Chapter 1 The Field of Psychology “The purpose of psychology is to give us a completely different idea of the things we know best.” --unknown.

Chapter 1Chapter 1The Field of PsychologyThe Field of Psychology

““The purpose of psychology is to give The purpose of psychology is to give us a us a completelycompletely different idea of the different idea of the things we know best.” --unknownthings we know best.” --unknown

Defining psychologyDefining psychology Derived from the Greek word Derived from the Greek word

psyche psyche (meaning soul or mind) and (meaning soul or mind) and logoslogos (meaning discourse or study). (meaning discourse or study).

Defined as the Defined as the scientificscientific study of study of mental processes and behavior.mental processes and behavior.

BehaviorBehavior refers to almost any refers to almost any activity, voluntary or involuntary.activity, voluntary or involuntary.

Mental processesMental processes include include anything that the mind is capable of anything that the mind is capable of doing.doing.

TheoriesTheories TheoryTheory--a general framework --a general framework

for scientific study.for scientific study. Theories cover so much that Theories cover so much that

they are usually too they are usually too complicated to be directly complicated to be directly tested or researched. tested or researched.

However, smaller aspects of However, smaller aspects of them can be. When enough them can be. When enough of these smaller parts prove of these smaller parts prove true, the theory itself is true, the theory itself is supported.supported.

A theory, then, is something A theory, then, is something like a like a treetree, and its branches , and its branches and leaves are testable ideas and leaves are testable ideas or assumptions.or assumptions.

Why does psychology have so Why does psychology have so many theories?many theories?

• Psychologists narrow down their Psychologists narrow down their focus through the use of focus through the use of perspectives (theoretical orientation)perspectives (theoretical orientation)—psychoanalytic, cognitive, etc.—psychoanalytic, cognitive, etc.

• Each theoretical perspective provides Each theoretical perspective provides a different lens through which to a different lens through which to examine behavior.examine behavior.

Psychologists--two basic typesPsychologists--two basic types

Research psychologistsResearch psychologists--study the origin, --study the origin, cause, and results of certain behaviors.cause, and results of certain behaviors.

Applied psychologistsApplied psychologists--make direct use of the --make direct use of the findings of research psychologists; deal directly findings of research psychologists; deal directly with people.with people.

Four goals of psychologyFour goals of psychology

1.1. Describe BehaviorDescribe Behavior– Symptoms of schizophrenia: Symptoms of schizophrenia:

delusions, hallucinations, “word delusions, hallucinations, “word salad,” social withdrawalsalad,” social withdrawal

2.2. Explain causes of Explain causes of

behaviorbehavior– Dopamine hypothesisDopamine hypothesis

The Dopamine Hypothesis: • The notion that dopamine may

be involved in schizophrenia comes from the discovered usefulness of drugs that block certain dopamine receptors in treating the disorder.

• Because dopamine-blocking drugs are so often effective, it has been proposed that an over-activity of dopamine neurotransmission in the brain may cause schizophrenia.

• Dopamine is further implicated by the fact that a schizophrenia-like psychosis can be induced by abusing amphetamines, which act on dopamine pathways.

DOPAMINE has been linked to schizophrenia. In a brain with schizophrenia, far more dopamine neurotransmitters are released between neurons than in a normal brain.

3.3. Predict how Predict how organisms will organisms will behave in the behave in the futurefuture

– Use knowledge of other Use knowledge of other schizophrenic patients to schizophrenic patients to help understand the help understand the course and development course and development of the diseaseof the disease

– Helpful in determining Helpful in determining inherited risk factorsinherited risk factors

4.4. Control behaviorControl behavior– Determining correct Determining correct

treatment for the treatment for the individual so he or she individual so he or she may lead a productive lifemay lead a productive life

– Antipsychotic medication, Antipsychotic medication, therapytherapy

History of psychologyHistory of psychology

Before psychology became Before psychology became a science, many strange a science, many strange theories existed concerning theories existed concerning personality.personality.– Early people thought that Early people thought that

evil spiritsevil spirits were the cause were the cause of abnormal behavior.of abnormal behavior.

– Burning or torturingBurning or torturing people in various ways was people in various ways was thought to be a helpful way thought to be a helpful way of driving out spirits.of driving out spirits.

TrephinationTrephination, alternately , alternately spelled trepanation, is a spelled trepanation, is a primitive surgical primitive surgical technique which involved technique which involved chiseling a hole in the skull chiseling a hole in the skull to expose the dura matter.to expose the dura matter.

It is a practice which hails It is a practice which hails back to ancient times back to ancient times when it was believed that when it was believed that mental illness was caused mental illness was caused by the presence of by the presence of malevolent spirits within malevolent spirits within the head.the head. ←dura matter

Two heads with trephination instruments in position, 1573.

