Chapter 1 Introduction Although Gerard Manley Hopkins belongs chronologi-cally to the Victorian Age, today he is considered to be a modern poet. His poetry marks a complete departure from the Victorian tradition. He freed both metre and language from the bond of convention and paved the way for the emergence of modern poetry. However it should be admitted that Hopkins is not regarded as a popular poet. The major reason is that his poetry, which appeared posthumously through the efforts of his friend Robert Bridges, is not easy to understand. Hopkins was by profession a priest, and his entire life, short though it proved to be, was devoted to his religious duties. One of Hopkins’ Jesuit contemporaries testifies to his character and conduct: I think the characteristics in him that most struck and edified all of us who knew him were, first, what I call his priestly spirit; this showed itself not only in the reverential way he performed his sacred duties, and spoke on sacred subjects, but his whole conduct and conversation (Lahey 145). It is true that Hopkins showed his priestly spirit in his words and deeds and naturally his poetry too reflects this religious spirit and is religious in character. Gardner evaluates the religious character of Hopkins’ poems in a more explicit way: Hopkins is religious, not merely a devotional, poet. Religion, for him, was the total reaction of the whole man to the whole of life. Man was created to serve and praise God. As Hopkins did both
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Chapter 1
Introduction
A l though G era rd M an ley H opk ins be longs ch rono log i - ca l l y t o t he
Vic to r i an Age , t oday he i s cons ide r ed to be a mode rn poe t . H i s poe t ry m arks
a comple t e depa r tu r e f rom the Vic to r i an t r ad i t i on . H e f r eed bo th m e t r e and
l angu age f rom the bond o f conven t ion and paved the w ay fo r t he em ergence
o f mode rn poe t ry. How eve r i t s hou ld be adm i t t ed t ha t H opk ins i s no t
r ega rd ed a s a popu la r poe t . The ma jo r r ea s on i s t ha t h i s poe t ry, wh ich
appe a red pos thumous ly t h rough the e f fo r t s o f h i s f r i end Robe r t B r idges , i s
no t e a s y to unde r s t and . Hopk ins w as by p ro fe ss ion a p r i e s t , and h i s en t i r e
l i f e , s ho r t t hough i t p roved to be , w as devo ted to h i s r e l i g ious du t i e s . O ne
o f H opk ins ’ J e s u i t con t empora r i e s t e s t i f i e s t o h i s cha r ac t e r and conduc t :
I t h ink the cha rac t e r i s t i c s i n h im tha t mos t s t r uck and ed i f i ed a l l
o f u s w ho knew h im w ere , f i r s t , wha t I c a l l h i s p r i e s t l y s p i r i t ;
t h i s show ed i t s e l f no t on ly i n t he r eve ren t i a l w ay he pe r fo rmed
h i s s ac r ed du t i e s , and spoke on s ac r ed s ub jec t s , bu t h i s who le
conduc t and conve r s a t i on (L ahey 145 ) .
I t i s t r ue t ha t H opk ins show ed h i s p r i e s t l y s p i r i t i n h i s w ords and
deeds and na tu r a l l y h i s poe t ry t oo r e f l e c t s t h i s r e l i g ious s p i r i t and i s
r e l i g ious i n cha rac t e r. Ga rdne r eva lua t e s t he r e l i g ious cha rac t e r o f H opk ins ’
poems in a more exp l i c i t way :
H opk ins i s r e l i g ious , no t mer e ly a devo t iona l , poe t . Re l ig ion , f o r
h im , w as t he t o t a l r ea c t ion o f t he w ho le man to t he w ho le o f l i f e .
M an w as c r ea t ed t o s e rve and p r a i s e G od . A s Hopk ins d id bo th
w i th comple t e s ince r i t y, so t oo h i s d i s appo in tm en t s , p ro t e s t s , and
r evu l s ions we re s t a t ed w i th compl e t e candour ( PG MH XX XV ) .
The poe t ry o f H opk ins i s r e l i g ious i n cha r ac t e r even w hen the
i n s p i r a t i on i s t he beau ty o r g r andeu r o f N a tu re . Thus i n “G od’s G randeu r” he
w r i t e s : “TH E WO RLD i s cha rged w i th t he g r andeu r o f G od . / I t w i l l f l a me
ou t , l i ke sh in ing f rom s hook fo i l ; ( PG MH 66) . The ve ry f i r s t l i n e s c l ea r ly
i nd i ca t e t he t h ru s t o f t he sonne t t ha t t he w or ld i s cha rged w i th G od’s
G randeu r, a s w i th e l ec t r i c i t y. The r e f e r en ce he r e i s t o t he Book o f Ps a l ms in
t he B ib l e whe re i t i s s t a t ed : “The who le ea r th sha l l be f i l l ed w i th h i s
ma je s ty” (P s ms .71 :19 ) . Th i s i dea r ep re s en t s t he c l imax o f t he Sp i r i t ua l
Ex erc i s e s of S t . I gna t iu s Loyo la i n t he con t emp l a t ion fo r ob t a in ing love . On
the f i na l po in t o f t h i s con temp la t ion H opk ins h ims e l f commen t s : “A l l t h ings
t he r e fo re a r e cha rged w i th l ove , a r e cha rged w i th God and i f w e know how
to t ouch the m g ive o f f spa rks and t ak e f i r e , y i e ld d rops and f l ow, r i ng and
t e l l o f h im” ( SD 195) .
Re l ig ious poe t ry i s no t l i ke ly t o appea l t o many r eade r s , e s pec i a l l y
w hen , a s i n H opk ins ’ ca s e , i t d em ands an i n t ima t e know ledge o f r e l i g ious
be l i e f s w h ich f i nd exp re s s ion in i t . The t r ad i t i on o f Ca tho l i c i s m wh ich he
i nhe r i t ed a t h i s conve r s ion i s r ep re s en t ed in h i s poe t ry i n en t i r e ly pe r s ona l
t e r ms .
