351 CHAPTER 11. GARASSIK (MAKASSAR) In its heyday Makassar was an entrep6t-city at a major delta - the archetypal location of Southeast Asia's historical entrepdts (Kathirithamby-WelIs, 1990:3-4). European : v - descriptions of the city include several eye-witness ' -is. accounts, plus three sketches made of Makassar at c.1638 (Photo 1-1), 1660 (Boxer, 1967: Plate III) and 1667 (Bassett, 1958: Plate 2). Although not all details are immediately clear,^ the sources demonstrate the general organisation of the city into quarters for foreigners near the north oulet of the Garassik (Jeknekberang), Makassar settlements near the south outlet, and Benteng Somba Opu on the deltaic island betwixt (Reid, 1983a; Bulbeck, 1990). Shortly after his conquest of Somba Opu in 1669, Speelman wrote that the only part which should properly be called the city of Makassar was the constellation of individually named villages between Somba Opu and the Garassik's south channel (Reid, 1983a:146-8). Speelman's description precisely matches a cluster of sites at a density which would appear t o be semi-urban. This "Makassar cluster" is flanked at the immediate south by a lesser cluster strung along the Aeng river (11.2). Both clusters can be treated together under the covering label "Garassik" - an independent kingdom prior to being swallowed by i t s neighbours, then a major karaengship during the 17th century (4.3). 11.1 Physical Setting and Fortifications 20th century Dutch topographic maps, along with air photographs taken in the 1940s (Allied Geographical Section, 1945) and afterwards, show the continual growth of the ' Contradictions between the three sketches occur, as in the location of the Portuguese quarter, and none depicts the fortifications as the archaeological record shows them (Bulbeck, 1990). Nonetheless the c.1638 sketch (Photo 1-1) i s the most detailed and realistic of the sketches, and can be followed so long as we remain awake to i t s apparent simplifications. The other detailed sketch, of Makassar at 1660, includes at least three errors: a location of the Portuguese quarter too far northwards, the mislabelling of Benteng Barombong as "Fort Bayoa", and the mislabelling of Benteng Ujung Pandang as "Fort Bontecouge [Bonto Keke]".
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351
CHAPTER 11. GARASSIK (MAKASSAR)
I n i t s heyday Makassar was an e n t r e p 6 t - c i t y a t a major d e l t a - t h e a r c h e t y p a l l o c a t i o n o f Southeast A s i a ' s h i s t o r i c a l e n t r e p d t s ( K a t h i r i t h a m b y - W e l I s , 1990:3-4). European : v -
d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e c i t y i n c l u d e s e v e r a l e y e - w i t n e s s ' -is.
accounts, p l u s t h r e e s k e t c h e s made o f Makassar a t c.1638 (Photo 1-1), 1660 (Boxer, 1967: P l a t e I I I ) and 1667 ( B a s s e t t , 1958: P l a t e 2 ) . A l t h o u g h n o t a l l d e t a i l s a r e i m m e d i a t e l y c l e a r , ^ t h e sources demonstrate t h e g e n e r a l o r g a n i s a t i o n o f th e c i t y i n t o q u a r t e r s f o r f o r e i g n e r s near t h e n o r t h o u l e t o f the G a r a s s i k ( J e k n e k b e r a n g ) , Makassar s e t t l e m e n t s near t h e s o u t h o u t l e t , and Benteng Somba Opu on t h e d e l t a i c i s l a n d b e t w i x t ( R e i d , 1983a; Bulbeck, 1990).
S h o r t l y a f t e r h i s conquest o f Somba Opu i n 1669, Speelman wrote t h a t t h e o n l y p a r t which s h o u l d p r o p e r l y be c a l l e d t h e c i t y o f Makassar was t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l l y named v i l l a g e s between Somba Opu and t h e G a r a s s i k ' s s o u t h channel (Reid, 1983a:146-8). Speelman's d e s c r i p t i o n p r e c i s e l y matches a c l u s t e r o f s i t e s a t a d e n s i t y which would appear t o be semi-urban. T h i s "Makassar c l u s t e r " i s f l a n k e d a t t h e immediate s o u t h by a l e s s e r c l u s t e r s t r u n g a l o n g t h e Aeng r i v e r ( 1 1 . 2 ) . Both c l u s t e r s can be t r e a t e d t o g e t h e r under t h e c o v e r i n g l a b e l " Garassik" - an independent kingdom p r i o r t o bei n g swallowed by i t s n e i g h b o u r s , t h e n a major k a r a e n g s h i p d u r i n g t h e 17 t h c e n t u r y ( 4 . 3 ) .
11.1 P h y s i c a l S e t t i n g and F o r t i f i c a t i o n s
20th c e n t u r y Dutch t o p o g r a p h i c maps, a l o n g w i t h a i r photographs t a k e n i n t h e 1940s ( A l l i e d G e o g r a p h i c a l S e c t i o n , 1945) and a f t e r w a r d s , show t h e c o n t i n u a l g r o w t h o f t h e
' C o n t r a d i c t i o n s between t h e t h r e e s k e t c h e s o c c u r , as i n t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e Portuguese q u a r t e r , and none d e p i c t s t h e f o r t i f i c a t i o n s as t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d shows them (Bulbeck, 1990). Nonetheless t h e c.1638 s k e t c h (Photo 1-1) i s the most d e t a i l e d and r e a l i s t i c o f t h e s k e t c h e s , and can be f o l l o w e d so l o n g as we remain awake t o i t s apparent s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s . The o t h e r d e t a i l e d s k e t c h , o f Makassar a t 1660, i n c l u d e s a t l e a s t t h r e e e r r o r s : a l o c a t i o n o f t h e Portuguese q u a r t e r t o o f a r n o r t h w a r d s , t h e m i s l a b e l l i n g o f Benteng Barombong as " F o r t Bayoa", and t h e m i s l a b e l l i n g o f Benteng Ujung Pandang as " F o r t Bontecouge [Bonto Keke]".
Jeknekberang's d e l t a t o t h e p o i n t where i t now impinges on Ujung Pandang's h a r b o u r . Large q u a n t i t i e s o f sand are c a r r i e d t o t h e Jeknekberang's mouth, w h i l e t h e sea t r a n s g r e s s e s the gr o w i n g d e l t a . Consequently t h e p r e v a i l i n g southwards c u r r e n t s d e p o s i t s o u t h - r u n n i n g sandbars which b l o c k t h e main o u t l e t and f o r c e i t t o m i g r a t e g r a d u a l l y n o r t h e a s t w a r d s (Sobur, 1984/85; see F i g u r e 11-4a).
The main body o f sandbars mimics t h e c h e n i e r s on which c o l o n i a l Makassar (Ujung Pandang) was b u i l t , w h i l e t h e curved o u t l e t mimics t h e n o r t h e a s t d i r e c t e d s p i t o f r a i s e d l a n d once o c c u p i e d by Benteng T a l l o k ( 1 2 . 1 ) . The comparison i m p l i e s t h a t t h e s e c h e n i e r s had been d e p o s i t e d by an a n c e s t o r o f the Jeknekberang wh i c h , a t some s t a g e a f t e r t h e mid-Holocene t r a n s g r e s s i o n , debouched where t h e T a l l o k i n l e t now i s (Reid, 1983a:119). The l a t e Holocene d a t e i s shown by t h e p o i n t t h a t most o f t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e c h e n i e r s i s l e s s t h a n f i v e metres above sea l e v e l , i . e . below t h e l e v e l t o which t h e sea l e v e l s r o s e a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4300 BP ( c f . W h i t t e n e t a l . , 1987:19-20). As a f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , SSPHAP's s i t e s Somba Opu, Benteng G a r a s s i k and Bayoa 1 appear t o f a l l a l o n g a low, d i s s e c t e d r i d g e i d e n t i f i a b l e as t h e southwest bending t a i l of t h e p r e h i s t o r i c Ujung Pandang c h e n i e r s . F i v e f l a k e d s tone a r t e f a c t s were r e c o r d e d a t G a r a s s i k ( F i g u r e 11-15a), and so by st a m p i n g t h e s i t e ' s l a n d f o r m as p r e h i s t o r i c , a l l o w us t o d a t e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e Ujung Pandang c h e n i e r s t o between 4000 and 1000 BP ( F i g u r e s 1 1 - l b and l l - l c ) . ^
E vidence r e v i e w e d p r e v i o u s l y suggests t h a t t h e lower Sungai G a r a s s i k may have f o l l o w e d t h e Anak Gowa u n t i l s t r a i g h t e n i n g i t s c o u r s e p a s t Benteng Tua by t h e 17th c e n t u r y ( 8 . 1 ; 9.9.3). The Paknakkukang-Pattukangang c h e n i e r , t o t h e s o u t h o f t h e Jeknekberang, c o n f i r m s t h e s u g g e s t i o n by
^ A p i e c e o f v o l c a n i c s t o n e from Bayoa, which resembles a b i p o l a r c o r e even though Johann Kamminga ( p e r s . comm.) recommends "smashed s t o n e a g g r e g r a t e " as t h e more p a r s i m o n i o u s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , o f f e r s f u r t h e r p o s s i b l e support f o r t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
The course o f t h e l a t e p r e h i s t o r i c Jeknekberang, shown i n F i g u r e 11-1c, f o l l o w s t h e p r e s e n t - d a y Sungai Bantimurung above Bontomanaik, based on what appears t o be a remnant channel l e a v i n g t h e p r e s e n t - d a y Jeknekberang d i r e c t l y upstream from Bissua and a r t i c u l a t i n g w i t h t h e Bantimurung (see F i g u r e s 5-2 and 5-6).
