpoints made in the meeting



Branching Out to Reach AlliesBranching Out to Reach Allies– Advocates will have established some allies when Advocates will have established some allies when

they formed their team or coalition they formed their team or coalition – They should then approach other interest groups that They should then approach other interest groups that

share the objectives of their projectshare the objectives of their project– Advocates most want as allies groups that will commit Advocates most want as allies groups that will commit

time, resources, and public supporttime, resources, and public support– They can also sometimes persuade legislators to They can also sometimes persuade legislators to

write letters to their colleagues supporting the write letters to their colleagues supporting the proposalproposal



The BlitzThe Blitz– Policy advocates often decide to invade the

legislature with a concentrated, all-out mobilization of resources

– This is a coordinated and well-planned effort where delegations of 3 to 4 people visit crucial legislators to lobby their support

– The delegation presents arguments for its proposal and asks if the legislator has questions or concerns

– The leadership team reviews the feedback received by the delegations to gauge which legislators are supportive, uncertain, or opposed



Getting Legislation IntroducedGetting Legislation Introduced– Once the proposed legislation is introduced, it is Once the proposed legislation is introduced, it is

referred to a legislative committee, and then to referred to a legislative committee, and then to subcommittees where it is assigned hearingssubcommittees where it is assigned hearings

– The timing of the hearings is crucialThe timing of the hearings is crucialIf they are toward the end of a legislative session, no action If they are toward the end of a legislative session, no action will likely be taken on the billwill likely be taken on the bill

– So advocates need to approach the chairperson of So advocates need to approach the chairperson of the committee immediately after their proposal has the committee immediately after their proposal has been introduced, or ask their congressional been introduced, or ask their congressional supporters to request early hearingssupporters to request early hearings



TestifyingTestifying– Advocates should make sure that they or someone Advocates should make sure that they or someone

from their delegation is invited to testify at hearingsfrom their delegation is invited to testify at hearings– They can also ask someone who is well-known to They can also ask someone who is well-known to

testify on the billtestify on the bill– A brief written statement is first presented, with the A brief written statement is first presented, with the

rationale, focus and substance of the proposalrationale, focus and substance of the proposal– Oral testimony should be brief, dramatic, Oral testimony should be brief, dramatic,

spontaneous, candid and honestspontaneous, candid and honest– It can include case examplesIt can include case examples– Advocates should be prepared for both friendly and Advocates should be prepared for both friendly and

hostile questions from legislatorshostile questions from legislators



Using the Mass MediaUsing the Mass Media– The mass media can help policy advocates reach a The mass media can help policy advocates reach a

broad audience that will, in turn, place pressure on broad audience that will, in turn, place pressure on politicians to take actionpoliticians to take action

– Press conferences and demonstrations are ways of Press conferences and demonstrations are ways of getting media attentiongetting media attention

– Another option is letters to the editor or guest Another option is letters to the editor or guest editorials on television and radioeditorials on television and radio

– They must make their story appear dramatic and They must make their story appear dramatic and relevant to larger social issuesrelevant to larger social issues

– They should establish personal links with key They should establish personal links with key reporters in the print media, radio, and televisionreporters in the print media, radio, and television



Letter-writing and E-mail CampaignsLetter-writing and E-mail Campaigns– Campaigns to call or write the offices of legislators Campaigns to call or write the offices of legislators

may use the membership lists of community or may use the membership lists of community or professional groupsprofessional groups

– Letter writers should be provided with suggested Letter writers should be provided with suggested themes, but not with form lettersthemes, but not with form letters

Legislators consider individualized letters more credible Legislators consider individualized letters more credible than standardized lettersthan standardized letters

– Letters should be timely, brief, to the point, civil, and Letters should be timely, brief, to the point, civil, and lively, and urge positive actionlively, and urge positive action

– Letters should make clear that the legislator’s position Letters should make clear that the legislator’s position will be closely followed in their home districtwill be closely followed in their home district



Revising StrategyRevising Strategy– Campaigns for an issue are evolving Campaigns for an issue are evolving

phenomena shaped by changing eventsphenomena shaped by changing events– Therefore, strategy must be revised at various Therefore, strategy must be revised at various

points during the campaignpoints during the campaign


Strategy in Agency SettingsStrategy in Agency Settings

Strategy is also relevant in organizational Strategy is also relevant in organizational settingssettingsPolicy advocates must develop a strategy that Policy advocates must develop a strategy that will enhance the achievement of their policy will enhance the achievement of their policy objectives by:objectives by:– Organizing a Team or CoalitionOrganizing a Team or Coalition– Establishing Policy Goals Establishing Policy Goals – Specifying a Proposal’s ContentSpecifying a Proposal’s Content– Establishing a StyleEstablishing a Style– Selecting Power Resources and Framing StrategySelecting Power Resources and Framing Strategy– Revising the StrategyRevising the Strategy