Wha t i s r ea l l y new in Hopk ins i s no t so much h i s i ngen ious and
f a s t i d ious expe r i men t s w i th l anguage and rhy thm, a s h i s doub le v i s ion o f t h e
r e l a t i ons be tw een G od and man—G od bo th p r e s en t i n t he s ou l o f e ach
ind iv idua l be ing , and God pe rvad ing the who l e un ive r s e . Hopk ins ’ w ho le
conc ep t ion o f poe t ry dem anded and inc luded tha t con tac t w i th G od w h ich
on ly t he mys t i c s know —a con tac t w h ich r ea ches t h rough and beyond the
s ens es . H e s aw G od’s foo t p r in t s on a l l c r ea t i ons uphe ld by H i s l ove . I n t he
poem “P ied Beau ty” he wr i t e s : “G lo ry be t o G od fo r dapp led th ings - / F o r
s k i e s o f coup l e - co lou r a s a b r inded cow ; ( PG MH 69) . A cco rd ing to Hopk ins
G od i s p r e s en t eve ryw her e , H e pe rvades t h e w ho le un ive r s e . H e can f ee l and
touch H i s p r es enc e . H i s onenes s w i th G od i s onenes s w i th Chr i s t , bo th God
and man w ho i s a l s o s een eve ryw here : “Chr i s t p l ays i n t en t hous and p l a ces , /
Love ly i n l imbs , and lov e ly i n eyes no t h i s / To the F a the r t h rough the
f ea tu r e s o f men ’s f ace s ( PG MH 90 ) . The mom en t s o f pu re i l l um ina t ion in h i s
ve r s e a r e a lw ays connec t ed w i th Chr i s t , G od , t he S on , t he Inca rna t e . “M ark
Chr i s t ou r K ing . H e know s w ar…There he b ides i n b l i s s / Now, and see ing
s omew here… So G od-made f l e s h does t oo” ( PG MH 99) . Th i s Chr i s to cen t r i c
v i s ion o f Hopk ins i s endo r s ed by one o f t he em inen t Hopk ins s cho la r s ,
J o s eph H i l l s M i l l e r. I n h i s es s ay “Th e U n ivoca l Ch im ing” M i l l e r op ines t h a t
H opk ins s ee s a l l t h ings a s c r ea t ed i n Chr i s t and founds t he t h eo ry o f
ha rmon y, name ly, eve ry th ing rhymes in Chr i s t . M i l l e r con t inues :
The doc t r i n e o f t he common na tu r e t ak es H opk ins one a l l -
impor t an t s t ep beyond the r ecogn i t i on th a t a l l t h ings rhyme . The
l a t t e r l ed t o a s ens e t ha t a l l na tu r e i s i n t eg ra t ed , bu t i s f o r e ign to
man . H opk ins ’ doc t r i ne o f Chr i s t a l l ows h i m to i n t eg ra t e man
in to t he g r ea t cho rus o f c r e a t ed t h ings . M an too i s a s cape o f
Chr i s t , and r e f l ec t s Ch r i s t ’s i mage back to Chr i s t a t t he s ame
t i me as he a f f i rms h i s ow n s e l fhood . A man , l i k e o the r c r ea t ed
t h ings s ays “Chr i s t ” a t t he s ame t ime a s he s peaks h i s ow n name .
A l l men a r e rhymes o f Chr i s t (M i l l e r 115 ) .
To s ee t h ings a s c r ea t ed means s ee ing Chr i s t a s t he Word , t he Be ing
f rom whom a l l words de r ive . Ch r i s t i s t he pe r f ec t i on o f human na tu r e , bu t
he i s a l s o t he pe r f e c t i on o f b i rd s , t r e e s , s t ones , f l ow er s , c louds and
w a te r f a l l s . H e i s t he common na tu r e who con t a in s i n h i ms e l f a l l na tu r e s . A s
Chr i s tophe r D e lv in pu t s i t : “G M H th inks o f Chr i s t ’s c r e a t ed na tu r e a s t he
o r ig in a l pa t t e rn o f c r ea t i on , t o a p l ace i n w h ich a l l s ubs equen t c r e a t ed be ing
mus t a t t a in i n o rde r t o be comp le t e” ( SD 342 ) .
Each c r ea t ed t h ing i s a ve r s ion o f Chr i s t and de r ive s i t s be ing f rom th e
w ay i t exp re s s e s Chr i s t ’s na tu r e i n a un iqu e w ay. A l l t h ings rhyme in Chr i s t .
The s a l i en t f ea tu r e t ha t i s cons p icuous i n Hopk ins ’ v i s ion i s t ow ard s ee ing
in s cap es a s ve r s ions o f t he w ho le na tu r e o f Chr i s t . Na tu r a l t h ings a r e a l l ,
and a l l equa l ly, cha rged w i th t he g r andeu r o f God , and th i s ove rw he lm ing
f ac t i s more impor t an t t han any th ing spec i f i c abou t t h e na tu r e o f G od wh ich
may be l ea rn ed f rom the s pec i a l qua l i t i e s o f c r ea t ed t h ings . G od’s beau ty i s
l i k e l i f e g iv ing f l u id o r e l ec t r i c ene rgy mou ld ing eve ry th ing in t he imag e o f
t he S on , Chr i s t .
H opk ins ’ na tu r e poems a r e e loquen t exp re s s ions o f t h i s ba s i c
p r e s uppos i t i on tha t eve ry th ing r ad i a t e s t he imman ence o f Chr i s t , t he Son . As
L i ch tm ann w r i t e s , “H opk ins i n s cap es Chr i s t i n h i s poems in t he way he
found in t he qu in t e s s en t i a l I nca rna t ion o f Euch a r i s t i n ma t t e r ” “ (L ich tmann ,
T he Incar na t iona l Aes the t i c 43) . ” The oc t ave o f “A s K ing f i s he r s ca t ch f i r e”
i s s u s t a ined by the s ame p re s uppos i t i on . The f ac t t ha t a l l t h ings c ry, “Wh a t I
do i s me : f o r t ha t I c am e” ( PG MH 90 ) i s more t han ev iden ce tha t t h ings
exp re s s t he i r i n s capes o r i d en t i t y by ‘do ing ’ t h ems e lves . The ve ry w ords o f
Chr i s t a r e echoed he re :
P i l a t e t he r e fo re s a id t o h im : Are you a k ing then? J e s us
ans w ered : You s ay tha t I am a k ing . F o r t h i s I w as bo rn , and fo r
t h i s I c ame in to t he w or ld ; t ha t I s hou ld g ive t e s t i mony to t he
t r u th . Eve ryone tha t i s o f t he t r u th , hea r s my vo i ce ( J n . 18 :37 ) .
