Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW - …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/22446/9/09...Neyyar 56 497 Thiruvananthapuram Kabani* 56.6 1920 Wayanad and Malappuram Bhavani*

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION AND

OVERVIEW

1.1 Introduction

Water is the prime natural resource, the basic human need and precious natural

asset. It is a life supporting, life sustaining and life purifying element and water is

sacred. The extend to which water is abundant or scarce, clean or polluted, beneficial

or destructive has a major influence on the rapidly changing world with ever increasing

population and fast rate of scientific and technological advancement.

Even though our land was referred to as the gallery of waters and mountains, this

harmonious co-existence with nature has been shaken by rapid development starting in

the early 1970s and characterized by export led industrialization and urbanization. In

particular, extensive economic growth triggered a break in the balance between nature

and human desire. Water is now treated as an economic good and the approach to

water development, production and supply are shifting towards a demand responsive

mode.

Facing ever increasing demand, and suffering widespread degradation, the world’s

water resources are under serious stress. This often debases the quality of life for many

and in extreme cases threatens the vital life supporting infrastructure of our planet. As

the poor are the worst affected, because of water scarcity, improved access to drinking

water and sanitation has emerged as a significant component of any poverty reduction

strategy now a days. Safe drinking water and sanitation are the basic priority for a

healthy community. The lack of this priority is one of the major causes of diseases and

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death world wide. Every year over 5 million people die from water related diseases,

some 3 million from diarrhoea, and around 2 million from malaria. Within a few

decade about one third of the world’s people are expected to suffer from chronic water

shortage. If there are adequate supplies of safe drinking water and adequate sanitation,

the incidents of disease and death around the world could be minimized. There have

been improvements over the past decades.

Increasing demand for fresh water has been identified as the quantity of water re-

quired to be supplied for specific use and includes consumptive as well as necessary non

consumptive water requirements for the user sector. At the present rate of investment

safe drinking water will not be provided to all people of Asia before 2025. The rate

of progress urgently needs to be accelerated. At the millennium summit in September

2000 the world nations resolved to reduce by half the number of people with out access

to safe and affordable drinking water by 2015. Since fresh water is essential for water

supply and sanitation, an examination of the fresh water situation in India is required.

The fresh water availability is uneven across India and a huge disparity exists from

basin to basin, region to region, state to state and in many cases even with in states.

According to CWRDM, 1995 the basin demand of water in various sectors in the

year 2021 will be as follows:

Rivers play an important role in human development and are an important natural

resource. The hydro electrical characteristics of water determine its usefulness for

municipal, commercial, agricultural and domestic water supplies. Development modes

of present age leads to pollution of river water.

The changes in the quality of water respond to variations in physical, chemical and

biological environment through which it passes. Usually pollution load is measured

in terms of monitoring of physico-chemical and biological parameters. The traditional

techniques do not reflect the long term effect if any pollutant in an ecosystem do not

provide any information regarding the effect of pollution on the aquatic bio-diversity.

According to Nwankwo1 an important ecological ramification of increasing population

pressure, poor sewage system, industrialization and poor waste management in Nige-

rian coastal area is that pollutants freely find their way through drains, canals, rivers,

creeks and lagoons. Unwise utilization of water resources, dehumanizing measures of

urbanization, industrialization and other activities are responsible for the deterioration

of water. Water served to the consumers must be free from disease carrying bacteria,

toxic substances and excessive amount of minerals and organic matter2.

2

Table. 1.1 Water demand in mm3 in the year 2021 (Source- CWRDM 1995 ).

River Domestic Industrial Irrigation

Mangeswar Uppale 13.6 45 149

Shiriya 14.9 45 187

Mogral Chandragiri 32.9 45 507

Chittari 14.5 45 81

Nileswar Karingod 36 45 329

Kavvagi- Peruvamba Ramapuram 27.1 45 527

Kuppam 43.9 90 22.3

Valapattnam 82.4 45 331

Anjarakkandi 32.5 45 89

Tellicherry 15.2 45 81

Mahi 24.9 45 194

Kuttiadi 58.8 450 352

Korappuzha-Kallai Chaliyar-Kadalundi 631 45 3514

Tirur 28.2 450 221

Bharathapuzha 338 45 4684

Keecheri- Puzhakkal 61.75 90 822

Karuvannur 127 90 970

Chalakkudy 97.6 450 1093

Periyar 260 400 1844

Muvattupuzha 227 90 2141

Meenachil 166 90 1180

Manimala 85.6 400 402

Pampa 185 45 1732

Achencoil 38 400 889

Pallickil- Kallada 244.5 45 1162

Ithikkara 103.5 45 493

Ayroor-Vamanapuram Mamom 169.9 45 755

Karamana 106.8 45 466

Neyyar 94.1 400 502

Kabbini 62.5 45 2182

Bhavani 5.8 20 476

Pambar 1.94 45 298

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The demand for water is continuously rising with the growth of population, industry

and agriculture3. Water pollution is a serious problem as almost 70% of Indian surface

water resources and a growing number of ground water reserves have been contaminated

by biological, organic and inorganic pollutants4.

Even with this plenty of water resources, India faces numerous problems associated

with water year after year. Most of the rains are localised in the eastern and western

regions there by creating floods in some areas and droughts in other at the same time.

Thus India is now identified with the need for conservation of water resources.

One of the major goals of surface water quality data collection is the estimation of

magnitude of changes in the concentration of various constituents5.

1.2 Indian Rivers

On the basis of origin, the rivers of India can be divided into Himalayan rivers and

Peninsular rivers.

Himalayan rivers

The main Himalayan river systems are the Ganga, the Indus and the Brahmaputra

river systems. The Himalayan Rivers form large basins and many of them pass through

the Himalayas. These deep valleys with steep rock sides were formed by the down -

cutting of the river during the period of the Himalayan uplift. They perform intense

erosional activity up the streams and carry huge load of sand and silt. In the plains,

they form large meanders, and a variety of depositional features like flood plains, river

cliffs and levees. These rivers are perennial as they get water from the rainfall as well

as the melting of ice. Nearly all of them create huge plains and are navigable over long

distances of their course. These rivers are also harnessed in their upstream catchment

area to generate hydroelectric power.