More advanced civilizations started to More advanced civilizations started to look for look for physicalphysical causes of mental causes of mental disorders. However, their guesses and disorders. However, their guesses and treatments are still not considered treatments are still not considered very “advanced” by today’s standards.very “advanced” by today’s standards.– The Greeks believed everything The Greeks believed everything

(including personality) was made up (including personality) was made up of the of the four elementsfour elements: fire, air, : fire, air, earth, and water.earth, and water.

– In the body, the elements were In the body, the elements were thought to exist in the form of “four thought to exist in the form of “four humorshumors”-- blood, black bile, yellow ”-- blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm.bile, and phlegm.

Humorism--a theory Humorism--a theory of the makeup and of the makeup and workings of the workings of the human body human body adopted by Greek adopted by Greek and Roman and Roman physicians and physicians and philosophers. philosophers.

– Too muchToo much of any element was of any element was thought to cause certain thought to cause certain personality characteristics.personality characteristics.

– Thus, the Greeks thought Thus, the Greeks thought personality could be changed personality could be changed by by bloodlettingbloodletting--using knives --using knives or leeches to pierce the skin or leeches to pierce the skin and release blood.and release blood.

– The Greeks characterized The Greeks characterized people into four personality people into four personality types:types:

Some other past treatments…Some other past treatments…

Shock therapyShock therapy The spinning The spinning

chairchair The The

tranquilizing tranquilizing chair chair

Branding ironsBranding irons ““Ice pick” Ice pick”

lobotomylobotomy

PhrenologyPhrenology– PhrenologyPhrenology developed in the developed in the

1700’s--the study of the shape 1700’s--the study of the shape of the skull. It was believed that of the skull. It was believed that by “reading” the bumps on by “reading” the bumps on someone’s head one could someone’s head one could determine their mental abilities determine their mental abilities and personality.and personality.

– Phrenology remained popular Phrenology remained popular until the mid 1800’s.until the mid 1800’s.

Psychology as a sciencePsychology as a science(beginning late 1800’s)(beginning late 1800’s)

Charles DarwinCharles Darwin– In his 1859 In his 1859 Origins of the Origins of the

SpeciesSpecies, located humanity , located humanity within the within the animal kingdom,animal kingdom, and hence in the realm of and hence in the realm of natural science. natural science.

– He showed that humans He showed that humans could be studied could be studied scientificallyscientifically..

– Darwin also inspired Darwin also inspired evolutionary psychology-- the evolutionary psychology-- the study of human cognition study of human cognition and behavior with respect to and behavior with respect to their evolutionary origins.their evolutionary origins.

Psychology officially Psychology officially became a science in became a science in 1879 1879 when the first psychology when the first psychology laboratory was laboratory was established.established.

Psychology as the Psychology as the scientific study of human scientific study of human behavior is only about behavior is only about 130130 years old!years old!

Early theoristsEarly theorists Wilhelm Wundt (1830-1890)Wilhelm Wundt (1830-1890)

– German professor—the “father of psychology”German professor—the “father of psychology”– Wundt founded the Wundt founded the first formal first formal

laboratorieslaboratories for psychological research at for psychological research at the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879.the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879.

– Developed a theory called Developed a theory called introspectionintrospection—a —a detailed examination of one’s own thinking detailed examination of one’s own thinking (looking inward).(looking inward).

– Showed that the human mind can be studied Showed that the human mind can be studied in an objective, in an objective, scientificscientific manner. manner.

– Wundt’s studies focused mostly on perception Wundt’s studies focused mostly on perception and sensation (particularly vision), along with and sensation (particularly vision), along with reaction timereaction time, attention, feelings, and , attention, feelings, and associations. associations.

William James (1842-William James (1842-1910)1910)– Harvard professor—one of the Harvard professor—one of the

founders of American psychology.founders of American psychology.– Developed a theory called Developed a theory called

functionalismfunctionalism which involves the which involves the organization of experience and organization of experience and stresses that the “making sense” stresses that the “making sense” out of nonsense is the mind’s out of nonsense is the mind’s principle goal.principle goal.

– Focused on how humans function Focused on how humans function and adapt to their environment.and adapt to their environment.

– Wanted to understand Wanted to understand the the purposepurpose of consciousness. of consciousness.