Thes e w ords t e l l u s t ha t i n do ing w ha t t hey cam e fo r, i n speak ing
the ms e lves , nonhuman c r ea tu r e s r evea l t he i r l i ken ess t o Chr i s t and dec l a r e
h i s nam e . L ik e j u s t men , k ing f i s he r s and d r agon f l i e s a r e o f t he t r u th , hea r
Chr i s t ’s vo i ce and speak i t aga in .
The s ame ide a o f omn ip r e s ence o f Chr i s t i s r e f l ec t ed i n t he poe m “The
S t a r l i gh t N igh t . ” The n igh t s ky, w i th i t s t r e a s u re o f s t a r s , i s l i ke b r igh t
peop l e o r c i t i e s hove r ing in t he a i r, l i ke “d im w oods ” w i th “d i amond
de lv es , ” l i ke “g rey l aw ns co ld w he re go ld , w he re qu i ckgo ld l i e s , ” l i ke
“w ind - bea t w h i t eb eam, ” l i ke “a i ry abe l e s se t on a f l a r e , ” l i k e a f l ock o f
doves f l y ing in a ba rnya rd , l i ke M ay b lo ss oms on o r cha rd t r ee s , and l i ke
“M arch - b loom … on me a led - w i th -ye l low s a l l ow s ” ( PG MH 66 -67 ) . The poem,
l i k e s o many o th e r na tu r e poems o f H opk ins , i s made up o f a l i s t o f na tu r a l
phenom ena s e t i n appos i t i on t o one ano the r. The poem s ays : ‘Look a t t h i s ,
and th i s , and then th i s ! ’ The th ings l i s t ed a r e a l l me tapho r s o f t he n igh t s ky
and o f one ano the r. They a r e pa r a l l e l becaus e t hey a l l equa l ly con ta in
Chr i s t . Th e poem ends w i th t he a f f i r ma t ion tha t t he n igh t s ky and the t h ings
w i th wh ich i t has been compar ed a r e l i ke ba rns w h ich hous e t he p r ec ious
g r a in , Ch r i s t . Ch r i s t i s t he t r ea s u re w i th in a l l t h ings .
In t he s ame w ay the bas i s o f “Th e M ay M agn i f i c a t ” i s a compar i s on o f
t he B le s s ed Vi rg in and na tu r e . A s M ary bo re Chr i s t w i th in he r and magn i f i ed
h im, a l l na tu r e i n M ay magn i f i e s Chr i s t :
The i r magn i fy ing o f ea ch i t s k ind
Wi th de l igh t c a l l s t o mind
H ow she d id i n he r s to r ed
M agn i fy t he Lo rd ( PG MH 77 ) .
The P oem “H ur rah ing in Ha rves t ” g ives t he mos t p i c tu r e s que
p r e s en t a t i on o f Hopk ins ’ v i s ion o f t he omn ip re s ence o f Chr i s t i n na tu r e . I t i s
t he end o f s ummer and the t ime o f ha rves t . O n bo th s ide s o f a r oad , t he poe t
s ee s t he sheav es o f r eaped co rn i n s tocks , “ba rba rous i n beau ty. ” A s he
w a lks , he l i f t s up h i s eyes and h i s hea r t i n r ap tu rous p r aye r o f ado ra t i on .
F i l l ed w i th t he v i s ion o f Chr i s t , t he poe t dec l a r e s t ha t t he “azu rous hung
h i l l s ” ( PG H M 70) a r e , a s i t w e re , t he shou lde r o f Chr i s t w ho ca r r i e s t he
w e igh t o f t he w ho le wor ld . Eve ryw here i n t he ea r th and s ky o f t h i s au tumn
s cene w as a supe rna tu r a l ha rves t f o r t he spec t a to r. ‘G lean ing ’ Chr i s t f r om
the mu l t i t ud inous spec t ac l e , t h r e s h ing h im ou t f rom the hus ks w h ich h id
h im , H opk ins t ook h im a s i t w e re i n t he com mun ion o f l ove , and w as h ims e l f
l i f t ed up in to and in s cap e o f Chr i s t : “ I w a lk , I l i f t up , I l i f t up hea r t , ye s , /
D ow n a l l t ha t g lo ry i n t he heavens t o g l ean ou r s av iou r” ( PG MH 70 ) .
G eo ff r ey H . H a r tman , ano the r Hopk ins s cho la r, b r ings ou t an impor t an t
ana ly s i s o f Hopk ins ’ poems . Of cou r s e , he admi t s t ha t Ch r i s t i s p r e s en t
eve ryw here i n na tu r e . Bu t he i s more man i f e s t i n man than e l s ew here .
H a r tm an s ee s H opk ins ’ poems a s an a t t emp t t o r eve a l t he i den t i t y o r wha t he
ca l l s r e s i l i ence o f each be ing . Acco rd ing to H opk ins each th ing has i t s ow n
ind iv idua l i t y o r wha t Hopk ins ca l l s ‘ p i t ch o f s e l f ’ o r ‘ i n s cape ’ and man has
t he h ighes t i nd iv idua l i t y. H opk ins ’ p r eoccupa t ion w as t o exp re s s t h i s
i nd iv idua l i t y t h rough h i s poems :
F o r H opk ins l e aves a s ide a l l s pecu la t i on on w he the r t he phys i ca l
un ive r s e ha s o r ha s no t a s ou l and w ha t k ind o f s ou l . H e i s
conc e rned i t w i th on ly one th ing , i t s “p i t ch o f s e l f , ” and he
know s tha t e ach th ing ’s p i t ch o f s e l f i s d i s t i n c t i v e and
inco mparab le w i th any o the r, and tha t man’s p i t ch i s t he h ighes t
(H a r tm an 124 ) .