Peninsular rivers

The main peninsular river systems include the Narmada, the Tapti, the Godavari,

the Krishna, the Kaveri and the Mahanadi river systems. The Peninsular Rivers flow

through shallow valleys. A large number of them are seasonal as their flow is dependent

on rainfall. The intensity of erosional activities is also comparatively low because of

the gentler slope. The hard rock bed and lack of silt and sand does not allow any

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significant meandering. Many rivers therefore have straight and linear courses. These

rivers provide huge opportunities for hydro-electric power. The other important rivers

are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. Rivers in mythology are Ganga, Yamuna,

Narmada and Kavery.

Figure 1.1 River map of Indian rivers

Indian subcontinent is one of the wettest places in the world with an average rainfall

of 110cm and a total river flow of 1830km3, 7 hectares of various types of lakes, ponds,

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reservoirs and a potential renewable groundwater source of about 430km3. Almost

3480km3 of this water drains into the Bay of Bengal which constitutes about 90% of

the South Asian region and 680km3 of water into the Arabian Sea.

Table1.2. Seasonwise distribution of rainfall of India

Rainfall Season Duration Approximate % of

annual rainfall

South West Monsoon June- September 73.7

Post- Monsoon October- December 13.3

North East Monsoon January- February 2.6

Pre- Monsoon March- May 10.4

Table 1.3 Major rivers of India and their length,

basin area and average annual water discharge

River Length (km) Basin area (km2) Discharge (mcm)

Ganga 2525 861404 493400

Indus 1270 321290 41955

Godavari 1465 312812 105000

Krishna 1400 258948 67675

Brahmaputra 720 187110 510450

Mahanadi 857 141600 66640

Narmada 857 98796 40705

Kavery 800 87900 20950

Tapti 724 65145 17982

Pennar 597 55213 3238

Brahmani 800 39033 18310

Mahi 533 34842 8500

Subarmati 300 21674 3200

Source: Central pollution control board.

India is endowed with a great many rivers and river basins of great importance.

The major (over 20000 km2) and medium (2000- 20000 km2) rivers are 12 and 16

respectively accounting for 90% of the total run off. Innumerable number of minor

rivers (less than 2000 km2) takes care of about 8% of the balance run off. The rivers

carry 30% of the flow during monsoon months. The utilizable water from dams is

estimated as 690 b cm by central water commission in 1981.

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1.3 Kerala Rivers

Kerala is blessed with abundant water resources in the backwaters and rivers that

exist in the state. The main water bodies consist of 44 rivers (figure 1.2), 5 major lakes

and a number of small and medium lakes and back waters.

Figure 1.2 River map of Kerala rivers

Among the 44 rivers, 41 are west flowing and drain in to Arabian Sea and the rest

are east flowing and drain through the neighbouring states of Karnataka and Tamil

Nadu to reach the Bay of Bengal. But all of them originate from Western Ghats. The

rivers of Kerala and their length and basin area are given in table 1.4.

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Table 1.4. Important rivers of Kerala

Name of rivers Length

(Km)

Basin Area

(Sq.Km)

District Location

Manjeswar 16 90 Kasargod

Uppala 50 250 Kasargod

Shiriya 67 287 Kasargod

Mogral 34 132 Kasargod

Chandragini 105 1406 Kasargod

Chittari 25 145 Kasargod

Nileswar 46 190 Kasargod

Kariangode 64 561 Kannur

Kavvayi 31 143 Kannur

Peruvampa 51 300 Kannur

Ramapuram 19 52 Kannur

Kuppam 82 539 Kannur

Valapattanam 110 1867 Kannur

Anjarakkandi 48 412 Kannur

Thallasserry 28 132 Kannur

Mahe 54 394 Kannur

Kuttayadi 74 583 Kozhikodu

Korapuzha 40 624 Kozhikodu

Kallai 22 96 Kozhikodu

Chaliyar 196 2535 Kozhikodu, Malappuram

and Wayanad

Kadalundi 130 1122 Malppuram and

Palaghat

Tirur 48 117 Malappuram

Bharathapuzha 209 4400 Palaghet and

Malappuram

8

Keecheri 51 401 Thrissur

Puzhakkal 51 401 Thrissur

Keecheri 51 401 Thrissur

Puzhakkal 29 234 Thrissur

Karuvannur 48 1054 Thrissur

Chalakkudy 130 1404 Thrissur, Palaghat

and Ernakulam

Periyar 244 5398 Idukki and

Ernakulam

Muvattupuzha 121 1554 Ernakulam and

Kottayam

Meenachil 78 1272 Kottayam

Manimala 90 847 Kottayam and

Pathanamthitta

Pamba 176 2235 Pathanamthitta

Achencovil 128 148 Pathanamthitta,

Alapuzha and Kollam

Pallikkal 42 220 Kollam and

Pattahanamthitta

Kallada 121 1699 Kollam

Ithikkara 56 642 Kollam

Ayroor 17 66 Kollam

Vamanapuram 88 687 Thiruvananthapuram

and Kollam

Mamom 27 114 Thiruvananthapuram

and Kollam

Karamana 68 702 Thiruvananthapuram

Neyyar 56 497 Thiruvananthapuram

Kabani* 56.6 1920 Wayanad and

Malappuram

Bhavani* 37.5 565 Palghat

Pambar* 25 384 Idukki

Source- CWRDM 2001;*East flowing Rivers. All the others are West flowing

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The major rivers in the state are Chaliyar, Bharatapuzha, Chalakkudy, Pamba,

Muvattupuzha, Kallada and Achencoil. The eight rivers carry nearby 4056 thousand

million cubic meters of water per year out of which 23.1 thousand million cubic meters

of water is utilized for yield. The other rivers carry only 23.7 thousand million cubic

meters available as utilizable yield.

1.4 Review on Water and Water Quality

Parameters

The National Water policy of India recognizes the importance of water for human life

and sustenance. Accordingly, the water allocation has been placed as follows: Drinking

water, irrigation, hydro power, ecology, agro and non agricultural industries, navigation

and other uses, despite high priority being attached to providing drinking water to all

rural areas, a large part of India.