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m i m i c k i n g t h e form o f t h e modern d e l t a on a much reduced s c a l e ( F i g u r e 11-19). I t would have been l a r g e l y d e p o s i t e d by the 15th c e n t u r y , t h e d a t e o f t h e o l d e s t t r a d e w a r e s r e c o r d e d on t h e c h e n i e r ( 1 1 . 5 . 3 ) . Hence t h e s t a g e a t which t h e Garassik breached t h e s o u t h t a i l o f t h e Ujung Pandang c h e n i e r s can p r o b a b l y be d a t e d t o around t h e e a r l y 1 6th c e n t u r y . Even t h e n , t h e G a r a s s i k was p r o b a b l y s t i l l a modest r i v e r , w i t h i t s d r a i n a g e b a s i n r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e c o a s t a l p l a i n , and i t s e n t r y t o i t s d e l t a marked by t h e course o f t h e modern Anak Gowa ( F i g u r e 1 1 - I d ) . So when Tunipalangga b u i l t Somba Opu's f i r s t b r i c k w a l l s i n t h e mid-16th c e n t u r y (SG:26), t h e f o r t would have s a t on t h e sho r e d i r e c t l y n o r t h o f t h e G a r a s s i k d e l t a , towards t h e s o u t h o f a l a r g e bay encl o s e d by t h e o l d c h e n i e r s ( c f . F i g u r e 11-2).
As a n e x t s t a g e t h e G a r a s s i k would have begun t h e process o f n o r t h w a r d s d e l t a f o r m a t i o n , l e a d i n g t o t h e s i t u a t i o n o f two c h a n n e l s , n o r t h and s o u t h o f Somba Opu r e s p e c t i v e l y , as d e p i c t e d by t h e 17th c e n t u r y European s k e t c h e s . The c o a s t l i n e a t Somba Opu and southwards must have pro g r a d e d somewhat by t h i s s t a g e (see F i g u r e 11-2), so t h e European s k e t c h e s would be s l i g h t l y i n a c c u r a t e i n d e p i c t i n g Somba Opu r i g h t on t h e shor e . ^
The a p p r o x i m a t e c o u r s e o f t h e s o u t h o u t l e t o f t h e Gar a s s i k , l i k e w i s e i t s s t a t u s as a n a v i g a b l e r i v e r and t h e main o u t l e t , i s c l e a r from t h e European s k e t c h e s ( e . g . Photo 1-1) and a l l t h e o t h e r sources o f e v i d e n c e . The l a t t e r i n c l u d e Speelman's d e s c r i p t i o n o f Makassar, and h i s c i t a t i o n o f P a t t o [ P a t t u n g ] as one o f t h e v i l l a g e s a l o n g t h e channel ( R e i d , 1983a:146); t h e account o f t h e a s s a u l t on Somba Opu (Andaya, 1981:131); t h e 1693 map ( F i g u r e 5 - 5 ) ; and t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e ch a n n e l ' s c o u n t e r p a r t i n t h e modern d e l t a . I n F i g u r e 11-2 I l o c a t e t h e s o u t h o u t l e t t o f o l l o w a p e c u l i a r remnant c h a n n e l , shown on t h e Dutch land-use maps, between Lekokbodong and Bonto L a k j a .
My " r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f Makassar 1 667" (Bulbeck, 1 990 : F i g u r e 2) had accepted t h e p o s i t i o n o f Somba Opu r i g h t on t h e beach f r o n t as d e p i c t e d by t h e s k e t c h e s . But t h i s i s because I m i s i n t e r p r e t e d t h e o l d c h e n i e r l i n e as t h e 17th c e n t u r y coast 1 i n e . . .
However, i t i s h a r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e co u r s e o f t h e o u t l e t n o r t h o f Somba Opu. The c.1638 s k e t c h has t h e channel r u n n i n g due west a l o n g t h e f o r t ' s n o r t h w a l l b e f o r e p a s s i n g t h e Portuguese q u a r t e r (Photo 1-1). C o n t r a s t t h a t w i t h Speelman's d e s c r i p t i o n , w r i t t e n i n 1669.
As you l o o k a t [Somba Opu], a l o n g t h e n o r t h s i d e f l o w s a r i v e r , named t h e new r i v e r o r Binanga-beru, because t h i s was dug by t h e f a t h e r o f Karaeng P a t t i n g a l l o a n g , Tumenanga r i Agama o r Karaeng P a t t i n g a l l o a n g , from t h i s bank t o Sambong Jawa and f u r t h e r t o t h e n o r t h o f Sombaopu t o t h e Portuguese q u a r t e r . ' ( R e i d , 1983a:146).
Speelman's words suggest a n o r t h w a r d c o u r s e . The toponym he c i t e s , Sambung Jawa o r " E x t e n s i o n f o r F o r e i g n e r s " , was l o c a t e d w e l l n o r t h o f Somba Opu by a t l e a s t 1693 ( F i g u r e 5 - 5 ) . True, Sambung Jawa as shown on t h e 1693 map had e i t h e r moved n o r t h from i t s 1669 p o s i t i o n , r e f l e c t i n g t h e r e l o c a t i o n o f l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n from Somba Opu t o F o r t Rotterdam, or e l s e c o v e r e d a l a r g e a r e a . But t h e 1693 map a l s o shows t h a t t h e n o r t h o u t l e t , which by t h e n appears t o have been i n a c t i v e , d i d n o t abut Somba Opu so much as f o l l o w a course h a l f w a y between Somba Opu and M a r i s o ( F i g u r e 5-5). Moreover t h e toponym Balang Baru, which s e a t e d a k a r a e n g s h i p between 1634 and 1659 (LB:95,121), i s to d a y a p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f w a y between M a r i s o and Benteng Somba Opu ( F i g u r e 1 1 -4). By analogy w i t h t h e use o f t h e name "Balang Beru" f o r t h e Jeknekberang's most r e c e n t channel f o r g e d i n 1977 (Photo 11-1; see a l s o Suaka, 1986/87:Photo 5 ) , t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y toponym p r o b a b l y a l s o s a t on t h e "new r i v e r " o f t h e Garassik.
I n one i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e n , t h e c.1638 s k e t c h e r r e d i n g i v i n g t h e channel a due west c o u r s e r a t h e r t h a n t h e n o r t h w e s t c o u r s e i t had (see F i g u r e s 11-5c and 11-5d). I n t h e o t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e c.1638 s k e t c h c o r r e c t l y d e p i c t s t h e 1638 c o u r s e , b u t by 1669 i t f o l l o w e d a new o u t l e t f u r t h e r t o t h e n o r t h . The l a t t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s n o t u n n e c e s s a r i l y c o m p l i c a t e d , r a t h e r i t f i t s t o d a y ' s p a t t e r n i n which t h e p r e v a i l i n g c u r r e n t s f o r c e t h e Jeknekberang's n o r t h o u t l e t t o m i g r a t e g r a d u a l l y n o r t h e a s t w a r d s (Sobur, 1984/85). I n e i t h e r
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i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h e n o r t h o u t l e t f o l l o w e d a n o r t h w e s t course by 1667, a l o n g t h e l i n e s shown i n F i g u r e s 11-5c and 11-5d.'*
A f u r t h e r channel shown i n F i g u r e 11-2 f o l l o w s Speelman's r e p o r t o f Hasanuddin's " l a s t d i t c h " which he excavated between G a r a s s i k and Somba Opu a f t e r t h e Dutch b r i e f l y o c c upied Paknakkukang i n 1660 ( R e i d , 1983a:146; Andaya, 1981 : 4 9 ) . v:- --.'te-
While t h e 1660s w i t n e s s e d t h e f r e n e t i c f o r t i f y i n g o f Makassar (Andaya, 1981:49-60), an e q u a l l y pronounced campaign o c c u r r e d i n t h e e a r l y 1630s, c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o an i n t e r l u d e o f Dutch a g g r e s s i o n as seen from Makassar (LB:95-96). The r e n o v a t i o n o f M a c i n n i k Dangang (Somba Opu) f o r t h e Gowa r a j a and h i s f a m i l y (LB:92-93), a l o n g w i t h some o f t h e c o a s t a l f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , can be a t t r i b u t e d t o Gowa's A l a u d d i n ( T a b l e 11-1). But an equal number o f works a r e a s c r i b e d t o T a l l o k ' s A b d u l l a h a f t e r he was r e t h r o n e d i n 1634 (LB:95). As I p o i n t e d out p r e v i o u s l y (Bulbeck, 1990:92-93), i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e s e works depends on r e a d i n g t h e r e l e v a n t passages i n LB and ST t o g e t h e r , c o n t e x t u a l i s e d w i t h i n SSPHAP's a r c h a e o l o g i c a l documentation o f t h e c o a s t a l defence works. The l a t t e r i n c l u d e s an e a r t h e n f o r t a t Paknakkukang backed by a s n a t c h o f b r i c k w a l l ( F i g u r e s 11-3b and 11-19), no l e s s t h a n 1.2 km of b r i c k w a l l from Pattukangang t o Barombong, and snatches o f b r i c k w a l l a t G a r a s s i k ( F i g u r e 11-3a) and Bayoa which had a p p a r e n t l y once connected as a w a l l e x t e n d i n g a l o n g t h e c h e n i e r towards Somba Opu. jV^ (>v/W/^/ cm :i>£^ ̂
Data on b r i c k s i z e s ( F i g u r e 11-2) demo n s t r a t e t h a t t h e Barombong and Bayoa b r i c k s , and t h e " s m a l l e r " b r i c k s a t Paknakkukang and G a r a s s i k , c o n s t i t u t e t h e same t y p e which was s l i g h t l y l a r g e r , and i n p a r t i c u l a r t h i c k e r , t h a n t h e
For f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n see 12.1, i n c l u d i n g my argument t h a t Speelman was p r o b a b l y confused i n a t t r i b u t i n g t h i s n o r t h o u t l e t t o t h e e a r t h w o r k s o f A b d u l l a h (Kg Matoaya). Note a l s o t h a t I had e a r l i e r suggested a n o r t h - n o r t h - w e s t course f o r the G a r a s s i k ' s n o r t h o u t l e t (Bulbeck, 1990), b u t t h i s i s because I had b e l i e v e d t h e 1660 s k e t c h i n i t s l o c a t i o n o f the Portuguese q u a r t e r f a r t o t h e n o r t h o f Somba Opu (see f o o t n o t e 1 ) . Note a l s o t h a t i f t h e n o r t h o u t l e t had m i g r a t e d n o r t h e a s t w a r d s between 1638 and 1669, as t h e t o t a l i t y o f t h e evidence suggests, t h e n t h e Portuguese had a l s o r e l o c a t e d t h e i r q u a r t e r s when t h e o u t l e t moved, and Balang Baru c o u l d have moved too. L o c a l i s e d r e l o c a t i o n i s o f course a common expe r i e n c e f o r communities l i v i n g on a d e l t a ' s edge.