Policy advocates should assemble a team Policy advocates should assemble a team or coalition that includes: or coalition that includes: – people with similar valuespeople with similar values– people from specific units or programspeople from specific units or programs– members of informal groups or associationsmembers of informal groups or associations– union leadersunion leaders– people from different levels in the agency’s people from different levels in the agency’s

formal organizationformal organization



Policy advocates attempt to influence both formal and Policy advocates attempt to influence both formal and informal policies in agenciesinformal policies in agenciesThey should analyze an issue’s political economy and They should analyze an issue’s political economy and conduct a force field analysisconduct a force field analysisPolicy changes that advance the central goals of the Policy changes that advance the central goals of the agency often have the best chanceagency often have the best chanceAdvocates can obtain support by emphasizing a proposal’s Advocates can obtain support by emphasizing a proposal’s relevance to beneficence or clients’ well-beingrelevance to beneficence or clients’ well-beingDirect-service workers often seek higher-level Direct-service workers often seek higher-level intermediaries’ support for a proposal because some intermediaries’ support for a proposal because some people defer only to the superiorspeople defer only to the superiorsSupport may be gained if the proposal is framed correctly Support may be gained if the proposal is framed correctly and if process tactics are chosen welland if process tactics are chosen well


Specifying a Proposal’s ContentSpecifying a Proposal’s Content

The a proposal must specify what the policy The a proposal must specify what the policy advocate wants to change advocate wants to change

It must be framed in light of objectives, political It must be framed in light of objectives, political realities, and extent of changerealities, and extent of change

Advocates can work on many fronts: Advocates can work on many fronts: – Official or informal policiesOfficial or informal policies– Policies on implementation and budget choicesPolicies on implementation and budget choices– Policies at higher levels of an organizationPolicies at higher levels of an organization– Policies in specific unitsPolicies in specific units



The politics of organizations tend to be more The politics of organizations tend to be more muted than the politics of legislatures, although muted than the politics of legislatures, although they can still be highly conflictualthey can still be highly conflictualStyle must be tailored to the setting and the Style must be tailored to the setting and the issueissueConsensus-building efforts frequently meet with Consensus-building efforts frequently meet with considerable successconsiderable successA frontal attack that polarizes the agency should A frontal attack that polarizes the agency should be chosen only after all other alternatives have be chosen only after all other alternatives have been weighedbeen weighed



An array of strategy options exists:An array of strategy options exists:– Using discretion to implement or not Using discretion to implement or not

implement policies without consulting anyoneimplement policies without consulting anyone– Beginning a pilot program with the support of Beginning a pilot program with the support of

a supervisor before seeking high-level policy a supervisor before seeking high-level policy clearanceclearance

– Organize a broad-based coalition to seek a Organize a broad-based coalition to seek a specific policy changespecific policy change

– Developing a program innovation after Developing a program innovation after modifying an original proposalmodifying an original proposal



An array of strategy options exist (cont.):An array of strategy options exist (cont.):– Changing staff members’ informal normsChanging staff members’ informal norms– Setting up a task force to seek a collaborative win-win Setting up a task force to seek a collaborative win-win

solutionsolution – Using a supervisor as an intermediary to seek the Using a supervisor as an intermediary to seek the

executive director’s approval for her proposalexecutive director’s approval for her proposal– Taking an issue directly to the mass media in hopes Taking an issue directly to the mass media in hopes

that external pressure on the agency will make its that external pressure on the agency will make its officials remedy (whistle-blowing)officials remedy (whistle-blowing)

– Waiting until a strategic moment to place pressure on Waiting until a strategic moment to place pressure on people to modify a proposalpeople to modify a proposal


Developing Strategy in Developing Strategy in Community SettingsCommunity Settings

Policy advocates in community settings try to Policy advocates in community settings try to change policies of community institutions or change policies of community institutions or governmental agencies by:governmental agencies by:– Establishing Policy Goals Establishing Policy Goals – Specifying a Proposal’s ContentSpecifying a Proposal’s Content– Establishing a StyleEstablishing a Style– Selecting Power Resources and Framing StrategySelecting Power Resources and Framing Strategy– Revising the StrategyRevising the Strategy



Policy advocates must decide whether they want Policy advocates must decide whether they want incremental or major policy changesincremental or major policy changes