Since the UN Earth Summit 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, people have started

thinking seriously about environmental pollution, exploitation and limitation of natural

resources all over the world. The intake capacity and over loading of the natural

environment with emissions and waste are reaching a critical point strengthened by

rapid urbanization, fast population growth and migration in to urban centers. The

effects are manifold, but the most affected are the poorest in society. Especially women

and children in developing countries suffer most from water related diseases and the

damaged environment (WHO /UNICEF, 2003)6.

In 1992, a report entitled Safe Drinking Water, was published by a group com-

prised of representatives from the Associated Boards of Health of British Columbia,

The British Columbia Medical Association, The British Columbia Public Health As-

sociation, The Canadian Bar Association and the Canadian Institute of Public Health

Inspectors, reported that in 1989 the incidents of water borne diseases in this provinces

was 50% higher than the Canadian average for that year and concluded that there is a

lack of integrated planning and management of the province’s drinking water resources.

A review of Belize Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment by Antony

Flower7 explained the importance of water and sanitation sector. Annual Drinking

Water Quality Report of Ceve Rock/ Skyland Water System8 are meant to increase

public awareness of drinking water issues and to serve as a means for customers to

make informed decisions regarding their drinking water. If water quality restricts

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agricultural productivity and as long as water can be provided sustainable, irrigation

water is another key factor for poverty reduction. With better irrigation measures

growth impulse can be triggered. This can lead to poverty reduction by increasing the

productivity and income of the poor. Samples of water of Finnish rivers were analysed

for physico-chemical parameters by Neimi, et al9, and suggested routine monitoring

and treatment of water for improving the quality of water in the rivers. Neimi et

al10 analysed Finnish rivers for faecal pollution and recommended treatment of river

water for domestic and recreational purposes. Inland waters of Finland were studied

by Ekhom and Mittika11 and found that in some stations the river was polluted. Some

lakes were analysed for organic pollutants and nutrients and reported that the lake

water has rich nutrient content. Mittikka and Ekhom12 investigated the lakes in the

Finnish Eurowaternet. Idris et al13, reviewed water quality standards and practices

in Malaysia and observed inconsistency between the procedures to calculate water

quality index and the effluent standards of the Environmental Quality Act. Altun et

al14, evaluated the seasonal changes of water quality of the Degiremendere and Galyan

rivers in Turkey. The results indicated that both rivers can be used for producing

of potable water during all seasons but only with an advanced treatment. Raika,et

al15 analysed nutrient concentration trends in 23 rivers and 173 lakes in Finland. A

long term analysis showed that municipal and industrial waste water purification can

effectively decrease nutrient emissions.

Wang et al16, estimated the relationship of rapid growth of economic system in

China with widespread water pollution and emerging health issues. The cause of

increase in incidences of water borne epidemics are related to population explosion,

changes in life style and climate which release heavy load of contaminants to water17.

Kwang Guk An et al18 studied the influence of hydrological fluctuation on water quality

of an artificial lentic eco system. They suggest that monsoon seasonality is the main

regulating factor regulation over all functions and processes of the water body and

these characteristics has an important implication to eutrophication of the system.

Nairobi River was analysed by Shem Owandiga et al19 and reported that it has

high levels of agriculturally related pollutants from fertilizer and pesticide use. Dunn

et al20 analysed Coombabah Creek system, Australia, and observed elevated nutrient

concentration. Oshunkaya stream in Nigeria was studied by Osibangoo21 and reported

that the river was slightly polluted. Tasik Chini’s feeder- rivers were studied by G.

Muhammed et al22 and the results revealed that illegal logging and agricultural activ-

ities have caused environmental degradation. The results of analysis of Chillan River

11

in Chile indicated a good water quality in the upper and middle parts of the water-

shed. But in the downstream the water quality conditions were critical during the dry

season. The study of Tinto river, Spain by Lopez et al23 revealed that it has low pH

and high concentration of heavy metals. Ngwedi, Mutale, Tshinane, Mutshindudi and

Mudaswali rivers of S. Africa were analysed by Obi et al24. The results revealed that

all physico-chemical variables of the water sources analysed were within normal recom-

mended limits for safety of drinking water except for turbidity. River Mati and Ishmi

of Albania were analysed by Cullaj et al25 and the results revealed severe deoxygena-

tion. Rim Ruketh et al26 studied water quality of Orogodo River and reported high

level of pollution. This can be attributed to high level of farming activities. Seasonal

changes in physico-chemical parameters and nutrient load of Ibadan river sediments in

Nigeria was analysed by Adeyemo et al27. The results suggested that the water quality

of Ibadan river system is adversely affected by the discharge of domestic, agricultural

and industrial waste. Kosi river was analysed by Narendra Singh Bahndari and Kapil

Nayal28 and reported that all the physical and chemical parameters are with in the

highest desirable limits of maximum permissible limits set by WHO except turbidity

and BOD which recorded a high value. Malir river of Karachi was analysed by Bano

Farida29 and values of all the parameters were in the range of permissible values except

TDS, alkalinity, Na, Mn, Pb and Cr. Tinishu Aaki river of Ethiopia was evaluated us-

ing physico-chemical parameters by Melaku et al30 and reported that the BOD, Nitrite,

Ammonia and phosphate level are high and DO is low due to domestic and industrial

activities. River Nile,Orange, Zambezi and Saire were analysed by Olasumbo Martin

et al31 and found that all the rivers except Zaire were polluted with organic materi-

als showing high value for Particulate Organic Carbon (POC) and Dissolved Organic

Carbon (DOC).

Srinivasa Rao et al32 assessed the drinking water quality of various aquatic sys-

tems and developed a useful procedure for quick screening of BOD level. Kumar and

Sharma33 analysed the lentic water bodies in Madura and reported that the values of

BOD and COD are above the permissible limit. Usha et al34 recorded the increased

BOD levels in May to September in the Perumal lake Kudallor and visualized that

the increase may be due to community activities. High BOD might be due to high

rate of organic decomposition and the entry of organic waste has been suggested by

Sachidanandamurthi and Yajurvedi35 and reported that this is due to the decrease in

microbial activity and the algal bloom.