TABLE 11-1. FORTIFICATION WORKS AT GARASSIK (MAKASSAR)
Works S p o n s o r i n g R u l e r Date References
Somba Opu's f i r s t T u n ipalangga c.1550 SG:26 b r i c k w a l l s
Somba Opu's a d d i t i o n a l A l a u d d i n 1631-2 LB:92-93 b r i c k w a l l s
Somba Opu's town g a t e A b d u l l a h 1635 ST:17-18; LB:96
C o a s t a l w a l l from Ujung A b d u l l a h ,̂ 1634 ST:17 (Bulbeck, Tana s o u t h t o Somba Opu 1990); LB: 95
Co a s t a l w a l l Somba Opu A b d u l l a h 1634 ST:17 (Bulbeck, t o Paknakkukang 1990:92)
Benteng Paknakkukang A l a u d d i n * o r 1634 LB:95 A b d u l l a h
Barombong w a l l Alauddin*» o r 1635 LB:96 s t r e n g t h e n e d A b d u l l a h
Channel between Somba Hasanuddin c.1660 Speelman Opu and G a r a s s i k ( R e i d , 1983a)
Pattukangang w a l l Hasanuddin 1661 LB: 124
Second Barombong w a l l Hasanuddin 1662 : LB:126
* The passage mentions t h a t t h e 'Raja', i . e . A l a u d d i n , s t a y e d a t Paknakkukang w h i l e i t s w a l l s were b e i n g b u i l t .
^ The work was r e p o r t e d l y c a r r i e d o u t by 855 people from Somba Opu, whic h m i g h t i m p l i c a t e A l a u d d i n r a t h e r t h a n A b d u l l a h .
357
" s m a l l e r " b r i c k s a t t h e p a l a c e s ( E . 1 ) . The s u g g e s t i o n , t h a t these s t r e t c h e s o f c o a s t a l w a l l were a l l b u i l t i n t h e same programme, c o n f i r m s t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t A b d u l l a h b u i l t a c o a s t a l w a l l from Ujung Tana t o Paknakkukang i n 1634, f o l l o w e d by t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f Barombong's f i r s t b r i c k w a l l i n 1635 ( T a b l e 11-1). A c c o r d i n g t o my model i n which b r i c k s t e n d t o have g r a d u a l l y decreased i n s i z e d u r i n g t h e same works ( E . 3 ) , c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e w a l l between Paknakkukang and G a r a s s i k s t a r t e d a t Paknakkukang,= and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f Barombong's w a l l a l s o s t a r t e d a t t h e s o u t h . The e a r t h f o r t s a t G a r a s s i k (11.5) and, a p p a r e n t l y , Bayoa (11.6) were p o s s i b l y a l s o made a t t h i s j u n c t u r e .
The u n u s u a l l y t h i c k b r i c k s SSPHAP measured a t Pattukangang ( F i g u r e 11-2) suggest a d i f f e r e n t programme, one which might match t h e r e c o r d o f a b r i c k w a l l b u i l t on t h e s o u t h s i d e o f Benteng Paknakkukang i n 1661 (LB:124). A c c e p t i n g t h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n would mean t h a t o n l y Barombong's second w a l l , r e p o r t e d l y b u i l t i n 1662 (LB:126), remains unmatched w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e x p r e s s i o n . Now n o t e t h a t t h e t o t a l l e n g t h o f t h e Barombong w a l l amounts t o 800 metres, b u t SSPHAP's b r i c k measurements sampled o n l y t h e 400 metres a t th e s o u t h . As my s c e n a r i o argues t h a t u n u s u a l l y t h i c k b r i c k s were used i n t h e e a r l y 1660s t o complete t h e w a l l between Paknakkukang and Barombong, I i n f e r t h a t Barombong's "second w a l l " r e f e r s t o some o r a l l o f t h e 400 metres a t t h e n o r t h , and hence I p r e d i c t t h i s s e c t i o n s h o u l d c o n t a i n u n u s u a l l y t h i c k b r i c k s . I f n o t , p a r t s o f my s c e n a r i o may need m o d i f i c a t i o n .
11.2 S i t e C l u s t e r i n g A n a l y s i s
F i g u r e 11-4a l a b e l s t h e " N o r t h Polombangkeng" and "Garassik" h i s t o r i c a l s i t e s , a l o n g w i t h t h e h i s t o r i c a l toponyms t o t h e d i r e c t n o r t h ( 1 2 . 3 ) . The N o r t h Polombangkeng s i t e s a r e not d e a l t w i t h i n t h i s t h e s i s , and I i n c l u d e t h e i r c l u s t e r i n g a n a l y s i s t o show t h a t t h e y form t h e i r own c l u s t e r s d i s t i n c t from t h e Ga r a s s i k s i t e s ( T a b l e 11-5; F i g u r e 11-6).
^ Here c o n f i r m e d by t h e presence o f some " l a r g e " b r i c k s a t Paknakkukang which were a l r e a d y t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y o b s o l e s c e n t ' by t h a t s t a g e and absent from any l a t e r b r i c k w o r k s .
358
F i g u r e 11-4b shows t h e t h e r e c o r d e d land-use topography i n 1969, t h e modern a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i v i s i o n s e s t a b l i s h e d by 1973, and t h e lower Jeknekberang pre-1977. B e f o r e t h e 1977 f l o o d t h e s o u t h o u t l e t o f t h e Jeknekberang used t o r u n n o r t h o f Somba Opu, b u t d u r i n g t h e f l o o d i t s t r a i g h t e n e d i t s course s o u t h a l o n g Somba Opu (Photo 11-1), washing away t h e former s i t e o f Lekokbodong (hence now t r e a t e d as a h i s t o r i c a l toponym) and much o t h e r s e t t l e m e n t b e s i d e s . The o u t l e t now debouches d i r e c t l y n o r t h o f Paknakkukang, dumping l a r g e amounts o f sand which t h e p r e v a i l i n g southwards c u r r e n t s have reworked i n t o l o n g s h o r e b a r s west and s o u t h o f Paknakkukang (Photo 11-2). T h i s geomorphic r e m o d e l l i n g n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , t h e dominant land-use p a t t e r n s shown by t h e 1969 map - r i c e f i e l d s , s e t t l e m e n t and some f i s h ponds - p e r s i s t i n those areas most a f f e c t e d by t h e 1977 f l o o d as elsewhere.
The 1977 d e s t r u c t i o n o f Lekokbodong, and t h e s m a l l s i z e of many o f t h e r e c o r d e d s i t e s , i n d i c a t e t h a t o n l y an i m p o v e r i s h e d sample o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s a l o n g t h e lower Jeknekberang i s a v a i l a b l e f o r r e c o r d i n g . ^ What remains may w e l l be r e s t r i c t e d t o t h o s e examples perched on r e s i l i e n t e n c l a v e s o f r a i s e d l a n d which have s u r v i v e d t h e r i g o u r s o f channel a l t e r a t i o n . W h i l e s i t e c l u s t e r s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o Speelman's "Makassar c i t y " can be r e c o n s t r u c t e d , t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n would presumably be more i n c i s i v e i n an u n d i s t u r b e d landscape.