Th i s i nd iv idua l i t y o r t h i s ness o f ea ch be ing i s man i f e s t ed i n va r i ed
w ays , “ a s b i rd i s man i f e s t i n f l am e , s o be l l i n p i t ch , s o ea r th i n be ing
p low ed” (H ar tman 126 ) . Th e nex t ques t i on i s , and th en w ha t i s t he man i f e s t
o f man ? Q uo t ing th e poem “As K ing f i s he r s Ca tch F i r e” , Ha r t man f inds ou t
t he answ er :
Chr i s t i s f o r Hopk ins t he man i f e s t o f man , a s r i ng ing i s o f t he
be l l , f i r e o f k ing f i s he r s , hu r l and g l id ing o f t he Windhov e r. We
pe rc e ive t he i den t i t y e s t ab l i s hed in t he poems o f H opk ins , an
i den t i t y o f a l l t h ings , a l l mor t a l t h ings , i n r e s i l i ence , i n f in i t e
i nd iv idua l i t y,…Bu t t h i s i den t i t y … i s t hen t r ans cended by a
fu r the r i den t i t y, exc lu s ive t o man , i n r e s i l i ence , h ighes t p i t ch o f
s e l f , Ch r i s t , hence - r e s u r r ec t ion (H ar t man 126 ) .
F o r Hopk ins , Ch r i s t ’s su f f e r ing wh ich l eads t o t he r e s u r r ec t ion and
h i s u l t ima te t r i umph i s a ve ry impor t an t t heme in h i s poe t ry. Ch r i s t ’s
i nd iv idua l i t y l i e s i n h i s vo lun ta ry s u f f e r ing . Windhove r ’s i nd iv idu a l i t y l i e s
no t i n i t s e l egan t ba l anc e i n t he a i r amids t t h e s t r ong s t r e s s , bu t i n t he ac t o f
“buck l ing . ” H a r tman compare s and con t r a s t s t he f a l con w i th Chr i s t and s ays
t ha t w indhove r r ea ches t he comple t ion o f i t s i nd iv idu a l i t y on ly w hen i t i s
r eady to buck le t he f l i gh t a f t e r t he examp le o f Chr i s t :
F o r t he i dea l marked and admi r ed in t he Windhove r by the poe t
w as o f e l egan t ba l ance i n t he cen t e r o f s t r e s s , and th i s s t r e s s i s
s ough t by, no t impos ed on the f a l con who s eems to know tha t a
s to rm cen te r i s neces s a ry t o d i s p l ay the “ach iev e” and “mas t e ry. ”
Ye t Chr i s t w h i l e a l s o o f h i s ow n w i l l s eek ing the cen t e r o f s t r e s s
d id t h i s no t f o r t he s ake o f e l eg an t ba l ance , bu t t o s u f f e r w i thou t
mas t e ry t he “uns peakab le s hock n igh t . ” “Buck le , ” t he r e fo r e ,
add re s s ing th e w indhove r o r i t s a ccou te r men t s o f sens uous
magn i f i c ence , wou ld be i n t he na tu r e o f an op t a t i ve and mean
more t han “buck le on mee t ing th i s hea r t w h ich , t h ink ing o f t h e
a s ce t i c Chr i s t , mus t r e fu s e i t s admi ra t i on” ; i t s ugges t s “ Le t
you r s e l f l i ke Chr i s t m i l i t an t f o r s ac r i f i c e s ubmi t t o a s to rm
cen te r g r ea t e r t h an the pow er o f beau ty, va lou r, o r a c t , and l e t
t h i s exampl e g r app le w i th , beco me a buck le r f o r, den t my hea r t ”
(H a r tm an 127 ) .
H a r tman s ays t ha t H opk ins pe r ce iv es Chr i s t ’s s u f f e r ing w h ich w ins t he
r ede mpt ion o f t he w or ld a s a un ive r s a l and haun t ing phenomenon . Chr i s t i s
p r e s en t eve ryw here i n na tu r e :
The poe t t h en s ee s t he s ac r i f i c e o f Chr i s t impr in t ed l i ke a
phys i ca l l aw in even the l ow l i e s t co rne r o f na tu r e . H e though t
Chr i s t supe r indu ced on the w indhove r t o be un ique , bu t f i nds t he
ca l l t o s ac r i f i c i a l a c t i on a l s o i n coa l…In s uch p roces s e s H opk ins
com es to s ee an imi t a t i on o f Chr i s t ’s P as s ion , C ruc i f i x ion , and
Res u r r ec t ion ; and th i s f ac t haun t s h i m…(H ar tman 128 ) .
Th i s i s t r ue t oo as mos t o f t he poems o f Hopk ins g lo r i fy t he su f f e r ing
o f Chr i s t who t r i u mphs ove r s in and dea th by g iv ing h ims e l f t o be
‘b ru i s ed / c ru s hed ’ . Thus i n a w ay Hopk ins ’ poe t ry i s a poe t ry o f i nca rna t ion .
I nca rn a t ion means , Ch r i s t , t he S on o f G od t ak ing up hum an na tu r e t o r edee m
the w or ld t h rough h i s vo lun t a ry s u f f e r ing . H ence even w hen h i s poems dea l
w i th pa r t i cu l a r peop l e l i k e t he bug le r, t h e s o ld i e r, H a r ry P loughman , P u rce l l
and F e l ix Randa l , t he t heme o f su f f e r ing and Chr i s t a r e echoed e i t he r
d i r e c t l y o r i nd i r ec t l y. Hopk ins neve r fo rge t s t he neces s i t y and the ennob l ing
pow er o f s u f f e r ing . H i s J e s u i t - d i s c ip l i ne and p r ac t i ce a lone w ou ld have been
s u f f i c i en t t o impres s t he a t t i t ude t ow ards s u f f e r ing on h i s mind . Ye t t he r e i s
no mas och i s m in H opk ins ’ agon i e s . H e r ecogn ize s t ha t su f f e r ing i s pa r t o f
t he cond i t i on o f man tha t ha s been made sw ee t and ac cep tab l e by Chr i s t ’s
ow n s uff e r ing w h ich he unde r took vo lun t a r i l y t o s ave mank ind . H opk ins a l s o
r ecogn ize s t ha t s u f f e r ing , w hen unde r t aken vo lun t a r i l y, w ins t he r ede mpt ion
o f t he s e l f and o the r s and i t i s neve r w as t ed even a t i t s da rkes t mom en t s .