Two fresh water bodies of Karnataka state have been studied by Angadi et al36 and

12

reported that the temperature varied seasonally with lowest in winter and highest in

summer. Similar findings were reported by Shastri and Pande37 in the hydrobiological

study of Dahikunda reservoir, Nasik. Agarkar and Garoda38 reported lowest pH value

for the water of Vyazadi reservoir in winter and opined that this was due to heavy

rainfall and dilution effect. Raghavendra and Hosmani39 studied the hydrobiological

parameters of Mandakally Lake, in Mysore and reported highest concentration of chlo-

ride during summer. Nagaratna and Hosmani40 analysed the factors influencing the

algal bloom of Nitzschia Lake and found heavy nutrient content in the lake. Similar

observations were found by Das41 during the study of the reservoirs in Andhra Pradesh.

He also recorded an increase of Ca and lowest Mg concentration during monsoon and

highest during summer, in the reservoirs of Andra Pradesh. Sachidanandamurthy and

Yajurvedi35 studied the monthly variations in water quality parameters of a perennial

lake in Mysore and other water bodies in Karnataka state and reported minimum or-

ganic content in summer and the maximum during the winter. The qualitative analysis

of various physico-chemical factors by Eshwaralal and Angadi42 reported seasonal vari-

ation of temperature and pH. Angadi et al43 reported that an optimum agricultural

production depends on soil and water quality. Minimum BOD was noticed during

winter. There are close links in the ecological and technical fields. Industrial effluents

are posing toxicological hazards to the environment .The water of the ponds, lakes

and river are polluted mainly due to discharged waste water from residential areas,

sewage outlets, solid wastes, detergents, automobile oil wastes, fishing facilities and

agricultural pesticides from farmlands44. Today due to various anthropogenic activi-

ties the river wastes usually receives untreated sewage, domestic waste, industrial and

agricultural effluents that results in pollution of several rivers in India and abroad. As-

sessment of water quality has been done by various workers in India. Das and Sinha45

analysed the water quality of Ganga river and found that the river was polluted with

respect to some chemical parameters like COD, pH etc. River Yamuna was studied by

Sharma and Agarwal46 and they found that the river water has very high COD and

BOD values and low DO value. Mahantha and Patra47 determined the water quality

index of Sanamachakandana river in Orissa and found that the potability of water

is much below the permissible limit. Baruah and Baruah48 determined the biological

and chemical parameters of the water of Subansiri River in Assam and found that the

river was not much polluted chemically or biologically. Rajaram et al49 determined the

seasonal variations of physico-chemical parameters in Uppanar estuary, Cuddalore and

reported that the seasons have much influence on the pollution. The transparency of

13

river water depends on suspended soil particles50. Decomposition of organic matter in

soils, leeching soluble chemical fertilizers human and animal excreta, untreated efflu-

ents and sewage disposal are potential sources of contamination of water. Gupta and

Desapande51 studied and reported that the water resources in our country including

Ganga is highly contaminated and people can be infected with various diseases by using

this water.

Sreevastava and Dadhich52 studied the parametric variation in water quality of

Parbati River in Chambal area. Important physical and chemical parameters were

analysed and various observed parameters have been compared to assess the parametric

variation in quality of Parbati river after installation of sub-surface drainage. They

found that the quality of water got improved in parameters like DO, nutrients and

chloride content. Das et al53 conducted a study on wet lands of Guahatti city. The

study reported extremely polluted water quality of Bharalu river,which was indicated

by very low level of DO, high level of BOD, COD phosphates and nitrogen, all making

the river unsuitable for aquatic life. They concluded that the water supply from this

source was not fit for industrial and domestic purposes because of low DO and high

chloride and fluoride content. Moti et al54 made an attempt to study the water quality

of Kunah –Khad stream in Hamirpur district of Himachal Pradesh and their studies

revealed that the water in the stream was polluted during monsoons. BOD and nitrogen

content are beyond the permissible limits during monsoon.

Gangetic river system of Utterkhand, was studied in detail for quality of water by

Anchal Sood et al55, and found that the lower regions of Gangetic river system is facing

severe anthropological activities. Singh et al56 observed the BOD and COD of certain

polluted stretch of river Ganga. They reported high values for both the parameters.

The water quality of Pachin River was studied by Hussain et al57. They reported

that the parameters such as pH, temperature, conductivity, DO, COD, phosphates,

total hardness etc are varied for different flow periods. Variability in physico-chemical

parameters of Pachin River was studied by them. The study revealed that the vari-

ability in the physico-chemical parameters for different flow periods might be assigned

to dilution of river water by direct run off, human activities and organic load.

Gupta et al58 conducted study on the water quality of drinking water in the indus-

trial area of Auriya district (UP) covering total hydrological cycle. The study revealed

that, TDS, alkalinity and concentration of sodium are slightly high, but within the

limits of WHO, ICMR and IS. Neera et al59 studied the physico-chemical characteris-

tics of water bodies around Jaipur. They reported high pH, hardness and low DO for

14

different lakes.

Patil et al60 studied the physico-chemical parameters of water samples from dug

wells in Dhule region and reported that the different parameters show variable values in

different seasons. Sunkand et al61 studied the water quality of Fort Lake of Belgaum,

Karnataka in 2004. Their studies revealed that Fort Lake water is inferior and not

suitable for drinking purposes. Analysis of the physico-chemical variables of river

Mahanadi was studied by Unni and Pawar62. They reported that BOD is negatively

correlated with DO concentration.

The dissolved nutrients such as phosphorous and nitrate in Isapur Dam across Pen-

ganga river in Isapur village were studied by Pulle et al63, and reported that the water

is highly productive. In 2001 Gupta et al64 studied the hydro chemical character of

lakes around Udaipur city and revealed that Udaisagar Lake is most polluted and ex-

hibited eutrophic character along with the lakes Swaroopsagar and Pichola. Kausik et

al65 studied water quality index and suitability assessment of urban ground water of

Hisas and Panipat in Haryana. Impact of urbanization on Bellandur Lake has exten-

sively been studied by Chandrasekhar et al66. The DO ranged from 3.8 - 6.3 mg/l and

COD values are above the permissible limit. The physico-chemical characters of the

samples of Lake Vellayani in Thiruvananthapuram district from 10 stations were stud-

ied by Radhika et al in67. Although all the parameters examined here remained within

the permissible levels, the higher concentration for most of the factors found at near

shore station. Mukundan and Thomas68 studied the characteristics of Kodungallur

backwaters. They noticed a wide range of fluctuations in water quality characteris-

tics between pre monsoon and monsoon periods. In 2005 Harikumar and Madhavan69

studied the water quality and associated environmental issues in relation to Kerala in

land waterways. They reported the domestic sewage, market waste and excessive weed

growth leads to the pollution of central water bodies of Kerala. Bajpayee and Varma70

analysed the water quality of major south west rivers of Kerala. Their results revealed

that rivers of Kerala contribute significantly to the transport of terrestrial materials to

the oceans and most of the solute load in the rivers is due to weathering. Lakshmi71

studied environmental status of Kol wetland system of Thrissur district with special

reference to water sediment quality. The study revealed that the water quality param-

eters were higher. Majority of the water samples were found to be microbiologically

contaminated.