^ For i n s t a n c e Bonte Keke, mentioned by Speelman as one of t h e l a r g a r v i l l a g e s a l o n g t h e G a r a s s i k ' s s o u t h o u t l e t (Reid, 1983a:146), has v a n i s h e d even as a toponym. Andaya (1981:319) not e s t h a t i t and a n o t h e r nearby v i l l a g e a t t a c k e d i n 1669, Tana-Tana, do not appear on t h e 1693 map, which he a s c r i b e s t o t h e p r e d i l i c t i o n o f t h e Makassar not t o r e s e t t l e d i s a s t e r - s t r u c k s i t e s . However, Speelman's d e s c r i p t i o n of Bonto Keke p o s t d a t e s t h e a t t a c k on t h e v i l l a g e , and Tana-Tana was t h e k a r a e n g s h i p o f Mohammad A l l ' s d aughter Fatimah (1673-1739).
By t h e same t o k e n , t h e l a c k o f s i t e s and s c a r c i t y o f h i s t o r i c a l toponyms d i r e c t l y n o r t h o f Somba Opu cannot be t a k e n a t f a c e v a l u e . The area would be l a r g e l y c o n s t i t u t e d of r e c e n t l y formed and, hence, r e c e n t l y o c c u p i e d l a n d s u r f a c e s . A s u r v e y i m m e d i a t e l y n o r t h o f Somba Opu, c a r r i e d out by M u t t a l i b (Suaka) and A l b e r t i n u s ( a r c h a e o l o g y s t u d e n t , Hasanuddin U n i v e r s i t y ) , found o n l y European and r e c e n t t r a d e w a r e s . Granted t h a t most o f t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d may w e l l have been d e s t r o y e d t h r o u g h d e l t a i c r e m o d e l l i n g , n o n e t h e l e s s much o f t h i s would r e f e r s p e c i f i c a l l y t o t h e 17th c e n t u r y f o r e i g n e r s ' q u a r t e r s c e n t r e d i n t h i s area. Hence we
• ••
359
To gauge t h e p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s o f r i v e r c h annels on s i t e c l u s t e r i n g p a t t e r n s ( 6 . 6 . 2 ) , we use t h e i n f e r r e d 1660s' channels.® The i s s u e whether o r not t o count f o r t r e s s w a l l as s i t e (6.6.2) does n o t a f f e c t Somba Opu and Paknakkukang/Pattukangang, which b o t h count as one s i t e e i t h e r way. But i t does suggest c o a s t a l w a l l as an analogue, b o t h t h e r e c o r d e d and t h e i n f e r r e d l e n g t h s .
Hence f o u r approaches a r e used: (A) s i t e e x c l u d i n g w a l l s , r i v e r c h a nnels i g n o r e d ; (B) a l l r e c o r d e d s i t e , r i v e r channels i g n o r e d ; (C) s i t e e x c l u d i n g w a l l s , j o i n s p r e v e n t e d a c r o s s i n f e r r e d c h a n n e l s ; and (D) a l l r e c o r d e d and i n f e r r e d s i t e , j o i n s p r e v e n t e d a c r o s s i n f e r r e d c h a n n e l s . As t h r e e c l a s s e s o f s i t e a r e e n t e r t a i n e d , i n t e r s i t e d i s t a n c e s a r e g i v e n t h r i c e ( T ables 11-2 t o 11-4). But t h e same p a t t e r n o f s i t e s c o n s i s t e n t l y emerges r e g a r d l e s s o f how t h e d a t a a r e p r o j e c t e d . The s i t e s between Somba Opu and t h e Aeng r i v e r , o r between t h e s o u t h G a r a s s i k o u t l e t and t h e Aeng r i v e r i f i n f e r r e d c h a n n e l s a r e t r e a t e d as b a r r i e r s , j o i n t o g e t h e r i n a " s u p e r c l u s t e r " ( F i g u r e 11-5).
T r e a t i n g t h e i n f e r r e d c h a n n e l s as b a r r i e r s l o o k s s u s p e c t . Even i f I have l o c a t e d t h e 1660s ch a n n e l s p r e c i s e l y , t h e y were o f course i n f l u x . The d e l t a c h a n n e l s u n d o u b t e d l y o p e r a t e d more as highways t h a n as b a r r i e r s , w h i l e t h e incon v e n i e n c e s f o r p e d e s t r i a n s were p r o b a b l y remedied by s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d f e r r i e s ( c f . Photo 11-1). The v a l u e o f t h e e x e r c i s e , as i t were, i s i t s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Somba Opu as a " c e n t r a l p l a c e " ( F i g u r e 11-5c). Somba Opu's 17 t h c e n t u r y name Ma c i n n i k Dangang ("Watch t h e Trade") b e t r a y s i t s c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n t o s u p e r v i s e t h e t r a d e o c c u r r i n g a l o n g t h e Ga r a s s i k o u t l e t s , b o t h a t t h e n o r t h where f o r e i g n e r s were m a i n l y i n v o l v e d and a t t h e Makassar-dominated s o u t h . ' But c l e a r l y Somba Opu's r d l e as a c e n t r a l p l a c e was n e i t h e r t o a d m i n i s t e r l o c a l communities a f t e r t h e manner o f Benteng Tua ( 6 . 7 ) , nor
are spared t h e quandary o f d e c i d i n g whether o r not such p l a c e s s h o u l d be ranked a l o n g s i d e SSPHAP's Makassar s i t e s . ® Hasanuddin's d e f e n s i v e channel dug i n 1660 i s here i g n o r e d as t o o t r i v i a l f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . ^ I c o u l d have s i m p l y noted t h a t Somba Opu s i t s c e n t r a l l y w i t h i n G a rassik i s l a n d and l e f t i t a t t h a t . However, t r e a t i n g the channels as b a r r i e r s s i m u l a t e s t h e same r e s u l t w i t h i n t h e s i t e - c l u s t e r i n g procedures f o l l o w e d h e r e .
TABLE 11-2. GARRASIK INTERSITE DISTANCES IN METRES - WALL IGNORED
N.B. Bracketed intersite distances involve crossings across either one or both of the reconstructed Garassik channels. Historical toponyms and sites close to the Garassik s i tes but not actually clustering uith then are included to shou they do not cluster.
Figure 11-5a. BG joins P(/P) at 530m, these (BGP) join N at 703ffl; MTSP joins Bontoa at 743m; GMT joins Bilaya at 810m; BBBB joins KB at 745m, these join SPL at 962m (BBBBKB to GMTB is 1305ai and SPL to BGPM is 1441m); MTSPB joins UAK at 1256m (UAK to Jonggoa is 1263m); BBBBKBSPL joins BGPM at 1525m (BBBBKBSPL to GMTB is 1555m and BGPM to MTSPBUAK is 1753m); BBBBKBSPLBGPM joins GMTB at 1707m (GMTB is only 1556m from KKKKK but KKKKK had already joined AAJB at 1217m (Table 6-4]); BJB joins MB at 1872m (BJB to B8 i s 2250m); BJBMB joins Rappocini at 2872m (BJBMB to BB is only 2765m but BB had already joined eastwards at 1785m [Analysis 6-3]); SPPP joins Jonggoa at 1926m (Jonggoa to Sampulungang is only 1710m but the latter had already joined south [Table 11-5]); Jonggoa to MTSPBUAK is 2042m); MTSPBUAK joins SPPPJ at 2319m (MTSPBUAK to BBBBKBSPLBGPMGMTB is 2451m; SPPPJ to B(2)B is 2611m [Table 12-^)); MTSPBUAKSPPPJ joins BBBBKBSPLBCPMCMTB at 2845iii.
Figure 11-5c. BJB joins MB at 1872m (BJB to BB is 2250m); BJBMB joins Rappocini at 2872m (BJBM to BB i s only 2594m, but BB bad already joined BJKKMKKBKPMPKPPSSPT at 2542m [Analysis 6-4]). SPLBG (forced join) - "Somba Opu cluster". PM joins MTSBB at 983m (MTSBB to UAK is 1256iii); UAK joins Jonggoa at 1263ffl (thus UAKJ); BBBKB joins GMTB at 1305m; UAKJ joins SPPP at 1920ffl (UAKJ to PMMTSBB is 2219m, SPPP to GMTO is 2441m); PMIfTSBB joins BB8BKBGMTB at 2185m; PMMTSBBBBBBKGMTB joins UAKJSPPP at 2831n).
TABLE 11-3. GARASSIK INTERSITE DISTANCES IN METRES - SURVEYED WALL INCLUDED
Rappocinik R N B J B B B B S P L B B B B B K G H T B H B G
N.B. Bracketed intersite distances inwolving crossings across either one or both of the reconstructed Garassik channels are retained ewen though the results are not
directly analysed here.