H i s w orks he lp t o bu i ld up an a t t i t ude w h ich i s r eady to acc ep t s u f f e r ing and
to w a i t on G od w i th pa t i ence . “We hea r ou r hea r t s g r a t e on thems e lves : ”
( PG MH 102 ) . The poe t know s tha t s u f f e r ing i s no t e a s y ; i t k i l l s s ome t imes ,
bu t s t i l l h e i s ab l e t o be l i eve t h a t t h i s k i l l i ng , b ru i s ing i s done on ly t o mak e
h im dea re r t o G od . The re i s a l s o a t r ans fo rma t ion t ak ing p l a ce w i th in a s he
beco mes dea re r t o G od ; he beco mes a be t t e r be ing and henc e even in t he
mids t o f s u f f e r ing he can f ee l i t s goodnes s . “…i t k i l l s / To b ru i s e t h em
dea r e r ” ( PG MH 102 ) .
The vo lun ta ry su f f e r ing o f Chr i s t w ho l e t s h i ms e l f t o be “ s heaved in
c rue l bands , ” “ s cou rged upon , ” “b ru i s ed s o re , ” ( PG MH 17 ) f o r t he
r ede mpt ion o f t he w or ld beco mes the cen t r a l o rgan iz ing the me o f H opk ins ’
poe t r y. I t i s t r ue t ha t a t f i r s t he ha s t o unde rgo the t o rmen t ing expe r i enc e
w h ich makes h im appea r t o be de f ea t ed . Bu t t h rough th i s ve ry su f f e r ing he
s ucceeds and t r i umphs ove r t he w or ld . As M ar i a L ich t man r igh t ly obs e rves
abou t t he poe ms o f Hopk ins :
In “Th e Windhove r, ” ded i ca t ed …to “Chr i s t ou r Lo rd , ” t he poe t
l e aves u s w i th p loughed s i l t and bu rn t -ou t emb er s a s t he ma t t e r
i n wh ich to f i nd Chr i s t ’s s p i r i t un t i l…i t b r eaks fo r th i n “ t en
t hous and p l aces ”…In “R ibb le s da l e , ” i t i s “Ea r th , s w ee t E a r th ,
s w ee t l ands cape” wh ich , l i ke Chr i s t i n t he Eucha r i s t , ” “ cans t bu t
on ly be . ” In H opk ins ’s i dea o f t he Inca rn a t ion , t he r e i s , a t l e a s t
a t f i r s t , v e ry l i t t l e t r i umph o f s p i r i t . I f t he Inca rna t ion s ucceeds ,
i t s ucceeds aga in s t a l l odds . Ch r i s t l i e s do rman t i n t he mos t
v i s cous , murky, opaque o f s ubs t ances , “ th e ooze o f o i l , / c ru s hed”
un t i l , b ec aus e o f h i s “b i l l i on t imes t o ld” g r ea t e r f i r e , he ga s h [e s ]
go ld - ve rmi l l i on “ ( T he Incar na t iona l Aes the t i c 44 ) . ”
I n f ac t t he s u f f e r ing o f Chr i s t t r an s fo rms h im too ; i t t r an s fo rms the
de f e a t ed Chr i s t i n to Chr i s t t he he ro . H is b lood f l ow ed upon the wor ld and
pu r i f i ed i t l e ad ing to i t s r edempt ion . H e re ano th e r t r ans fo rm a t ion t akes
p l a ce : Ch r i s t t he c ruc i f i ed and de fe a t ed i s t r ans fo rmed in to Chr i s t t h e v i c to r
and he ro , t he g round be ing h i s vo lun ta ry s u f f e r ing .
A cco rd ing to H ans Ur s von Ba l th a s a r t he u l t i ma te co re o f
H opk ins ’ t heo log ica l a e s the t i c s i s t h e d r ama t i c na r r a t i v e o f ‘ t he Grea t
S ac r i f i c e ’ o r t he s to ry o f Chr i s t ’s su f f e r ings t h rough w h ich he w on the
r ede mpt ion o f t he w or ld . The dynamics o f God’s s e l f - r eve l a t i on , c r e a t i on ,
and even g r ace f l ows f rom ‘ the G rea t S ac r i f i c e ’ a s na r r a t ed by H opk ins . Von
Ba l tha s a r a s s e r t s :
A l l t h i s i s f ounded on the ‘G rea t S ac r i f i c e ’ o f t he S on , t o w h ich
Idea o f s ac r i f i c e a l l t he r e s t o f t he c r e a tu r e s a r e r e l a t ed a t t he
l ev e l o f i d ea . The ‘G rea t S ac r i f i c e ’ on wh ich eve ry th ing i s
f ounded i s … the p r im ary w ay in w h ich the s e l f –emp ty ing , t he
pu re be ing fo r ano the r o f G od’s pe r s ona l , Tr in i t a r i an be ing can
be man i f e s t ex t e rna l ly (Ba l tha s a r 376 ) .
The p r e s en t s t udy i s f ocus ed on th i s t heme o f vo lun ta ry s e l f
s ac r i f i c e and on i t s r ede mpt ive d imens ion in t he works o f G e ra rd M an ley
H opk ins . Th i s d i s s e r t a t i on i s an a t t e mp t t o h igh l igh t how the s u f f e r ings an
i nd iv idua l a ccep t s w i th fu l l f r eedom o f w i l l , c an w in and b r ing s p i r i t ua l
g row th fo r ones e l f and o the r s a s r e f l ec t ed i n H opk ins ’ w orks . Th i s r e s ea r ch
w ork i s a modes t e f fo r t t o ana ly s e t h i s mys t e r ious t he me and to b r ing ou t i t s
imp l i c a t i ons . M ore s ign i f i can t ly s t i l l , t he a t t en t ion i s pa id t o b r ing to l i gh t
how th i s t he me o f t h e r edemp t ive va lue o f vo lun ta ry su f f e r ing has
de t e rmin ed the cha rac t e r o f H opk ins ’ poe t i ca l works .