Dhanapakiam et al72 studied the water quality of River Kavery and the result

showed that the water supply was not fit for industrial and domestic purposes and

15

can not serve as an alternative of drinking water in summer. The severe pollution

in Periyar river of Kerala due to out let from urban and industrial areas resulted in

the death of the river itself73. Nair74 conducted the studies on the effluent discharge

from Grasim industry of Mavoor to Chaliyar river and found the presence of toxic

substances and carcinogen in water. The NUS report 200575 describes that the moni-

toring of the impact of coco cola bottler in the Plachimada in Kerala on ground water

quality revealed that the water become totally unfit for drinking and domestic uses

and irrigations considering the changes in various chemical parameters.

Effect of waste disposal on water quality in parts of Cochin, Kerala, was studied

by Khurshid et al76 and found that it deteriorates the water quality. Studies of river

pollution in South Kerala and its relation to physiography and land use were studied

by Soman et al77. Biological water quality assessment of an industrially polluted his-

torical central Indian river Kshipra was studied by Augustine78 and reported that the

biological parameters are not within the permissible limit. An assessment of the envi-

ronmental status of Chalakkudi river with special reference to water quality was studied

by Nirmala and Shobha79. The pollution of Chaliyar river was studied by Joshil80. The

study was to compare change in physico-chemical parameters of river before and af-

ter the closure of a factory and found that after the closure of the factory the river

showed much improvement in its water quality. Mukundan and Thomas68 studied the

characteristic of Kodungallur back waters. They noticed a wide range of fluctuations

in water quality characteristics between pre monsoon and monsoon periods.

physico-chemical characteristics of water sampled from ten stations along Karamana

river were analysed by Jayaraman et al81. Vellayani lake supposed to be one of the fresh

water lakes of Kerala started to show signs of particulate pollution namely turbidity,

iron and fecal matter. Krishnakumar and Shobha82 had studied the solute variation in

some of the minor water sheds in Kerala. Sewage pollution is one of the major problems

faced by the canals that flow through the urban areas. The works of Prakasham and

Johnson83 on Quilon canal and that of Prashanthan and Nair84 in Parvathiputhen

are some of the notable ones. Pollution is also a problem for canals flowing near fish

processing centres and these polluted waters have crept into the ground water sources

near the canal. Babu et al85 have reported that the monsoon plays an important role

in determining the water quality of Bharatapuzha. Unnikrishnan86 studied the water

quality and pollution status of Parvathiputhan Aar. The cause of pollution ranges from

point sources such as pipes or sewages. Nutrient flux of Periyar and Chalakkudy river

of Kerala were studied by Maya et al87. They reported that except for nitrogen and

16

phosphorus all other chemical constituents exhibit high value during the non monsoon

season.

The results of the physiological monitoring of river Ganga at Haridwar revealed

that the discharge of untreated industrial effluents and sewage have contributed con-

siderable pollution to river Ganga. Sharma and Verma88 analysed the water samples

collected from natural springs in Harmirpur area of Himachal Pradesh and found that

the physico-chemical parameters were within the maximum permissible limits of drink-

ing water standards.

The effluents have caused drastic change in river Ganga at Kanpur resulting in

severe decline in oxygen and sudden increase in chemical parameters. Freedagnana

Rani et al89 studied the drinking water quality of five rural places in and around Thit-

tagudi, Thamilnadu with five river samples and five ground water samples. Some

samples exceed the standard value for the parameters. Rajurkar et al90 studied the

physico-chemical and biological investigations of river Umshyrpi at Shillong, Megha-

laya. The study revealed that physico-chemical parameters are within the permissible

limits whereas the biological parameters are found to exceed the permissible limits

which indicate unpotability of water to drinking purposes.

Bhadra Bhasker et al91 studied a few physico-chemical and bacteriological param-

eters on certain locations of river Torsa. Marked seasonal variations of the parameters

were observed. Water quality of Kunah – Khad stream in Hamirpur district of Hi-

machal Pradesh in outer Himalayan region was monitored by Sharma and Gupta92.

The study revealed that the water in the stream is polluted during the monsoons.

Gupta and Shukla58conducted a physico-chemical and biological study of drinking wa-

ter in industrial area of Auriya district of Uttarpradesh. The results showed that the

water is fit for drinking purpose with respect to most of the parameters after biological

disinfections. Patil and Deore60 studied the physico-chemical analysis of water samples

from dug wells in Dhule region of Maharashtra revealed that the different parame-

ters show much variable values during different seasons. Akhilesh Jinwal and Savitha

Dixit93 analysed groundwater of Madhya Pradesh to estimate the potable water qual-

ity and found that better potable water quality was found in post-monsoon than in

pre-monsoon season.

Various groups of workers have carried out extensive studies on water pollution

and water quality. Jagdap et al94 have studied the water quality of different rivers in

industrial areas. Sreenivas et al95 and Jha and Verma96 have studied water quality in

Hyderabad and Bihar respectively and found that most of the parameters show high

17

pollution rate. Patnaik et al97 reported the influence of industrial pollution on river

water. Industrial waste water and pollution problem of ground water was correlated

by the studies of Singh and Chandel98.

Sundari et al99 reported the poor drinking water quality of densely populated pil-

grimage area at Chidambaram in Gudallur, Thamilnadu. The quality of water in 17

Himalayan rivers is found to be diminished due to traditional mass butchering activity

in these water bodies. The pilgrimage pressure during Ardhakumb on the neighbouring

aquatic realm was well observed by Singh100. Studies on Damodar river was carried

out by Ganguly et al101 and revealed that the DO levels remain satisfactory and all the

other parameters are above the acceptable limits. Mitra102 studied the impact of waste

water inflow on the water quality of river Brahmini one of the major Indian River.