TABLE 11-3. GARASSIK INTERSITE DISTANCES IN METRES - SURVEYED WALL INCLUDED (CONT.) R M B J B B B B S P L B B B B B K G H T B N B G
Figure 11-5b. BG joins P(/B) at 530m, these (BGP) join Mamampang at 703m; GMT joins Bilaya at SlOm; BBBB joins KB at 745m, these join SPL at %2ra (BBBBKB to GMTB is 1305m and SPL to BGPM is 1441m); UAK joins Bontoa at 1207ra; BBBBKBSPL joins BGPM at 1525iii (BBBBKBSPL to GMTB is 1555m and BGPM to UAKB is 1%4m); UAKB join Jonggoa at 1580iii; BBBBKBSPLBGPM joins GMTB at 1690ni (GMTB is only 1556in from KKKKK but KKKKK had already joined AJB at 1116m [Table 6-3]); UAKBJ joins SPPP at 1920di (SPPP to B(2)B is 2634m [Table 12-6]); BJB joins MB at 18720 (BJB to BB is 2250m); BJBMB joins Rappocini at 2872m (BJBMB to BB is only 2765ffl but BB had already joined eastwards at 1785m [Analysis 6-1]); BBBBKBSPLBGPMGMTB joins UABKJSPPP at 3110m (UABKJSPPP to Sampulungang is 2957m but Sampulungang had joined south [Table 11-5]).
r
TABLE 11-4. GARASSIK INTERSITE DISTANCES IN METRES - RECORDED AND INFERRED WALL INCLUDED
Hariso-Ujung Tana H R B J B B B B S P L B B B B B K G M T B H P B U
TABLE 11-4. GARASSIK INTERSITE DISTANCES IN METRES - RECORDED AND INFERRED WALL INCLUDED (NOTES)
N.B. "Mariso-Ujung Tana" refers to the wall apparently built along the coast between Ujung Tana and Mariso. "Makassar wall" includes Somba Opu, Bayoa 1 and Garassik in the same "site". As the latter wall's extent north beyond Somba Opu can only be guessed, Somba Opu is used as a proxy for measuring the distance between the "Somba Opu wall" and sites to the north. Bracketed intersite distances involve crossings across one or both of the reconstructed Garassik channels. For remaining distances see previous table.
Figure 11-5d. BJB joins Bonto Rannu but no further joins (Table 12-6). Somba Opu wall joins Pattung and Lekokbodong (SPL or "Somba Opu cluster"). PS joins Mamampang at 875m (hence P8H); UAK joins Jonggoa at 1263ig (hence UAKJ); BBBBKB joins GHTB at 1305m; PBN joins UAKJ at 1784m (PBM to BBBBKSGMB is 1837m, and UAKJ to SPPP is 1920b); PBMUAKJ joins SPPP at 2247m (BBBBKBGMTB is 1837ffl to SPPP and 3180m to PBMUAKJ); PBMUAKJSPPP joins BBBBKBGMYB at 3120iii.
TABLE 11-5. NORTH POLOMBANGKENG INTERSITE DISTANCES IN METRES
Figure 11-6. Campagaya lama/Taipanorang joins Bebak at 685iii; Mandallek/Matoanging/Parebalang joins Maccinik Kondo at 743m; CTP joins MMPM at 1172m; Jamarang/Bonto Lebang joins Tabaringang Barat at 1270m; JBT joins Sampulungang at 1643m; NMPMCTB joins " jv, ? Tamasongok at 1574m; MMPMCTBT joins MBT at 2222a. ^ v - y - - : .
If Tabaringang Barat rejected from analysis for abutting a survey boundary, then Jamaranq/Bonto Lebang would join Sanpulunganq at 1620m. If MBT rejected from analysis for same reason, then HMPHCTB would join Jamarang/Bonto Lebanq/Sampulungang at 28U8m. \jj
U1
TABLE 11-6. RESULTS OF SOIL TESTS CARRIED OUT AT SOMBA OPU
L o c a l i t y S o i l Type N u n s e l l Colour pH I n t e r p r e t a t i o n
S o i l Test 1, l o o t e r ' s h o l e i n east S a p i r e a
S i l t s w i t h sone f i n e sand and c l a y t o p 70 cm
Clayey s i l t s 70 cm t o water t a b l e a t 2 metres
S o i l Test 2, f i e l d i n n o r t h S a p i r e a
S o i l Test 3, h o l e a t f o r t r e s s s o u t h
S o i l Test 4, ploughed f i e l d a t f o r t southwest
S o i l Test 5, f i e l d i n f a l l o w
S o i l Test 6, r i c e f i e l d bund 100 m west o f f o r t , c. 500 m east o f sea
T o p s o i l s i l t s
F i n e sand w i t h a minor s i l t f r a c t i o n
T o p s o i l f i n e sand
Topsoi1 s i I t s
T o p s o i l s i l t y c l a y
10-25 cm de p t h , s i l t w i t h some l a m i n a t i o n s
7.5YR 6/2 t o lOYR 6/2 Not ( p i n k i s h g r e y t o r e c o r d e d
l i g h t b r o w n i s h g r e y )
10YR 3/4 t o 7.SYR 3/4 Not ( d a r k y e l l o w i s h brown r e c o r d e d
t o d a r k brown)
Jeknekberang's levee d e p o s i t s
S o i l Test 6, h o l e i n th e bunded f i e l d
25 cm t o 1 metre d e p t h muddy c l a y w i t h some g r i t
6 V :
Not r e c o r d e d
Not r e c o r d e d
10YR 6/3 ( p a l e brown) ( d r y sample)
7.SYR 3/2 ( d a r k brown)
7.SYR 3/4 6 V 2 ( d a r k brown)
SYR 5/4 7 ( r e d d i s h brown)
SYR S/4 7 ( r e d d i s h brown)
SYR 4/3 7 ( r e d d i s h brown)
Jeknekberang's o l d e r levee
d e p o s i t s
Jeknekberang's levee d e p o s i t s
Jeknekberang's post-1977 banks
Jeknekberang's levee d e p o s i t s
Jeknekberang's pre-1977 banks
Backswamp c l a y s mixed w i t h s i l t s
from annual f l o o d s
Jeknekberang's levee d e p o s i t s
Older backswamp d e p o s i t s
A d d i t i o n a l n o t e s on S o i l Test 6 l o c a t i o n : mangrove-type v e g e t a t i o n a l o n g r i c e - f i e l d bunds; area r e g u l a r l y f l o o d e d t o around 15 cm dep t h i n wet season; water from t h e w e l l s i s b i t t e r ( b r a c k i s h ) .
367
t o p r o v i d e t h e k i n d o f d e f e n s i v e f o c u s f o r which Benteng Anak Gowa appears t o have been b u i l t ( 8 . 2 . 1 ) .
The acceptance o f t h e Barombong w a l l as " s i t e " , such t h a t i t j o i n s Pattukangang-Paknakkukang t o form a s i t e n e a r l y two k i l o m e t r e s l o n g , c r e a t e s a c o n f i g u r a t i o n which n e a t l y mimics t h e 1667 s i e g e o f Makassar ( F i g u r e 11-5b). The "Makassar c l u s t e r " embraces t h e Paknakkukang-Barombong w a l l and t h e imm e d i a t e l y h i n t e r l a n d defended by t h e w a l l , i . e . t h e c i t y and i t s c o a s t a l defences, an area which Speelman and Arung Palakka (Sahaduddin) f a i l e d t o p e n e t r a t e b e f o r e 1669. The "Aeng c l u s t e r " c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e b a t t l e l i n e d u r i n g t h e s i e g e between t h e Makassar t r o o p s h o l d i n g t h e n o r t h bank o f th e Aeng and t h e Bugis l a n d t r o o p s amassed a l o n g t h e s o u t h (Bulbeck, 1990:82-3). T h i s c l u s t e r a l s o i n c l u d e s Bontoa where t h e 1667 Bungaya t r e a t y was s i g n e d a t t h e end o f t h e s i e g e ( K a l l u p a , 1985:154-156). -
The ongoing o r g a n i s a t i o n o f G a r a s s i k d u r i n g t i m e s o f s e c u r i t y , which was t h e r u l e r a t h e r t h a n t h e e x c e p t i o n a t l e a s t between c.1550 and 1615 ( e . g . R e i d , 1981), i s p r o b a b l y best r e p r e s e n t e d by F i g u r e 11-5a. A c c o r d i n g l y I w i l l use t h a t c o n f i g u r a t i o n t o o r g a n i s e my d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s i t e s .
11.3 Benteng Somba Opu ^ ^ r ^ , . , , , j
11.3.1 P h y s i c a l remains and r e c o n s t r u c t i o n
Benteng Somba Opu l i e s a t s i x metres a s l between t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y s o u t h o u t l e t o f t h e Jeknekberang up t o 1977, and t h e post-1977 s o u t h o u t l e t (see F i g u r e 1 1 - 4 ) . The s i t e ' s d e p o s i t s , as observed by SSPHAP, can a l l be a s c r i b e d t o these 20th c e n t u r y o u t l e t s and t h e degree o f p r o x i m i t y t o t h e sea (Table 11-6). But l o c a l r e p o r t s d e s c r i b e t h e deeper d e p o s i t s below t h r e e metres as sands. These c o u l d r e p r e s e n t t h e s o u t h t a i l o f t h e Ujung Pandang c h e n i e r s , o r p o s s i b l y 1 7 t h c e n t u r y beach o r r i p a r i a n d e p o s i t s .