Edward Bradford Tichener (1867-1927)– Cornell professor—another founder of Cornell professor—another founder of

American psychology.American psychology.– Developed a theory called structuralism Developed a theory called structuralism

which focused on behavior as parts that which focused on behavior as parts that fit together in a structure—how the fit together in a structure—how the physical, mental, and emotional physical, mental, and emotional combine in the human consciousnesscombine in the human consciousness

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)– Known as the “father of psychoanalysis.”Known as the “father of psychoanalysis.”– Freud asserted we are influenced by things we Freud asserted we are influenced by things we

are not aware of along with our are not aware of along with our childhood childhood experiences.experiences.

– Best known for:Best known for: his theories of the unconscious mindhis theories of the unconscious mind the defense mechanism of repressionthe defense mechanism of repression creating the clinical practice of creating the clinical practice of

psychoanalysis psychoanalysis his redefinition of sexual desire as the his redefinition of sexual desire as the

primary motivational energy of human lifeprimary motivational energy of human life his therapeutic techniques, including the use his therapeutic techniques, including the use

of free associationof free association the interpretation of dreams as sources of the interpretation of dreams as sources of

insight into unconscious desires.insight into unconscious desires.

Ivan Pavlov Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)(1849-1936) – A Russian A Russian

physiologist, physiologist, psychologist, and psychologist, and physician. physician.

– Pavlov is widely Pavlov is widely known for first known for first describing the describing the phenomenon of phenomenon of classical classical conditioningconditioning– a – a form of associative form of associative learning. learning.

John B. Watson John B. Watson (1878-1958)(1878-1958)– John B. Watson and Rosalie John B. Watson and Rosalie

Rayner carried out the Rayner carried out the famous “famous “Little AlbertLittle Albert” ” study in 1920 at Johns study in 1920 at Johns Hopkins University.  Hopkins University.  

– This was a landmark study This was a landmark study because Watson was able to because Watson was able to prove that emotional prove that emotional responses can be responses can be conditioned, or learned.  conditioned, or learned.  

– Pavlov and Watson’s Pavlov and Watson’s behavioral work led to B.F. behavioral work led to B.F. Skinner’s operant Skinner’s operant conditioning experiments conditioning experiments ten years later.ten years later.

Where are all the women? Where are all the women? There were not a lot of There were not a lot of

women in early women in early psychology--women were psychology--women were not encouraged to pursue not encouraged to pursue higher education. higher education.

Margaret Floy Margaret Floy WashburnWashburn (1871-1939) (1871-1939) Was the first woman to be Was the first woman to be granted a Ph.D in granted a Ph.D in psychology in 1894.psychology in 1894.

Best known for her Best known for her experimental work in experimental work in animal behavior and motor animal behavior and motor theory development.theory development.

Approaches of Present-Day Approaches of Present-Day PsychologyPsychology

Biopsychological Biopsychological ApproachApproach– Viewing behavior as the Viewing behavior as the

result of nervous system result of nervous system functions and biology.functions and biology.

– Advantage: understanding Advantage: understanding biological aspects of biological aspects of behavior can help in behavior can help in developing treatment developing treatment options for some disorders.options for some disorders.

– Disadvantage: does little Disadvantage: does little to explain social or to explain social or environmental influences environmental influences on behavior.on behavior.

**EACH OF THESE APPROACHES PROVIDES A DIFFERENT LENS THROUGH WHICH TO EXAMINE BEHAVIOR

Phineas Gage (1823-1860) Phineas Gage (1823-1860) – Those taking the biopsychological Those taking the biopsychological

approach would be particular approach would be particular interested in Phineas Gage--a man interested in Phineas Gage--a man whose behavior was shaped by whose behavior was shaped by physical changes.physical changes.

– He was an American railroad He was an American railroad construction foreman. construction foreman.

– He is remembered for his incredible He is remembered for his incredible survival of an accident in which a large survival of an accident in which a large iron rod was driven completely through iron rod was driven completely through his head, destroying much of his his head, destroying much of his brain's left frontal lobe, and for that brain's left frontal lobe, and for that injury's reported effects on his injury's reported effects on his personality and behavior--effects so personality and behavior--effects so profound that friends saw him as "no profound that friends saw him as "no longer Gage." longer Gage."

Psychoanalytic ApproachPsychoanalytic Approach– A system of viewing the A system of viewing the

individual as the product of individual as the product of unconscious forces.unconscious forces.

– Advantage: provides a Advantage: provides a framework for analyzing framework for analyzing thought processes below the thought processes below the conscious level.conscious level.

– Disadvantage: Focuses on Disadvantage: Focuses on how people are products of how people are products of mostly negative unconscious mostly negative unconscious forces.forces.