Organic pollution content of the river was above the permissible limit. Kosi River of

central Himalaya was analyzed by physico-chemical analysis by Sati and Paliwal103.

They suggested that the river was under stress of anthropogenic activities. Many of

the water quality parameters namely pH, DO, BOD, COD and iron content exceed the

WHO norm of water quality.

Pollution of river Noyal was studied by Kirubavathy et al104 and reported pollution

with respect to biological parameters. Water and sediment of Saharavathi river was

studied by Kumar and Ramachandra105 noticed that at certain sites the extent of

pollution was within the permissible limit while at certain other sites, it was beyond

the permissible limit. The spacio temporal variations in nutrients in the Thalasseri

and Valapattanam rivers in Kannur district were carried out by Lakshmi and Unni106.

Rajkumar and Dharmaraj107 studied the algal pollution of Aliyar river and found

that the river water was rich in nitrogen and phosphate. Study of physico-chemical

parameters of drinking water of various villages or Taluks in Gujarath have been carried

out by various workers such as Bhoi DK et al108 and suggested treatment before use

for drinking purpose. River Mula, Mutha, and Pavane were analysed for biological

and chemical pollutants by Vinaya V. et al109.Gradual lowering of DO was reported

indicating increasing load of bio degradable matters and increasing values of BOD.

Patil et al110, Lahri et al111, Maity et al112 and Goel and Bosale113 have also carried out

studies on pollution of various rivers in India such as Tapi river, Ganga river, Jalangi

river and Panchaganga river and reported that these rivers were polluted because of

human impact. Regina et al114 analysed Bhavani river in Manipur for physical, chemical

and biological characteristics and reported chemical pollution.

Janaki Arunan et al115 studied the quality of drinking water at pilgrim centres

18

at Thiruchirappally and suggested that the water should be treated properly before

use. Rajurkar et al116 studied the physico-chemical and biological analysis of Uma lake

water and found that some of the water quality parameters are above the permissible

limits. Sharma et al117 studied the quality of water supplied by municipality in Darrang

district. Amathussalam et al118 carried out exhaustive study of ground water quality in

Thirucherapalli and found that the tannery industries influenced the quality of ground

water.

River Narmada of Madhya Pradesh was studied by Sraddha Sarma et al119 and the

results revealed that most of the parameters of the water samples were out of limit

according to WHO standard. Kumar and Sharma120 analysed the lentic water bodies

in Madurai and reported that the values of BOD, COD and nitrogen were above the

permissible limits. Usha et al121 recorded increased BOD levels from May to September

and visualised that the increase may be due to community activities, and there was

a marked variation in the total alkalinity from season to season with the tendency to

have maximum values during the winter and the lowest value in conformity with its low

pH. The possible reason for this may be the presence of carbonate and bicarbonates.

1.5 Properties of Sediments

The study of sediment along with the hydrography is equally important and also

essential in understanding the principles operating in an ecosystem. Sediment plays

an important role in the storage and release of nutrients in to water column, the

mineration of organic bottom deposits by various kinds of microbes also provides a

two dimensional substrate to sustain benthic life and not to mention its importance as

bed for growth of algal pasture in shallow area. In all soil characters either directly or

indirectly reflects the productivity of the system as a whole through parameters such

as texture, composition, pH and organic matter.

Wetlands are one of the most productive eco systems of the world and occupy about

6 % of the earth surface122. Soil is the indispensable part of the earth system where

life survives. Studies on the physico-chemical characteristics of soil were reported by

several workers viz Ahamad et al123, Baruah and Das124, Pandit et al125, Lenda and

Yeragi126 and Bhuyan and Sharma127. Sediments not only reflect the current quality of

water but also provide vital information on the transportation and fate of pollutants128.

19

1.6 Sediment Analysis

The natural process of soil erosion gives rise to sediments in water. Sediment is

not only a major component of any aquatic environment but also enriches the water

body with various nutrients required for biological production. Suspended particles and

dissolved salts undergo sedimentation and precipitation under altered physico-chemical

conditions. Bottom sediments are important sources of inorganic and organic matter

in streams, fresh waters, estuaries and oceans. Sediments play a very important role in

the chemical characteristics of river water. Rivers are the major means of transport of

water and sediments from the continents to the oceans. The chemical characterization

of the sediments in a river system helps to measure and assess the probable impact on

the environment.

Continental weathering, lead run off through vegetation and agricultural lands and

human activities contribute to the major part of nutrient input in to the riverine

environment. Analysis of organic matter contained in sediments is of great biological

importance. The determination of the quality and quantity of organic substances in

sediments provides information on the nutritional value of the sediments. Bottom

sediments regulate the freshwater ecosystem.

Sediments are indicators of the quality of water overlying them. Towns and cities

located on the banks of rivers tend to discharge their treated and untreated waste water

into rivers causing phenomenal increase in pollution of the rivers. Thus waterways

act as a cheap and effective sink for toxic effluents. Data on sediment quality such

as chemical composition and organic carbon content are important in assessing the

mobility of various toxicants associated with it. Variations in colour and texture of

sediment were brought by state of oxidation matter, changes in grain size which depend

on nature and volume of discharge. Hence analysis of sediment is an effective way to

assess the magnitude of pollution caused in the aquatic system.

Sediments are integral components of natural water bodies. Sediments are one of the

important carrier phases of geochemical signals, especially metals from land to ocean.

Geochemists have extensively studied the major rivers of the world in order to estimate

the influences of continental material supplied to the oceans129. The fate of heavy

metals in the environments is of extreme importance to their impact on ecosystem130.

Chemical analysis of river sediments is being carried out for exploration as well as

environmental monitoring and management. Metal concentrations in sediments are

reflected by differences in grain size and spacial variability131. Extensive work has

20

been done in India’s major rivers like Ganges, Brahmaputra and Damodar river by

investigators such as Singh and Hassan132.