In some cases, an entire community will rally In some cases, an entire community will rally together for or against specific policiestogether for or against specific policies

In other cases, the community is polarized into In other cases, the community is polarized into competing groupscompeting groups

In still other cases, community groups encounter In still other cases, community groups encounter powerful entrenched interests that will not easily powerful entrenched interests that will not easily yieldyield


Specifying a Proposal’s ContentSpecifying a Proposal’s Content

Policy advocates can address an array of Policy advocates can address an array of community issues: community issues: – Issues in schoolsIssues in schools– Zoning for social servicesZoning for social services– Innovative city programsInnovative city programs– Community agency programs for the underservedCommunity agency programs for the underserved

They may create community forums or They may create community forums or community planning projects to solicit ideas from community planning projects to solicit ideas from residents about community improvementsresidents about community improvements



Changes in community policies can sometimes Changes in community policies can sometimes be achieved without extensive conflictbe achieved without extensive conflict– In these cases, a policy advocate might develop a In these cases, a policy advocate might develop a

collaborative win-win processcollaborative win-win process

Controversies arise when the interests of Controversies arise when the interests of institutions or powerful officials are threatened, institutions or powerful officials are threatened, or when a community is divided into competing or when a community is divided into competing factionsfactions– In these cases, advocates need skill in mobilizing In these cases, advocates need skill in mobilizing

community groups, developing coalitions, and working community groups, developing coalitions, and working with the mass mediawith the mass media



Policy advocates in communities have to create Policy advocates in communities have to create a campaign to achieve their policy goalsa campaign to achieve their policy goals

Their strategy may include: Their strategy may include: – delegations to community leaders and administratorsdelegations to community leaders and administrators– petitionspetitions– letter-writing campaigns to local officialsletter-writing campaigns to local officials– demonstrationsdemonstrations– stories in the mass mediastories in the mass media– community forumscommunity forums– litigationlitigation


A Primer on Task GroupsA Primer on Task Groups

Political strategy can only be effectively Political strategy can only be effectively implemented if effective task groups are implemented if effective task groups are established and maintainedestablished and maintained

Policy advocates must be familiar with them and Policy advocates must be familiar with them and skilled in working with themskilled in working with them

Task groups Task groups focus on producing or influencing focus on producing or influencing something external to the group itselfsomething external to the group itself

They do not emphasize members’ personal They do not emphasize members’ personal growth or learninggrowth or learning


A Primer on Task GroupsA Primer on Task Groups

Types of policy-related task groups include:Types of policy-related task groups include:– Those that concentrate on making and enacting Those that concentrate on making and enacting

policiespolicies– Those that specialize in implementing policiesThose that specialize in implementing policies– Blue ribbon committeesBlue ribbon committees

Task groups are more effective than individuals Task groups are more effective than individuals who try to shape policy on their ownwho try to shape policy on their own– They have pooled resources, effective leadership, They have pooled resources, effective leadership,

and pooled policy practice skillsand pooled policy practice skills


Policy Advocates’ Roles in Task Policy Advocates’ Roles in Task GroupsGroups

Advocates participate in task groups as leaders, Advocates participate in task groups as leaders, staff, or membersstaff, or membersThe The leaderleader::– facilitates the group’s work facilitates the group’s work – expedites the group’s ongoing work expedites the group’s ongoing work – shapes the group’s structure and membershipshapes the group’s structure and membership

Staff Staff expedite the work of the group expedite the work of the group Members Members of task groups provide ideas, perform of task groups provide ideas, perform specific tasks, help link the group to other specific tasks, help link the group to other interests, lead subgroups, provide resources, interests, lead subgroups, provide resources, and sometimes assume leadershipand sometimes assume leadership


The Task Group’s MissionThe Task Group’s Mission

Successful groups develop a mission that defines Successful groups develop a mission that defines their objectives or goalstheir objectives or goalsMembers should decide what they want to Members should decide what they want to accomplish early onaccomplish early onThe mission includes agreements about The mission includes agreements about procedural mattersprocedural mattersDangers in developing the mission:Dangers in developing the mission:– Unrealistic expectationsUnrealistic expectations– Failure to reach consensus on objectivesFailure to reach consensus on objectives– Overt expectations clashing with hidden onesOvert expectations clashing with hidden ones