– Psychologists associated with Psychologists associated with this viewpoint: Sigmund this viewpoint: Sigmund Freud, Carl JungFreud, Carl Jung

Behavioral ApproachBehavioral Approach– View behavior as the product View behavior as the product

of learning and associations.of learning and associations.– Advantages: focuses on how Advantages: focuses on how

the environment affects the environment affects behavior; helps parents teach behavior; helps parents teach children appropriate behavior.children appropriate behavior.

– Disadvantages: disregards the Disadvantages: disregards the concept of “free will.”concept of “free will.”

– Psychologists associated with Psychologists associated with this approach: Ivan Pavlov, this approach: Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, B.F. SkinnerJohn Watson, B.F. Skinner

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) – An American psychologist, author, inventor, An American psychologist, author, inventor,

and social philosopher. He was a Professor and social philosopher. He was a Professor of Psychology at Harvard University.of Psychology at Harvard University.

– Skinner invented the operant conditioning Skinner invented the operant conditioning chamber (in which the behavior of rats and chamber (in which the behavior of rats and pigeons was shaped), innovated his own pigeons was shaped), innovated his own philosophy of science called philosophy of science called Radical Radical Behaviorism, Behaviorism, and founded his own school of and founded his own school of experimental research psychology.experimental research psychology.

– Skinner asserted that human behavior is Skinner asserted that human behavior is shaped by reinforcements and shaped by reinforcements and punishments.punishments.

– Reinforcements strengthen behavior, Reinforcements strengthen behavior, whereas punishment has the effect of whereas punishment has the effect of weakening behavior.weakening behavior.

– Skinner also argued ignoring a behavior--or Skinner also argued ignoring a behavior--or not reinforcing it--would cause a behaviornot reinforcing it--would cause a behavior to cease (extinction).to cease (extinction).

Tabula RasaTabula Rasa– Proponents of behaviorism generally Proponents of behaviorism generally

subscribe to the subscribe to the tabula rasatabula rasa thesis. thesis.– Tabula rasaTabula rasa is the belief that individuals are is the belief that individuals are

born without built-in mental content and that born without built-in mental content and that their knowledge comes from experience and their knowledge comes from experience and perception. perception.

– The term in Latin equates to the English The term in Latin equates to the English "blank slate" (which refers to writing on a "blank slate" (which refers to writing on a slate sheet in chalk).slate sheet in chalk).

– Our modern idea of this theory comes from Our modern idea of this theory comes from English philosopher and physician John English philosopher and physician John Locke. He published this idea in his piece Locke. He published this idea in his piece An Essay Concerning Human UnderstandingAn Essay Concerning Human Understanding in 1690.in 1690.

Cognitive ApproachCognitive Approach– Emphasizes how humans Emphasizes how humans

use mental processes to use mental processes to handle problems or develop handle problems or develop certain personality certain personality characteristics.characteristics.

– Most popular approach used Most popular approach used today!today!

– Advantage: analyzes how Advantage: analyzes how thoughts affect behavior.thoughts affect behavior.

– Disadvantage: does little to Disadvantage: does little to explain social or explain social or environmental influences on environmental influences on behavior.behavior.

Sociocultural ApproachSociocultural Approach– Behavior viewed as strongly Behavior viewed as strongly

influenced by the rules and influenced by the rules and expectations of specific expectations of specific social groups or cultures.social groups or cultures.

– Advantage: helps Advantage: helps psychologists to counsel psychologists to counsel people from different people from different cultures and to understand cultures and to understand social influences on behavior.social influences on behavior.

– Disadvantage: does not Disadvantage: does not address physiological address physiological influences on behavior.influences on behavior.

Humanistic ApproachHumanistic Approach– Believing that people are basically good and Believing that people are basically good and

capable of helping themselves.capable of helping themselves.– Advantage: gives people power over their own Advantage: gives people power over their own

lives and behavior.lives and behavior.– Disadvantage: ignores role of heredity, too Disadvantage: ignores role of heredity, too

good to be true (no one is good all the time).good to be true (no one is good all the time).– Psychologists associated with this approach: Psychologists associated with this approach:

Carl Rogers, Abraham MaslowCarl Rogers, Abraham Maslow

Eclectic ApproachEclectic Approach– Borrowing from at least Borrowing from at least

two of the theories to two of the theories to create one’s own create one’s own system.system.

– Advantage: combines Advantage: combines components of different components of different approaches to treat approaches to treat clients more effectively.clients more effectively.

– Disadvantage: can Disadvantage: can become a jumbled and become a jumbled and disorganized way of disorganized way of dealing with an issue in dealing with an issue in therapy.therapy.

↑Eclecticism in architecture

Nature vs. NurtureThe main debate in psychology today!