Since t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f SSPHAP's f i e l d w o r k , Somba Opu has hosted e x t e n s i v e e x c a v a t i o n s and an a m b i t i o u s programme o f r e s t o r a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( R e i d and C a l d w e l l , 1990:88-89). The work supersedes SSPHAP's programme which
mapped t h e v i s i b l e s t r u c t u r a l remains ( F i g u r e 11-9),^° c l e a r e d a s m a l l s e c t i o n and measured some b r i c k s ( F i g u r e 11-2). Few d e t a i l s from t h e e x c a v a t i o n s a r e y e t r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e , and I w i l l be l u c k y i f my r e v i e w o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a t hand (E.2.3; E.4) does not need any r e v i s i o n . A v a i l a b l e p h o t o g r a p h i c i n f o r m a t i o n shows t h e "one-on-two" method o f l a y i n g b r i c k s (Photo 11-4) and t h e massive c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e west w a l l and b a s t i o n (Photos 11-5 and 11-6).^^ A c h a r t o f e x c a v a t e d squares shows t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n a l o n g t h e r u b b l e - s t r e w n f o o t p a t h a t t h e s i t e ' s n o r t h (Photo 1 1 - 3 ) , s u g g e s t i n g t h e e x c a v a t o r s were f o l l o w i n g t h e n o r t h w a l l . I t d e f u s e s t h e s u g g e s t i o n by Reid (1983a:149), f o l l o w e d by Bulbeck (1990:93), t h a t t h e f o r t had once extended w e l l t o t h e n o r t h o f t h e s u r v e y a b l e remains, and so s u g g e s t s t h a t Somba Opu as a c o m p a r a t i v e l y s m a l l p a l a c e c e n t r e w h i c h embraced o n l y 11.8 h e c t a r e s . *
SSPHAP r e c o r d e d Somba Opu's s u r f a c e t r a d e w a r e s over s e v e r a l v i s i t s , w o r k i n g b o t h by observed c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f sherdage and by land-use zones. The h y b r i d c o m p i l a t i o n o f the d a t a n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , t h e y can be matched a g a i n s t t h e c.1638 s k e t c h o f t h e f o r t (Photo 1-1) and what i s known o f t h e o c c u p a t i o n h i s t o r y .
The c l e a r e s t i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s c o n s i s t e d o f a rounded mound, here i n t e r p r e t e d as a f l a g s t a n d (Photo 11-8), and a s u r r o u n d i n g l i n e o f w a l l r u b b l e i n t h e f o r t ' s n o r t h w e s t c o r n e r ( F i g u r e 1 1 - 9 ) . The f i e l d n o r t h o f t h e mound, Gowa 3.3, c o n t a i n e d an e x t r a o r d i n a r y q u a n t i t y o f b l u e - a n d - w h i t e and c o a r s e stoneware p i e c e s , and earthenware sherdage (Appendix D ) . A f t e r making a complete c o l l e c t i o n on o u r f i r s t v i s i t t o s e r v e as l a b o r a t o r y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s ( L I s ) , " " ^ we n o t e d on a
° The f i r s t p u b l i s h e d s u r v e y o f Somba Opu i s Reid's (1983a:147) rough s k e t c h . The o r i g i n a l p l a n e - t a b l e survey of Somba Opu's e x t e r n a l w a l l s was i n s t i g a t e d and s u p e r v i s e d by P e t e r B e l l w o o d on 19 August 1986. I n September 1986 Suaka (1986/87) i n d e p e n d e n t l y s u r v e y e d Somba Opu w i t h a p l a n e t a b l e and i n c l u d e d t h e west Pakbenderang o r f l a g s t a n d which had been r e p o r t e d by Sagimun (1985:279). T h i s was added t o SSPHAP's p l a n and complemented w i t h t r a c e s o f i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s on 14 November 1986.
Somba Opu's b r i c k w a l l s are d e s c r i b e d as t h r e e and a h a l f metres t h i c k by t h e Dutch sources (Andaya, 1981:131). '2 L a b e l l e d G.3.3B i n Appendix D. The earthenwares are very u n d e r r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c o l l e c t i o n .
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l a t e r v i s i t t h a t p l o u g h i n g had b r o u g h t up an even g r e a t e r assemblage which we t h e n i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e f i e l d ( F I s ) . Both assemblages produce a " f i n e " t r a d e w a r e p r o f i l e w i t h a 16th c e n t u r y s p i k e ( F i g u r e 1 1 - 8 ) . ^ ^ W i t h t h e assemblages combined, the r e s u l t i n g d e n s i t i e s o f "Qing BW" and e s p e c i a l l y "Ming" p i e c e s exceed any o t h e r r e c o r d e d d e n s i t i e s a t t h e s i t e ( F i g u r e 11-10).
The n e x t h i g h e s t d e n s i t i e s , which a l s o produced a 1 6 t h - c e n t u r y s p i k e , were r e c o r d e d i n a f i e l d due s o u t h l a b e l l e d zone 8. A l t h o u g h no s t r u c t u r a l remains have s u r v i v e d , t h e l o c a l i t y c o i n c i d e s w i t h where t h e c.1638 s k e t c h p l a c e d Somba Opu's wooden " r o y a l p a l a c e " . T h i s was p r o b a b l y th e M a c c i n i k Danggang p a l a c e which s t o o d between 1631 and 1650 ( R e i d , 1983a:144; LB:92,112).
I f so, zone 3 must have been t h e p a l a c e o c c u p i e d by Hasanuddin when Somba Opu was sacked i n 1669. The t r a c e s o f c o n c e n t r i c b r i c k w a l l s a c c o r d w i t h t h e w r i t t e n r e f e r e n c e s t o Somba Opu's massive f o r t i f i c a t i o n s i n i t s l a s t days (Andaya, 1981:117-136), w h i l e t h e dense sherdage would r e f l e c t t h e pal a c e ' s f o r c e d abandonment and subsequent r a n s a c k i n g . Zones 3 and 8 p r o b a b l y a l s o s i t e d t h e r o y a l p a l a c e s between c.1550 and 1618, g i v e n t h e i r s t r o n g emphasis on 16 t h c e n t u r y sherdage ( F i g u r e 11-8).
F u r t h e r eastwards we r e c o r d e d e v e n l y spaced patches o f sherdage w i t h i n a p a t t e r n o f d w i n d l i n g amounts and d e n s i t i e s ( F i g u r e 11-10). Zone 6 i s f l a n k e d by two i n t e r r u p t e d l i n e s o f b r i c k r u b b l e which might r e p r e s e n t i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s ( F i g u r e 1 1-9), p o s s i b l y t h e " o t h e r p a l a c e " and r o y a l s t o r e h o u s e s o f t h e c.1638 s k e t c h . F u r t h e r e a s t a r e an o l d s e p u l c h r e (Photo 11-9) and a commemorated grave i n a cement tomb a t t h e s o u t h (Photo 11-7). As t h e o n l y two o l d I s l a m i c graves SSPHAP r e c o r d e d , t h e s e might match t h e r e c o r d e d b u r i a l s o f two Makassar n o b l e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Gowa's
F i g u r e 11-8 a l s o shows t h e s t a n d a r d i s e d c h r o n o l o g i c a l h i s t o g r a m s based on SSPHAP's broad t r a d e w a r e c l a s s e s . As p o i n t e d out elsewhere (B.5.2), t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s which can be drawn from t h e broad t r a d e w a r e c l a s s e s are u n n e c e s s a r i l y coarse when l a r g e t r a d e w a r e samples a r e a v a i l a b l e . For i n s t a n c e , w h i l e t h e y c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f y t h e masses o f "Ming" sherdage a t Somba Opu, v e r y l i t t l e o f t h i s sherdage i s o f 15th c e n t u r y a n t i q u i t y .
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"lineage group", R a l l e Dg Paikak and Dg Manarai Kg Mamampang, at Somba Opu i n 1692 (LB:176).^'» The graves are bracketed by two looted a r e a s , zones 2 and 4, which presumably mark p r e - I s l a m i c b u r i a l grounds of the s i t e ' s o r d i n a r y i n h a b i t a n t s . Next to the tomb i s a cannon c a l l e d Mariang polong {fragmentary cannon) which, according to Sagimun (1985:278), had been salvaged from Somba Opu and kept i n Ka c c i a before i t s r e c e n t r e t u r n to Somba Opu (Photo 11-7). I t alone seems to have escaped the Dutch s e i z u r e of 44 cannons and other a r s e n a l which had guarded the pala c e ( c f . Andaya, 1981 :134) . -.̂ - .