The w ork i s d iv ided in to f i ve chap te r s . The f i r s t , i n t rodu c t ion ,
f am i l i a r i ze s t he s ub jec t ma t t e r and p rov ides a gene r a l ou t l i ne o f t he
i nves t i ga t ion . I t g iv e s a r ev i ew o f t h e r e s ea r ch work ca r r i ed ou t on Hopk ins ,
r e l a t ed t o t h i s t he me . Th i s chap te r a l s o h igh l igh t s t he j u s t i f i c a t i on and
r e l evance o f t he s tudy.
The s econd chap t e r t r ac e s t he t r a j ec to ry o f t he evo lu t ion , g row th and
deve lopmen t o f t he concep t o f vo lun ta ry human s u ff e r ing in Hopk ins ’s l i f e
and the i n f lu ences exe r t ed on h im by va r ious pe r s ons who u l t im a te ly caus ed
the b i r t h o f a p r i e s t -poe t . The re a r e ve ry many pe r s ons who have con t r ibu t ed
to t he g row th and deve lopmen t o f H opk ins ’ t hough t . Bu t t h i s chap te r f ocus es
on on ly t hos e w ho have p l ayed a p ivo t a l r o l e i n mou ld ing the mind o f
H opk ins a f t e r t h i s t he me , vo lun t a ry s u f f e r ing and i t s r edemp t ive d imens ion .
The r e w e mee t h i s ow n f a the r, M r. M an ley H opk ins , h i s mo th e r M rs . K a te
H opk ins , J ohn Rus k in , I gna t iu s o f Loyo l a , and D uns S co tus , t he ma jo r
pe r s ona l i t i e s who mer i t an a t t en t ion in t h i s chap te r.
H opk ins i s be s t unde r s tood by r e l a t i ng h im to i deas mos t e a s i l y
i n f lu enced h im. J ohn Rus k in and D uns S co tus have he lped h im to en joy th e
beau ty o f na tu r e . A cco rd ing to Rus k in , a l l beau t y, s omehow r e l a t e s t o t h e
na tu r e o f G od . S ince beau ty i s t he r e f l ec t i on o f God’s na tu r e i n v i s ib l e
t h ings , Rus k in be l i ev ed tha t t he f e l i c i t y o f t he l i v ing th ings , ded i ca t ion to
t he du t i e s t h rough the comp le t e fu l f i lmen t o f f unc t ions and the obed ience t o
G od’s w i l l , a l l come to fo rm beau t y. Th i s l a s t po in t , name ly, t he s ubmis s ion
to t he w i l l o f G od and to t a l s u r r ende r o f t he s e l f t o H im becam e a
f a s c in a t ing expe r i en ce and sub je c t f o r H opk ins . Thus H opk ins came unde r
t he s pe l l o f Rus k in .
D uns S co tus he lped H opk ins t o f r a me h i s s ens e o f i nd iv idua l i t y. Duns
S co tus ’ conc ep t o f hacc e i ta s ( t h i s nes s ) w as the founda t ion o f t h i s i dea .
M ore s ign i f i can t ly S co tu s s aved H opk ins f rom h i s s c rup le s o f t he
cons c i ence . Hopk ins w as ve ry s ens uous by na tu r e . Bu t he f ea r ed th a t t h i s
w ou ld com e in t h e w ay o f h i s p r i e s t l y l i f e o f comm i tmen t and ded ica t ion .
S co tu s w ho pu t much s t r e s s on ind iv idua l i t y, bo th o f pe r s ons and th ings ,
t augh t t ha t t he mind can app rehend the i nd iv idua l , conc re t e ob j ec t , and
th rough in tu i t i on o f “ th i s ness ” ( hacce i ta s ) f i na l l y come to know the
un ive r s a l . The t each ings o f S co tu s fu r the r r evea l ed tha t s uch expe r i ences o f
i nd iv idua l beau ty u l t i ma te ly r evea l G od and tha t by d i r ec t i ng such
expe r i ences t ow ards G od , man can pe r f ec t h i s ow n ind iv idu a l i t y. Th i s i n f ac t
he lp ed H opk ins t o en joy the beau ty o f na tu r e by s ee ing G od in i t . M oreove r,
i t g ave h i m a t r e mendous r e l i e f f r om the p r i ck o f cons c i enc e . I n t h i s w ay
bo th , John Rus k in and Duns S co tus , have he lp ed H opk ins t o exp re s s h i s
i nne r conv ic t i ons i n t he fo rm o f poe t r y.
I gna t iu s o f Loyo la w as ye t ano the r dec i s ive i n f luen ce on H opk ins . T he
Sp i r i t ua l Ex erc i s e s of Loyo la mou lded and deve loped the i nne r l i f e o f
H opk ins . The re in H opk ins found ou t t he bas i c pu rpos e o f l i f e , name ly, t o
p r a i s e , r eve re and s e rve G od . Th i s i n s t i l l ed i n h im a s ens e o f r e s igna t ion , a
r ead ines s t o s u r r ende r eve ry th ing , i nc lud ing h i s i nd iv idua l i t y t o G od . Th i s ,
as w e s ha l l s ee l a t e r, beco mes a r ecu r r ing them e in Hopk ins ’ poe t ry and
D evo t ion a l Wr i t i ngs . Ce r t a in l y, t he r e a r e o the r s who have ac t ed a s t he
s ou rce o f i n f luence on h im. The s tudy i s con f ined to t he s e t h r ee bec aus e
t hey a r e t he ones w ho have he lped h im to s hape h i s l i ne o f t h ink ing tha t i s
r e l evan t t o ou r s tudy.