The Task Group’s LeadershipThe Task Group’s Leadership

The difficult balance of leadership:The difficult balance of leadership:– Be directive and assertive, but do not dominateBe directive and assertive, but do not dominate– Encourage dissenting perspectives, but prevent Encourage dissenting perspectives, but prevent

excessive or destructive conflictexcessive or destructive conflict– Perform tasks well, but be able to delegatePerform tasks well, but be able to delegate– Represent the group to the external world, but do not Represent the group to the external world, but do not

seek excessive personal creditseek excessive personal credit– Emphasize the group’s objectives, but do not neglect Emphasize the group’s objectives, but do not neglect

the group members’ needsthe group members’ needs

Effective leaders value democracyEffective leaders value democracy


The Task Group’s The Task Group’s Developmental NeedsDevelopmental Needs

In early phases task groups must:In early phases task groups must:– agree on their mission, leadership, and proceduresagree on their mission, leadership, and procedures– form realistic expectationsform realistic expectations

During the middle phase, they:During the middle phase, they: – update their mission, develop and implement proceduresupdate their mission, develop and implement procedures– experience successes that give them momentumexperience successes that give them momentum– set up a division of laborset up a division of labor

In later phases:In later phases: – Some groups should disband when they are no longer Some groups should disband when they are no longer

neededneeded– Others should regenerate by revising their mission and Others should regenerate by revising their mission and

seeking new membersseeking new members


The Task Group’s ProceduresThe Task Group’s Procedures

Agendas: Agendas: – Allow anticipation of and planning for the futureAllow anticipation of and planning for the future

Minutes: Minutes: – Provide a history that the group can review Provide a history that the group can review – Allow the group to ascertain how it has evolved and Allow the group to ascertain how it has evolved and

what new tasks it might undertakewhat new tasks it might undertake

Bylaws: Bylaws: – Provide mechanisms for: Provide mechanisms for:

selecting leadersselecting leadersreplenishing membershipreplenishing membershipdividing tasks among officers and subcommitteesdividing tasks among officers and subcommitteeshandling fundshandling funds


The Task Group’s StructureThe Task Group’s Structure

The internal organization of a task group The internal organization of a task group includes:includes:– What subcommittees or ad hoc groups are What subcommittees or ad hoc groups are

needed to facilitate a division of laborneeded to facilitate a division of labor– How large they should be to accomplish their How large they should be to accomplish their

mission and to increase their political cloutmission and to increase their political clout– Their relationships with other groupsTheir relationships with other groups


The Task Group’s Deliberative The Task Group’s Deliberative and Interactional Processesand Interactional Processes

Groups need modes of interaction that allow their Groups need modes of interaction that allow their members to:members to: – examine optionsexamine options– assess the group’s strengths and weaknessesassess the group’s strengths and weaknesses– make informed choices make informed choices – develop strategies to implement themdevelop strategies to implement them

Positive interaction occurs in an open atmosphere Positive interaction occurs in an open atmosphere where members believe that:where members believe that: – they are free to contribute ideasthey are free to contribute ideas– dissent is permissibledissent is permissible– their ideas will be taken seriouslytheir ideas will be taken seriously– brainstorming precedes final decisionsbrainstorming precedes final decisions


The Task Group’s Deliberative The Task Group’s Deliberative and Interactional Processesand Interactional ProcessesGroups should progress through a series Groups should progress through a series of stages when considering issues: of stages when considering issues:

1.1. Brainstorming options in a risk-taking and Brainstorming options in a risk-taking and tolerant atmosphere tolerant atmosphere

2.2. Carefully and gradually reducing these Carefully and gradually reducing these options to a revised listoptions to a revised list

3.3. Formulating a final position Formulating a final position onlyonly after after extensive consideration of the options’ extensive consideration of the options’ strengths and weaknessesstrengths and weaknesses


The Task Group’s Staff and The Task Group’s Staff and ResourcesResources

Groups need staff and resources to:Groups need staff and resources to: – accomplish logistical tasksaccomplish logistical tasks– provide technical assistanceprovide technical assistance– facilitate the group’s workfacilitate the group’s work

Staff may come from institutions, such as agencies, or Staff may come from institutions, such as agencies, or may be volunteersmay be volunteersResources may come from institutions, the Resources may come from institutions, the membership, special events, private donors, or membership, special events, private donors, or corporations or foundationscorporations or foundationsResources and staff do not guarantee successResources and staff do not guarantee successEven groups with few resources may accomplish a Even groups with few resources may accomplish a great dealgreat deal


Forming CoalitionsForming Coalitions

CoalitionsCoalitions are temporary associations are temporary associations created to consolidate power in support of created to consolidate power in support of a specific issuea specific issue