Some f u r t h e r "Ming" p i e c e s were recorded along or beyond the f o r t ' s outer west w a l l ( F i g u r e 11-10). E i t h e r they r e f l e c t use of Somba Opu's beach frontage or they are ex s i t u remains from zone 3. The footpath t r a n s e c t recorded mainly l a t e r p i e c e s which would correspond to the development of modern Sarorabe kampung. Sarombe's area has a l s o included the westernmost s t r i p of Somba Opu during the 20th century, and i t s cemetery of 20 to 30 cement graves, o r i e n t e d around 20° from north, has been e s t a b l i s h e d at Hasanuddin's former p a l a c e . The r e s t of Somba Opu has become part of S a p i r e a kampung whose I s l a m i c cemetery, s i t u a t e d on the l i n e of wall rubble at the north of the s i t e , has looked g e n e r a l l y older than Sarombe ' s . ̂ S a p i r e a ' s i n h a b i t a n t s were a l s o our informants on the l o o t i n g which appears to have been a f t e r b r i c k s as w e l l as antiques ( F i g u r e 11-9). >
The few " e a r l y " tradewares found a t the f a r west (Figure 11-10) have s p a l l e d o f f celadon p l a t e s which were presumably part of Gowa's r o y a l wealth. But the l a r g e r number to the east i n c l u d e s Vietnamese monochromes and e a r l y whiteware, BW and enamelled p i e c e s (Appendix D). These demonstrate use of the s i t e before i t s f o r t i f i c a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y as the southern zones, 1 and 4, show a pre-Ming emphasis i n t h e i r tradewares
Unfortunately I d i d not ask about the a s s o c i a t i o n s of the marked graves we observed. R a l l e Dg Paikak (1626-1692) was the s i s t e r of Kg Lengkesek and wife of Gowa's Mohammad Said and, l a t e r , Bima's Abdul K h a i r . Kg Mamampang was the son of Hasanuddin's son Kare Tojeng Kg Galesong (Chapter 3 ) . ^ I use the past imperfect tense here as I would not wish to
p r e d i c t the f a t e of these kampungs or t h e i r cemeteries during Somba Opu's r e s t o r a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . -
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p r o f i l e ( F i g u r e 1 1-8). A c c o r d i n g t o t h e c.1638 s k e t c h , Somba Opu's mosque was c o n s t r u c t e d i n t h i s a r e a . The spot might have been chosen because o f i t s keramat ( m y s t i c a l l y p o w e r f u l ) a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h t h e s i t e ' s o r i g i n a l community c e n t r e . Zone 2, however, can be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e b u r i a l ground o f t h e populace who l i v e d a t t h e f o r t ' s r e a r , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c.1638 s k e t c h .
11.3.2 Occupation h i s t o r y
The evidence o f l i g h t o c c u p a t i o n d u r i n g t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h and | 15th c e n t u r i e s s uggests t h e s i t e had p r o b a b l y e n j o y e d a r a i s e d l o c a t i o n a t t h e sho r e , and access t o f r e s h w a t e r , b e f o r e Tunipalangga b u i l t t h e r e . The t r a d e w a r e s c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f y massive o c c u p a t i o n d u r i n g t h e 16 t h and e a r l y 1 7th c e n t u r i e s , a l t h o u g h t h e i r emphasis on t h e e a r l y 16th c e n t u r y a t t h e p a l a c e s appears p r e c o c i o u s ( F i g u r e 1 1 - 8 ) . T h i s unexpected r e s u l t might be an a r t e f a c t o f t h e s p e c i f i c n a t u r e o f t h e Ming BW assemblage.^^ On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e r e i s no reason why Gowa c o u l d n o t have o c c u p i e d t h e s i t e d u r i n g t h e e a r l y 16th c e n t u r y . Gowa's l i n e a g e group b r i e f l y r u l e d G arassik a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 16 t h c e n t u r y ; P a i v a r e f e r r e d t o Makassar as t h e p o r t - c i t y o f Gowa i n 1544; and t h e passage on Tunipalangga's b r i c k w a l l s p o s s i b l y i m p l i e s t h a t Somba Opu, l i k e Benteng Tua, p r e v i o u s l y had e a r t h w a l l s b u i l t by Tum a p a k r i s i k K a l l o n a ( 4 . 3 ) . T r a n s p o s i n g t h e e a r l y and l a t e 16th c e n t u r y segments o f t h e t r a d e w a r e s p r o f i l e might w e l l be adequate c o r r e c t i o n t o r e p r e s e n t Gowa's e a r l y use o f Somba Opu f a i t h f u l l y . i ; \r
The t r a d e w a r e s a l s o c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f y Somba Opu's s u b s t a n t i a l abandonment a f t e r t h e e a r l y 1 7 t h c e n t u r y ( F i g u r e 11-8). The p r o f i l e s based on t h e f i n e c l a s s e s more suggest a "whimper" t h a n t h e "bang" we know t o o k p l a c e , except f o r t h e p r o f i l e o f zone 3 based on l a b o r a t o r y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s which, l i k e t h e "broad" t r a d e w a r e p r o f i l e s , c o r r e c t l y pegs Somba
e.g. t h e c o m p a r a t i v e l y l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f b l u e - a n d - w h i t e j a r s o f s t u r d y p r o d u c t i o n , compared t o t h e more f r a g i l e bowls which u s u a l l y dominate "Ming" assemblages; and t h e use o f t h e ceramics as r o y a l household goods, which might have i n v o l v e d a longer l i f e span t h a n t h a t o f t h e wares b u r i e d i n graves.
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Opu's sudden demise t o Note a l s o t h a t even a f t e r 1669 t h e s i t e s t i l l p l a y e d a r d l e , as i n d i c a t e d by i t s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e 1693 map ( F i g u r e 5-5), t h e r e c o r d e d 1692 b u r i a l s , and t h e d e a t h i n 1724 o f M a t i n r o e r i Somba Opu.^®
11.4 Other BBBBKBSPL S i t e s ( S i t e s Near Somba Opu)
11.4.1 P a t t u n g (Gowa 4 ) , Lekokbodong, and Bayoa 2 (UP 7)
The a p p a r e n t l y s u b s t a n t i a l s i t e o f P a t t u n g i s a n n u a l l y i n u n d a t e d a t de p t h s up t o one and a h a l f metres d e s p i t e i t s p r o t e c t i o n by an e a r t h e n dyke c o n s t r u c t e d a l o n g t h e Jeknekberang's s o u t h bank.^' Two areas emerge above t h e Jeknekberang's g r e y i s h brown s i l t y sands: an o l d g r a v e y a r d (no f u r t h e r r e c o r d e d ) h a r d a g a i n s t t h e dyke (Photo 11-10); and 300 metres s o u t h w e s t , a t a s l i g h t l y h i g h e r e l e v a t i o n , a ploughed f i e l d whose a r t e f a c t u a l c o n t e n t s we c o l l e c t e d . The tra d e w a r e s suggest f a i r l y s t e a d y o c c u p a t i o n from t h e 16th c e n t u r y ( F i g u r e 11-10), a l t h o u g h t h e l a c k o f 2 0 t h c e n t u r y p i e c e s might p l a c e t h e f i e l d o u t s i d e t h e kampung d e p i c t e d on t h e maps. The i n t e r v e n i n g l a n d has r e p o r t e d l y been e x t e n s i v e l y l o o t e d , p r o d u c i n g m a i n l y b l u e - a n d - w h i t e wares " (Photo 11-11), b u t a l s o coming upon t h e o c c a s i o n a l s k e l e t o n , head d i r e c t e d e a s t w a r d , i n a d u n i . The a v a i l a b l e evidence p r o v i d e s a good case f o r i d e n t i f y i n g t h e s i t e w i t h "Pattunga"
The d i f f i c u l t y h ere i s t h a t Somba Opu's second phase as Gowa's p a l a c e , 1631 t o 1669, o v e r l a p s w i t h t h e i n i t i a l p e r i o d o f "Qing Swatow" and Qing BW wares. The " f i n e " t r a deware p r o f i l e s based on l a b o r a t o r y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s compensate f o r t h i s p o s s i b l e d i s t o r t i o n by two means. F i r s t l y , Qing BW p i e c e s (1650-1800) c o u l d be more c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e d as "Kangxi" (1650-1750) i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y , b u t such a f i n e l e v e l o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s n o t f e a s i b l e i n t h e f i e l d . Secondly, Wanli and l a t e Ming BW p i e c e s a r e v e r y h a r d t o d i s c r i m i n a t e from Qing Swatow and Qing BW p i e c e s i n t h e f i e l d . See Appendix B f o r d e t a i l s . ^« i . e . Kg Anak Moncong S u l t a n I s m a i l (GXX/BXIX/SXIX) who d i e d i n 1724 s h o r t l y a f t e r b e i n g removed s i m u l t a n e o u s l y from t h e Bone and Soppeng t h r o n e s ( L i g t v o e t , 1880:201-202). As he was b u r i e d a t Benteng Tua ( 6 . 5 . 1 ) , " M a t i n r o e " must here r e f e r t o where he d i e d .
My s i t e map ( F i g u r e 11-4) p o r t r a y s P a t t u n g as a dot because any t o p o g r a p h i c f e a t u r e s which might have a l l o w e d me t o l o c a t e i t s area p r e c i s e l y on my pre-1977 maps appear t o have been b u r i e d s i n c e t h e Jeknekberang had changed i t s c o u r s e .