NatureNatureHeredity Heredity

BiochemistryBiochemistryInborn QualitiesInborn Qualities

NurtureNurtureFamily Family CultureCulture

EnvironmentEnvironment

The main difference among the modern schools of thought is the way in which they view human nature and what determines it…

Careers in PsychologyCareers in Psychology Most jobs in psychology require an Most jobs in psychology require an

advanced advanced degree--either an M.A. (2 degree--either an M.A. (2 years beyond a B.A.--which is the years beyond a B.A.--which is the degree one earns in the “normal” 4 degree one earns in the “normal” 4 years) or a doctorate (4-5 years years) or a doctorate (4-5 years beyond a B.A.).beyond a B.A.).

The greatest proportion of The greatest proportion of psychologists work in some type of psychologists work in some type of educational settingeducational setting..

Clinical/Counseling Clinical/Counseling PsychologistsPsychologists– Work with people who have Work with people who have

mental or personal problems mental or personal problems (such as marital problems, social (such as marital problems, social difficulties, depression, eating difficulties, depression, eating disorders, etc.).disorders, etc.).

– Administer psychological tests to Administer psychological tests to diagnose and administer therapy diagnose and administer therapy to help patients understand to help patients understand themselves and others better.themselves and others better.

– Work in his/her own clinic, in Work in his/her own clinic, in private clinics with other private clinics with other psychologists, mental hospitals, psychologists, mental hospitals, industry, drug rehab centers, industry, drug rehab centers, homeless shelters, or school homeless shelters, or school systemssystems

School/Educational School/Educational PsychologistsPsychologists– Work with students, teachers, Work with students, teachers,

or administration.or administration.– Design and improve curriculum, Design and improve curriculum,

administer psychological tests administer psychological tests to students, design curriculum to students, design curriculum for students with learning for students with learning disabilities, help students disabilities, help students socially with learning socially with learning disabilities or emotional disabilities or emotional impairments, or work as a impairments, or work as a consultant to the consultant to the administration.administration.

– Work primarily in K-12 Work primarily in K-12 education; some work in education; some work in regional centers or the medical regional centers or the medical clinics of institutes of higher clinics of institutes of higher education.education.

Environmental Environmental PsychologistsPsychologists– Work with industrial designers or Work with industrial designers or

personnel, or government personnel, or government personnel, usually as part of a personnel, usually as part of a group.group.

– Study the effect of the Study the effect of the environment on people where environment on people where they work (ex: disasters, they work (ex: disasters, overcrowding, toxic materials, overcrowding, toxic materials, etc.) and also design desirable etc.) and also design desirable working conditions.working conditions.

– Work in private industry or Work in private industry or government agencies.government agencies.

Developmental/Developmental/Child PsychologistsChild Psychologists– Work with parents or Work with parents or

other caretakers of other caretakers of children and directly with children and directly with children themselves who children themselves who have mental disabilities have mental disabilities or problems.or problems.

– Research and publish Research and publish findings on child findings on child development; administer development; administer IQ and other IQ and other psychological tests; work psychological tests; work directly with parents in directly with parents in child-rearing.child-rearing.

– Work in clinics, private Work in clinics, private practices, or universities.practices, or universities.

Industrial PsychologistsIndustrial Psychologists– Work with management personnel in Work with management personnel in

industry; employees who have industry; employees who have personal problems.personal problems.

– Work with management to improve Work with management to improve working conditions, to obtain greater working conditions, to obtain greater efficiency from the work force, to efficiency from the work force, to increase sales, and to keep the increase sales, and to keep the company’s image positive with the company’s image positive with the public; work with employees on any public; work with employees on any issues they might have, from difficult issues they might have, from difficult work conditions to problems at work conditions to problems at home.home.

– Work in public and private industry, Work in public and private industry, usually larger companies.usually larger companies.

Engineering Engineering PsychologistsPsychologists– Work in private or public Work in private or public

industry.industry.– Design product or store Design product or store

layouts for efficiency; layouts for efficiency; everything from studying everything from studying how to design the how to design the instruments on an instruments on an automobile to the best automobile to the best physical design for a physical design for a shopping mall.shopping mall.

– Work in architectural and Work in architectural and design firms or in public design firms or in public or private industry.or private industry.

Experimental Experimental PsychologistsPsychologists– Usually work by themselves Usually work by themselves

or with a group doing or with a group doing research on various topics.research on various topics.

– Research to understand Research to understand better how the human better how the human operates physically or operates physically or psychologically; their goal is psychologically; their goal is to add to the literature.to add to the literature.

– Work at universities, clinics Work at universities, clinics designed for administration designed for administration of physical and psychological of physical and psychological testing, laboratories.testing, laboratories.