Coalitions are needed because:Coalitions are needed because:– Those who represent the poor, the powerless, Those who represent the poor, the powerless,

or the stigmatized have an uphill battleor the stigmatized have an uphill battle– Powerful interests and public apathy or Powerful interests and public apathy or

opposition often impede social reformsopposition often impede social reforms


Forming CoalitionsForming Coalitions

Unlike task groups, coalitions bring together Unlike task groups, coalitions bring together representatives of different organizations to seek representatives of different organizations to seek common actioncommon actionThe representatives agree to share the costs The representatives agree to share the costs and labor of their common endeavorand labor of their common endeavorThe success of a coalition depends on:The success of a coalition depends on:– The leadership of a small executive council The leadership of a small executive council – Defining its goals and mission at the outsetDefining its goals and mission at the outset– A division of labor (i.e. subcommittees)A division of labor (i.e. subcommittees)– Developing a strategyDeveloping a strategy


Establishing NetworksEstablishing Networks

Networks are ongoing associations of persons Networks are ongoing associations of persons and organizationsand organizations– Whereas coalitions are usually temporary alliances Whereas coalitions are usually temporary alliances

that end when they have accomplished their purposethat end when they have accomplished their purpose

Networks: Networks: – Regularly inform their members of pertinent legislationRegularly inform their members of pertinent legislation– Increase their members’ political awarenessIncrease their members’ political awareness– Foster the members’ participation in the political Foster the members’ participation in the political

processprocess– Are usually governed by an executive councilAre usually governed by an executive council


Addressing Dysfunctional Group Addressing Dysfunctional Group ProcessesProcesses

Policy advocates sometimes have to use Policy advocates sometimes have to use group process skills to improve a task group process skills to improve a task group’s functioninggroup’s functioning

The degree to which advocates can The degree to which advocates can intervene depends on the position they intervene depends on the position they hold in the grouphold in the group



To address dysfunctional group To address dysfunctional group processes:processes:1.1. Diagnose the problemDiagnose the problem

Incoherent missionIncoherent missionInadequate leadershipInadequate leadershipFlawed internal processesFlawed internal processesInadequate proceduresInadequate proceduresFlawed structuresFlawed structuresInadequate process of deliberationsInadequate process of deliberationsInsufficient resourcesInsufficient resources



To address dysfunctional group processes:To address dysfunctional group processes:2.2. Evolve a corrective strategyEvolve a corrective strategy

Behind-the-scenes discussions

Developing ideas during group deliberations

Assuming some leadership functions

Using power

Mediating

Directly assuming specific tasks

Using humor

Seeking the advice of persons outside the group



Using Using leadershipleadership to address dysfuncitonal group to address dysfuncitonal group processes:processes:

Even group members who are not leaders can Even group members who are not leaders can sometimes assume leadership functionssometimes assume leadership functions– They can keep the discussion open by asking to hear They can keep the discussion open by asking to hear

more on the subjectmore on the subject– They can use parliamentary tactics to inject new They can use parliamentary tactics to inject new

perspectives and delay decisionsperspectives and delay decisions– They can contact leaders directly to add issues to the They can contact leaders directly to add issues to the

agenda or to give their opinions on various mattersagenda or to give their opinions on various matters



Using Using powerpower to address dysfunctional group to address dysfunctional group process:process:All participants have power resources, like All participants have power resources, like expertise, that they can use to shape decisions and expertise, that they can use to shape decisions and influence other membersinfluence other members

The use of power resources can:The use of power resources can: – overcome stalematesovercome stalemates– stop destructive activities such as scapegoatingstop destructive activities such as scapegoating– make beneficial changes in the group’s leadershipmake beneficial changes in the group’s leadership

However, group members need to use their power However, group members need to use their power resources with discretion and without overriding resources with discretion and without overriding normal deliberative group processesnormal deliberative group processes



Using Using mediationmediation to address dysfunctional group to address dysfunctional group process:process:

Mediation may be the best solution when groups Mediation may be the best solution when groups become polarized into competing factions become polarized into competing factions

Mediators can help group members Mediators can help group members – identify their common valuesidentify their common values– suggest structural or process strategies that will suggest structural or process strategies that will

diminish conflictdiminish conflict– identify compromises that will appease both partiesidentify compromises that will appease both parties



Using humor to address dysfunctional Using humor to address dysfunctional group processes:group processes:

Injecting humor into deliberations can: Injecting humor into deliberations can: – Ease tensionEase tension– Relax group membersRelax group members– Encourage the group not to take itself too Encourage the group not to take itself too

seriouslyseriously

Chapter 11

Education

cengage learning

brooks cole publishing

distribution of power

policy practice

policy deliberations2011

policy initiative

policy practitioners

specific policy enactedhowever