The concentration of copper ions in the sediments of Yamuna river was estimated

by Jagedeesh et al133 and found that it was within the permissible limit. The con-

centration levels of trace metals and nutrients were investigated in the sediments of

Nagapattanam beach after 2004 tsunami by Sujatha et al134 and found that all the

trace metals were relatively high in the near shore. And the concentration was in the

order Cr>Ni>Zn>Pb>Cu.

The elemental concentrations of sediments not only depend on the anthropogenic

and lithogenic sources but also on the textural characteristics, organic matter content,

minerological compositions and depositional environment of sediments. Sediment anal-

ysis was done for soil samples collected from the limnate zone of Barnoo reservoir by

P. Ojhe and A.K. Mandoi135. Degradation of surface water quality by algal blooms is

of significant environmental and economic importance136. The geochemistry of sedi-

ments of Indian rivers have received wide attention to the recent past to understand

the elemental composition of sediments. According to Bordes and Bourg137, the sed-

iment acts as a carrier and a possible source of pollution because heavy metals are

not permanently fixed and can be released back to the water column by changes in

environmental conditions such as pH, redox potential and or the presence of organic

matter. Syvitski et al138 grouped the global river delta to different climatic zones, polar

temperate and tropical rivers having high sediment yields. However studies conducted

for a number of world rivers showed that the sediment yield decreases with basin area.

Similar findings were reported by Krishnamurthy et al139.

Sediments produced by erosion do represent the most extensive pollutants of sur-

face waters. During the sedimentation process suspended particulate matter acts as a

scavenger of dissolved elements resulting in the removal of discharged contaminants.

Many studies have been carried out so far on sediment nutrients from various esturies of

India, Rajasagar et al140 analysed the sediment of Barnoo reservoir. Many investigators

have reported that the sediments act as indicators of pollution.

Soil remediation and sediment reclamation procedure can be implemented in order

to counter act or reduce the toxic load posed by the industrial chemicals. Remedial

techniques like land fill sites should be used to isolate the contaminants by installing

barrier system, infiltration of surface water, counter current decantation, using chelat-

ing agents, steam injection stripping, soil flushing, vacuum extraction etc.

21

1.7 The Meenachil River

Physiographically Kerala state is divided in to three natural zones– the low land,

the midland and the high land. The total area of Kerala state is 38863 Km2 and

extends between 80 17′– 120 27

′north longitude and 740 51

′– 770 24

′east latitude.

Eastern Kerala lies immediately west of the Western Ghats rain shadow. It consists of

high mountain ranges and deep cut valleys. Kerala’s 41 west flowing rivers and three

of its east flowing rivers originate in this region.

Meenachil River which is the subject of the present study flows through Kottayam

District of Kerala state. Meenachil water shed lies between 90 25′north latitude and

760 55′

east longitude. It has a total area of 1208.11 km2. Menachil river is formed

by several streams originating from the Western Ghats. The general elevation ranges

from 77 m to 1156 m in the upper region, 8 to 66 m in the middle region and less than

2 m in the lower region. The broad land forms include high and medium hills and

isolated hill rocks at the upper region, narrow valley’s laterite mounds and midland

laterites at the middle region and swamps, marshes, reclaimed lands at the lower

region of the water shed. Meenachil river has a length of 78 km. Before reaching

Erattupetta the major tributaries of the river are Kurisumalai Aar, Thrikkovil Aar,

Chathapuzha, Kadapuzha, Kalathukkadavu Aar and Poonjar. Erattupetta is selected

as first site. A site from Kalathukadavu Aar 50 mts ahead of joining with Poonjar

is selected as site 1A and a site from Poonjar 50 mts ahead of joining is taken as

1B and 50 mts after joining is site 1C. Then it flow 5 kms in westward direction

through Erattupetta and Bharananganam Panchayats and confluence with Chittar at

Randattumunni. This joining spot is taken as second site. A site from the Meenachil

river 50 mts ahead of joining with Chittar is site 2A, and a site from Chittar 50 mts

ahead of joining is 2B and a spot 50 mts after joining with Meenachil river is 2C.

Then it flow about 10 kms to the Pala municipal area where Lalam thodu joins it at

Pala. This joining place is taken as the third site. A site from the Meenachil river

50 mts ahead of joining with Lalam thodu is site 3A, and a site from Lalam thodu

50 mts ahead of joining is 3B and a spot 50 mts after joining with Meenachil river

is 3C. Then it flows 5 kms where the river receives the waste water from the Indiar

rubber factory at Mutholy. This site is selected as site 4. A site from Meenachil river

50 mts ahead of its joining with the Indiar rubber factory drainage is site 4A and the

place where the factory drainage joins with Meenachil river is site 4B and 50mts after

its joining in Meenachil river is site 4C. It again flows to the westerly direction for

22

20 kms and bifurcates at Cherunarakathin Bridge. One branch flow towards northern

direction through Neelimangalam and ultimately joins Vembanadu lake. The other

branch, flows westwards through the boundary of Kottayam municipal area where the

Meenadom Ar joins. It again flows westerly and empties in to the Vembanadu lake

through several distributaries.

1.8 Meenachil River Basin

Meenachil river basin has an area of 1272 sq.kms falling with in 57 panchayats.

The main municipalities like Kottayam and Pala and panchayats like Erattupetta,

Bharananganam, Meenachil, Mutholy, Kidangoor, Ayarkunnam, Kumaranallor and

Ettumanoor are located in the banks of this river. The entire river basin is situated in

the district of Kottayam.

The upper region of the watershed of Meenachil consists of agricultural land and

waste land. About 85 % of the area is under mixed crop cultivation/horticulture. The

waste land is composed of barren rocky surfaces which is uncultivable. Grass lands

occupy 5 % of the area. Mid land region is almost fully occupied by agricultural land

of which 85 % is rubber plantation and mixed crops and remaining 15 % is double

cropped paddy fields and low land with water logged area and water bodies. Water

logged areas and water bodies together occupy almost 10 % of the area.

23

Figure 1.3 Meenachil river basin

The problem of waste disposal and lack of drainage facilities are acute in Erat-

tupetta and Pala. Hospital waste also is a great problem. In the study area alone

there are seven hospitals. None of the hospitals have facilities for scientific disposal of

medicinal waste. Waste materials are often dumped or occasionally burned in open

places. Hotels and wedding halls also are accused of depositing vegetable and animal

waste in public places posing a serious health hazard for the residents. The dumping

of garbage on road side is another major problem. During rainy season the waste find

their way through the surface run off.