The th i rd and fou r th chap t e r s cove r t he t hem e o f t he s tudy, “The
Rede mpt iv e D imens ion o f Vo lun ta ry Human S uff e r ing ” in de t a i l . The th i rd
chap te r exp l a in s t he Chr i s to logy o f r ede mpt iv e vo lun t a ry s u f f e r ing in
H opk ins . I n t he D evo t iona l Wr i t i ngs and Serm ons o f Hopk ins w e f ind h i s
t hough t s on the Chr i s to logy o f s u f f e r ing . They a l s o i nd i ca t e how h i s
t hough t s w e re fo rmed unde r t he i n f lu ence o f Chr i s to logy. H opk ins ’ w r i t i ngs
a lw ays m i r ro r t he Chr i s t i an t heo logy o f su f f e r ing . A s pec i a l e f fo r t i s made
to i n t roduce the t heo log ic a l t hough t s o f su f f e r ing becaus e t hey have had a
s t r ong bea r ing on H opk ins ’ w r i t i ngs and a r e ve ry e s s en t i a l t o unde r s t and h i s
i de as . Hopk ins h i ms e l f w as ve ry eage r t o exp l a in h i s ow n ideas . H ence in
h i s l e t t e r t o B r idges , on M ay 25 , 1888 , he wro te :
We shou ld exp la in t h ings , p l a in ly s t a t e t he m, c l ea r t he m up ,
exp l a in t h em—exc ep t pe r s ona l— is a lw ays pu re good ; w i thou t
exp l ana t ion peop le go on mi s unde r s t and ing ; be ing once
exp l a ined they then ce fo rw ard unde r s t and th ings ; t h e r e fo re
a lw ays exp la in ( L RB 275 ) .
The Chr i s to logy o f su f f e r ing i s ch i e f ly ba s ed on the pas s ion , dea th and
f i na l ly, t he r e s u r r ec t ion o f Chr i s t . I t i s t h rough the b i t t e rnes s o f su f f e r ing
tha t Ch r i s t r edeemed the w or ld . Ch r i s t , t h rough the t o t a l s ubmis s ion o f h i s
f r ee w i l l t o t he s e rv i c e o f h i s f a the r, s e t s t he pe r f ec t pa r agon fo r H opk ins t o
deve lop the t heme o f t he s u r r ende r o f t he w i l l w h ich r e s u l t s i n t he
t r an s fo rm a t ion o f t he pe r s on . A cco rd ing to Hopk ins eve ry c r ea tu r e ha s bo th
t he na tu r e wh ich i s common and the s e l f w h ich i s pa r t i cu l a r. I t i s t he s e l f
t ha t de t e rmines each one ’s de s t i ny. Th rough the vo lun t a ry rhyming o f t he
s e l f w i th Chr i s t e ach one a t t a in s t r ans fo rm a t ion .
The focus o f t he fou r th chap te r i s t he poems o f Hopk ins , w h ich cen t r e
t he t hem e o f “The Vo lun ta ry Hum an S u ff e r ing . ” “ The Windhov e r” w h ich
H opk ins h ims e l f a s s e r t s a s t he ‘be s t t h ing [he ] eve r w ro t e ’ ( L RB 85 ) . “The
Wre ck o f t he D eu t s ch l and” , t he l eng th i e s t w ork he eve r w ro t e , and the s o
ca l l ed “Te r r ib l e S onne t s ” a r e examin ed in de t a i l a s t hey a r e t he mos t
e loqu en t exp re s s ions o f t he t hem e o f ou r s tudy, vo lun t a ry human su ff e r ing
and i t s r edemp t ive d imens ion . A l l t he s e poems h igh l igh t t he p roces s o f
t r ans fo rm a t ion th rough the su r r ende r o f t he i nd iv idua l i t y and w i l l . H ence
the t a l l nun in “ The Wre ck” , t he f a l con in “Windhove r” , t he beau ty o f
w oman in “The Leaden Echo and the G o lden E cho” a r e a l l t r an s fo rmed in to
be t t e r be ings t h rough s e l f s u r r ende r.
T he f i na l chap t e r s ums up the f i nd ings o f t he s tudy and i t s p r ac t i ca l
imp l i c a t i ons and r e l evan ce . I t a l s o po in t s ou t t he poss ib i l i t i e s o f f u r the r
s tud i e s on Hopk ins .
Though an eno rmous amoun t o f w ork has been done on the va r ious
a s pec t s o f Hopk ins i an t hough t s , t he r edemp t ive a s pec t o f h i s conc ep t o f
vo lun t a ry s u f f e r ing has no t been adequa te ly h igh l igh t ed . A s e r ious s tudy o f
H opk ins ’ f avou r i t e concep t o f vo lun t a ry s u f f e r ing and i t s i n f luen ce on h i s
i nd iv idua l i t y wou ld make a wor thw h i l e a t t emp t . To b r ing ou t t h e mer i t s o f
H opk ins i an concep t s o f me an ing fu l vo lun ta ry su f f e r ing th rough i t s
r ede mpt iv e impa c t s i s t o unde rs t and the ve ry pe r s on o f Hopk ins w ho o f f e r ed
h ims e l f vo lun t a r i l y t o t he a s ce t i c l i f e o f a r e l i g ious cong rega t ion tha t
embr aced the l i f e s ty l e o f J es us Chr i s t w ho r edee med mank ind f rom s in by
h i s vo lun t a ry s u f f e r ing . Th i s s u f f e r ing wh ich Chr i s t vo lun t a r i l y accep ted
l e ads t o h i s ow n t r ans fo rma t ion . Th i s vo lun ta ry s u f f e r ing t r ans fo rms Chr i s t
t he man in to S on o f G od the r edee mer. I t i s t h i s r edeeming a s pec t o f
vo lun t a ry human su ff e r ing tha t becomes a cons t an t ly i n s p i r i ng though t w i th
H opk ins .
Though Hopk ins w as e s s en t i a l l y a poe t , he w as a l s o a s ub t l e ph i lo s ophe r
and theo log i an w hos e poe t i c un iquenes s a ro s e i n pa r t becaus e o f h i s de s i r e
t o speak a s ap t ly a s pos s ib l e o f t he i mmanen t G od , o f t he i n ca rna t e Chr i s t ,
h i s vo lun t a ry s u f f e r ing and i t s r edemp t ive va lues . As he w r i t e s i n h i s poem
“E as t e r Com munion” :
P U RE fa s t ed f ace s d r aw un to t h i s f ea s t
G od comes a l l s w ee tnes s t o you r L en ten l i p s
You s t r i pped in s ec r e t w i th b r ea th - t ak ing wh ips ,
Thos e c roke ’d rough - s co red cheque r s may be
p i e ced
To c ro s s e s mean t f o r J es u ’s ; you w hom the E as t
Wi th d r augh t o f t h in and pu r s uan t co ld so n ip s
Brea the Eas t e r now ; you s e rg ’d f e l l ow s h ips ,
( PG MH 20 -21 ) .