The south west and north west monsoons influence the hydrographical condition of

the river. Water flowing through the river is minimum during the summer season. Un-

controlled deforestation taking place in the Western Ghats and large scale sand mining

from the river bed has adversely affected the river. The river in the down stream loca-

tions has become polluted by the drainage of large quantities of municipal industrial

and agricultural waste. Increasing incidents of water borne diseases such as cholera,

typhoid, jaundice and gastroenteritis have been reported. Correlation analysis mea-

sures the closeness of the relationship between independent and dependent variables.

24

Inter relation between correlation coefficients give an idea of water quality monitoring

methods.

1.9 Objectives of the Work

With industrialization and rapid growth in world population, man has manipu-

lated the natural hydrological cycle both quantitatively and qualitatively.The study of

water quality involves a description of occurrence of various constituents in water and

relation of these constituents to water use, Rajukar et al141. The growing awareness

that physico-chemical constituents are an integral part of hydrologic system has led to

greater emphasis on determining relationship between dissolved pollutants and other

hydrologic parameters. One particular aspect of popular interest is to study the water

and its use for different purposes.

Water is going to be one of the major issues confronting humanity in the coming

decade142. Safe drinking water is a vital requirement to human being and its availabil-

ity is so important in contributing the overall socio-economic development of a nation.

Apart from carrying infectious organisms water can also carry a number of inorganic

toxicants that pose considerable risk to the consumer’s health. In such cases assess-

ment of physico-chemical properties helps in predicting the quality of water. Assessing

water for these quality parameters routinely will help in rectifying the shortcomings

in the water storage processing and distribution systems so as to keep consumers safe.

Although the quality of water can not be judged just based on the physical properties

but it reflect the gross abnormalities that call for the immediate rejection of water for

drinking purposes143. According to Ravichandran et al144 water may be contaminated

by various means chemically and biologically and may become unfit for drinking and

other uses. In India 70% of the water is seriously polluted and 75% of illness and 80%

of child mortality are attributed to water pollution. Various physico-chemical and bi-

ological factors are the variables that govern the quality of drinking water Dutta. One

of the major goals of surface water quality data collection may be the estimation n of

magnitude of changes in the various constituents145.

The world’s water resources are under pressure and must be managed for human

survival. It is therefore necessary to have most relevant information for arriving at

rational discussions that will result in the maximum benefit to most people. Accurate

and reliable information on the water resource system can therefore be a vital aid

25

to strategic management of the resources146. Water is a scarce and precious natural

resource to be planned, developed and conserved and managed on an integrated and

environmentally sound basis.

Indian fresh water resources comprise the river system, ground water and wet lands.

Each of these has a unique role and characteristic linkage to other environmental

entities147. It is now well recognized that haphazard urban development without ade-

quate attention to sewage and waste disposal, rapid industrialization without proper

treatment and disposal of waste products and dumping of solid waste near aquifiers,

excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture etc pose serious problem of

water pollution148. A majority of rural population is yet dependant on various unpro-

tected sources of water (namely, wells, rivers, ponds, springs, lakes etc.) for meeting

daily domestic water requirement in our country. Consequently a majority of such

population is on the risk of different water borne diseases. Therefore, water quality

monitoring of various sources is very essential to know the status of water quality and

to create awareness in the public regarding safety measures. According to national

water policy149, “both surface water and ground water should be regularly monitored

and a phased programme should be undertaken for improvements in water quality”.

As of 1995 more than 40% of the world’s population lived in conditions of water

scarcity or water stress. This percentage will increase to 50% by 2025150.

The analysis of the most common industrial solvent namely water, is extremely

important, as it contains large number of impurities or pollutants which are necessary

to be checked before it is used for any specific purpose. In its due course river water gets

polluted by pesticides and fertilizers through agricultural run off, human and animal

waste, sewage and industrial wastes. Water pollution is a state of deviation from the

pure conditions where by its normal function and properties are affected. So the quality

of water is very important and fluctuations in normal water quality affect man directly.

Meenachil River is the main source for the drinking water supply to Erattupetta,

Bharananganam, Mutholy, Kidangoor and Ayarkunnam Panchayat and Pala municipal

area. Both sides of the river bank are highly inhabited. The whole Meenachil river

basin is rubber cultivated and as a result much rubber related industries are active in

this area. The sewage outfall from Erattupetta and Pala town can alarmingly increase

the pollution of Meenachil river. So it becomes essential to assess the quality of the river

periodically. People depend solely on the river water for drinking and other purposes

especially in the summer season, ie in the post monsoon period. So the samples were

analysed seasonally and compared with WHO standards. This is the first time that

26

the Meenachil river system is subjected to a systematic scientific analysis. The main

goal of the present research is to test the impact of human activities in the quality of

river water.

The main objectives are:

1. Physico-chemical analysis of water samples from selected sites of Mennachil river

for a specified period.

2. Physico-chemical analysis of sediment samples from selected sites of Meenachil

river.

3. To assess the trends in the quality of water and sediments in different seasons

during the sampling periods, with reference to important water quality parameters.

4. To assess the trends in the water quality of the river in consecutive years

5. To explore the reasons for water pollution in the densely inhabited area.

The four sites selected are also of geographical importance. After its origin, on

reaching Erattupetta, one of the major tributaries, Poonjar joins the Kalathukkadavu

aar to form the Meenachil river at site 1. After receiving all the anthropogenic con-

tributions from Erattupetta and Bharananganam panchayats, the river flows 5 kms

and confluence with Chittar at Kondoor, site 2. Then it flows 10 Kms through Pala

municipal area where Lalamthodu confluences with the river at Pala, site 3. The site

4 Mutholy is 5 kms from Pala. So the study of these sites help to assess the pollution

contributions by the tributaries, Poonjar, Chittar and Lalamthodu and Indiar rubber

factory drainage to the Meenachil river and how it affects the quality of the main river.

The important parameters which help to assess the quality of water are pH, DO,

BOD, COD, nutrients, nitrate, chloride, and fluoride of water and sediment. Texture

analysis of sediments also helps to assess the river water quality.

27

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