Chr i s t had to t ake t he f l age l l a t i ons s i l en t ly ; he i s s t r i pped o f f
mer c i l e s s ly bu t he unde rgoes t h i s o rdea l w i thou t comp la in t s . H e unde rgoes
t he s u f f e r ing vo lun ta r i l y. How eve r, h i s su f f e r ing i s no t a w as t e . I t w ins f i r s t
t he f avou r o f G od who “… sha l l o ’ e r -b r im the me as u re s you have s pen t /
Wi th o i l o f g l adnes s ; ” ( PG MH 21) . M ore s ign i f i can t ly s t i l l , i t l e ads t o a
t r ans fo rm a t ion . S ince i t i s vo lun ta r i l y unde r t aken , t h i s vo lun ta ry s u f f e r ing
i s c ap ab le o f w inn ing a s tupendous t r ans fo rma t ion whe re t hough the bones
a r e spen t and ben t , G od s t r eng thens t hem. “Your s ca r ce - shea thed bones a r e
w ea ry o f be ing ben t : / Lo , God s ha l l s t r eng then a l l t he f eeb l e knees ” ( PG MH
21) . Though th e bones a r e w orn ou t t h rough vo lun ta ry su f f e r ing , t hey a r e r e -
s t r eng th ened . The f eeb l en ess o f t h e knees i s no more f e l t . The w eaknes s i s
t r ans fo rm ed in to s t r eng th . I n f ac t t h i s i s t he key po in t t ha t H opk ins w an t s t o
d r ive home in mos t o f h i s w orks , t h e r edemp t ive d imens ion o f vo lun ta ry
s u f f e r ing . The deve lopm en t o f t h i s t hem e can be t r aced back even to t he
ea r ly poems o f H opk ins . The f i r s t poem, “Es co r i a l ” t ha t f e t ch ed h im the
p r i z e a t s choo l l eve l , na r r a t e s t h i s t r ans fo rm a t ive pow er o f t he vo lun ta ry
s u f f e r ing tha t S t . Law ren ce , a Chr i s t i an mar ty r ac cep t ed . Though i t be longs
t o t he ca t ego ry o f mino r poems , i t g ive s amp le i nd i ca t ions o f Hopk ins i an
t hough t s on the r ede mpt ive d imens ion o f vo lun ta ry su f f e r ing . I n t he f i r s t
i n s t an ce t he poem na r r a t e s t he s to ry o f t he v i c to ry o f K ing P h i l i p I I w ho
vow ed the ca s t l e t o S t . Law ren ce , a s a m emen to o f h i s v i c to ry du r ing the
ba t t l e o f Quen t in ( PG MH 245) . Bu t i t a l s o g lo r i f i e s t he he ro i c mar ty rdom o f
S t . Law ren ce , w ho w as bu rn t a l i v e . H i s “c r ack ed f l e s h l ay h i s s ing on the
g r a t e” ( PG H M 3 ) . The body o f t he s a in t “H ung l i k e a w reck tha t f l ames no t
b i l l ow bea t ” ( PG MH 3) . Even in t he mids t o f t he s e un to ld mi s e r i e s and
a f f l i c t i on , “ tha t s t aunch s a in t s t i l l p r a i s ’d h i s M as t e r ’s name ” ( PG MH 3 ) .
Th rough vo lun ta ry su f f e r ing Law rence , t he o rd ina ry man i s t r ans fo rm ed in to
a sa in t , a be t t e r be ing . I t m ay no t be w is e t o conc lude tha t H opk ins had
pos s e ss ed th e fu l l y deve loped idea abou t t he r edempt ive as pec t o f vo lun t a ry
s u f f e r ing a t t h i s s t age . How eve r, i t i s a c l ea r i nd i ca t ion o f h i s p r ed i l e c t i on
fo r t he t hem e o f vo lun ta ry s u f f e r ing . G a rdne r com men t s on th i s : “… i t i s
r em arkab le fo r a s choo l boy to us e such an exp re s s ion w i th f i e ry cons t ancy”
(G a rdne r 54 ) .
Ano the r ea r ly poem, “Ba rn f loo r and Winep re s s ” a l s o p r e s en t s t he t he me
o f t he vo lun ta ry su f f e r ing o f Chr i s t and i t s r edempt ive e f f ec t . A ddres s ing
the s inne r and pe rhaps even the unbe l i ev e r, H opk ins , announces t he
w onde r fu l g i f t s t ha t Ch r i s t pu rchas ed by means o f h i s t e r r i b l e sac r i f i c e .
S heaved in c rue l bands , b ru i s ed s o re ,
S cou rged upon the t h r e s h ing - f loo r ;
Wher e t he uppe r mi l l - s tone roo f ’d H i s head ,
A t morn w e found the heaven ly Bread ’
A nd , on a t hous and a l t a r s l a id ,
Chr i s t ou r s ac r i f i c e i s made ! ( PG MH 17) .
In t h i s poem Hopk ins emph as i ze s , how Chr i s t , “ s heav ed in c rue l bands ,
b ru i s ed so re” ( PG MH 17 ) b rough t man new l i f e , t he t r ee o f l i f e , by s ac r i f i c e
t hen and h i s s ac r i f i c e now, w h ich i s t he s ac r am en t o f H o ly Com munion . The
th i rd s t anza i s t he de s c r ip t i on o f Chr i s t ’s pa ss ion and pe r s ecu t ion . The
r e f e r ence t o t he de t a i l s o f t he men ta l agony tha t Ch r i s t expe r i ences a t
G e ths em ane ga rden i s f ound in t he Gos pe l a cco rd ing to S t . M a thew 26 : 36 -
57 . H opk ins ’ f avou r i t e i de a o f r edemp t ive su f f e r ing i s embedded in t he