37
c i t e d i n t h e Makassar r e c o r d s as a 1 6 t h - 1 7 t h c e n t u r y k a r a e n g s h i p ( T a b l e 3 - 5 ) . ? * v ...
Lekokbodong kampung had been l o c a t e d on t h e s o u t h levee o f t h e lower Jeknekberang b e f o r e t h e s t r a i g h t e n e d s o u t h o u t l e t swept i t away i n 1977- The i n h a b i t a n t s saved t h e grave markers and removed them t o T a m a n j a l l i n g a c r o s s t h e Sungai Anak Gowa from K a n j i l o Lama. The r e s t o r e d cemetery i s c a l l e d Kompleks Makam I s l a m Karaeng Lekokbodong a f t e r i t s eponymic personage Sambalik Kg Lekokbodong. ̂ T h e g e n e a l o g i c a l r e c o r d s p r o v i d e a p r e c i s e match (LEK2 i n Tab l e 3-5) which a l l o w s t h e toponym t o be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y Lekokbodong (ex-Marusuk) descent group ( 4 . 8 . 2 ) . W i t h i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e former kampung i t s e l f , we c o u l d n o t g a t h e r any r e p o r t s o f l o o t i n g , a l t h o u g h such i n f o r m a t i o n might have been l o s t s i n c e t h e 1977 f l o o d .
The Dutch 1:50k map shows two kampungs c a l l e d Bayoa a l o n g t h e Sungai Banda (Anak Gowa) - Bayoa 1 near G a r a s s i k , and Bayoa 2 i n s i d e a meander one k i l o m e t r e upstream. The Banda has s t r a i g h t e n e d i t s channel h e r e , as shown by a i r photographs, p r o m p t i n g t h e abandonment o f "Bayoa 2". The former kampung area i n c l u d e s an e n c l a v e o f r a i s e d l a n d (Photo 11-16) where l o o t i n g has l e f t a s m a l l r e s i d u e o f "Ming" sherdage ( F i g u r e 1 1 - 1 ^ ) . As t h i s s m a l l p r e - I s l a m i c b u r i a l ground i s n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h any o l d I s l a m i c g r a v e s , t h e s i t e may have been abandoned i n t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y b e f o r e i t s subsequent r e s e t t l e m e n t from Bayoa 1.
11.4.2 K a c c i a Lama (OP 4)
The s i t e i s a s t r i p o f s l i g h t l y r a i s e d l a n d which i n c l u d e s two I s l a m i c g r a v e y a r d s , 80 metres a p a r t , a d j a c e n t t o l o o t e d areas ( F i g u r e 11-7). The s o u t h cemetery c o n t a i n s over 100 marked g r a v e s and t h e n o r t h cemetery more t h a n 50, o l d t o modern i n b o t h cases ( T a b l e F-8a).
The s o u t h g r a v e y a r d i n c o r p o r a t e s an a p p a r e n t l y e l i t e c l u s t e r o f o l d g r a v e s perched on a r a i s e d b r i c k p l a t f o r m
I was unaware o f t h i s s p e c i f i c a s s o c i a t i o n when I v i s i t e d t h e cemetery and d i d not r e c o r d h i s grave marker, nor indeed t h e cemetery i t s e l f a p a r t from n o t i n g i t s new ( i . e . r e s t o r e d ) appearance. ^' The s i n g l e , wooden marked grave a t t h e s i t e i s modern.
which may be o f s i m i l a r a n t i q u i t y . Two o f t h e markers en c l o s e e x q u i s i t e l y c a r v e d masonry nisan which resemble t h e 17th c e n t u r y r o y a l Gowa nisan i n form and d e l i c a c y o f s t y l e (Photos 11-14 and 11-15). B l u e - a n d - w h i t e c e r a m i c s were r e p o r t e d l y o b t a i n e d i n t h e v i c i n i t y , w h i l e 16th c e n t u r y o r i g i n s f o r t h e b u r i a l ground i s s u p p o r t e d by t h e Ming Swatow p i e c e we fo u n d .
The n o r t h g r a v e y a r d a b u t s t h e main l o o t e d a r e a . We were shown t h r e e a n t i q u e s : "Ming r e d " and Ming BW bowls (Photo 11-12), and a marble f i g u r e o f a l i o n w hich l o o k s Chinese (Photo 11-13). We observed two h o l e s spaced two metres a p a r t a l o n g an a x i s 15° from n o r t h , and were t o l d o f t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h a n o r t h - s o u t h d i r e c t e d s k e l e t o n b u r i e d w i t h gravegoods, even though t h e o t h e r s k e l e t o n s e n countered were r e p o r t e d l y a l i g n e d e a s t - w e s t . The datum s u g g e s t s an unusual s y n c r e t i s t b u r i a l , e i t h e r a p r e - I s l a m i c b u r i a l i n f l u e n c e d by I s l a m i c i d e a s o f o r i e n t a t i o n , ^ ^ o r an i n i t i a l I s l a m i c b u r i a l among t h e p r e - I s l a m i c a n c e s t o r s . The s m a l l b u t i n t e r e s t i n g assemblage o f t r a d e w a r e s p o i n t s t o a p o s s i b l e 1 4 t h c e n t u r y o r i g i n s and a c l i m a x i n t h e 15t h c e n t u r y ( F i g u r e 11-10; Appendix D).
Kaccia appears t o have been o r g a n i s e d i n t o two " f a m i l i e s " which have k e p t d i s t i n c t b u r i a l grounds f o r more t h a n f o u r c e n t u r i e s . The o r i g i n a l f a m i l y would be t h e one r e p r e s e n t e d a t t h e n o r t h . The younger f a m i l y a t t h e s o u t h a p p a r e n t l y a c h i e v e d p a r t i c u l a r prominence i n e a r l y I s l a m i c t i m e s , p o s s i b l y r e l a t e d t o K a c c i a ' s c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n i n i t s s i t e c l u s t e r ( F i g u r e 1 1 - 5 ) .
11.4.3 Bonto L a k j a (Gowa 62)
Suaka's l o c a l f i e l d o f f i c e r A z i z A l l a n g a l e r t e d SSPHAP t o t h e u n e a r t h i n g o f some empty tempayan (stoneware j a r s ) a t Bonto L a k j a . T h i s l e d us t o r e c o r d f o u r c o n t i g u o u s s i t e s a t an a l t i t u d e o f around t h r e e metres a s l . Three o f t h e s i t e s a r e s m a l l i s l a n d s i n a sea o f sawah, s u s c e p t i b l e t o b e i n g f l o o d e d t o a metre's d e p t h when t h e Jeknekberang b u r s t s i t s banks.
^2 Malays were p r e s e n t i n Makassar, n o t f a r from Kaccia, by th e mid-16th c e n t u r y .
375
w h i l e t h e f o u r t h s i t e has been c o n v e r t e d t o bunded f i e l d s ( F i g u r e 1 1 - 1 1 ) . — -
I n Bonto L a k j a S e l a t a n we were shown t h e h o l e where t h e tempayan (Photo 11-17) were r e p o r t e d l y found w i t h t h e i r mouths a p p r o x i m a t e l y 30 cm underground. The tempayan (Photos 11-20 t o 11-23) compare v e r y w e l l w i t h pre-Ming j a r s made i n China between t h e 1 0 t h and 14th c e n t u r i e s ( c f . H a r r i s s o n , * 1986:45): f o u r s m a l l handles h o r i z o n t a l l y a p p l i e d a t t h e neck; o v o i d form w i t h s w e l l i n g s h o u l d e r s ; r o l l e d l i p s ; " B r i t t l e w a r e " o r "Guangdong" t y p e body; and s m a l l n e s s compared w i t h e i t h e r t h e c o e v a l " g u s i " j a r s o r l a t e r Ming Chinese j a r s ( T a b l e 1 1 - 7 ) . ^ ^ Tempayan i n t h e ground t e n d t o be a f e a t u r e o f B u g i s areas where t h e y were b u r i e d w i t h cremated remains u n t i l I s 1 a m i s a t i o n ( e . g . K a l l u p a e t a l . , 1989). I t e s t e d t h e s o i l a t s i x l o c a l i t i e s i n Bonto L a k j a t o see i f t h e r e was any r e l a t i o n s h i p between pH and t h e presence o f human b u r i a l s , b u t t h e r e s u l t s suggest none ( T a b l e 11-8). Other t r a d e w a r e s a t Bonto L a k j a S e l a t a n were 1 7 t h c e n t u r y and l a t e r ( F i g u r e 11-12), and none o f t h e 110 marked graves i n t h e cemetery l o o k s v e r y o l d ( T a b l e F-8a). Whether t h e j a r s had been s t a s h e d o r had c o n t a i n e d human b u r i a l s , t h e y precede t h e o t h e r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l remains r e c o r d e d a t Bonto L a k j a S e l a t a n by s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s . =:
A s h o r t d i s t a n c e n o r t h , i n Bonto L a k j a Timur Daya, l i e 47 marked graves i d e n t i f i e d w i t h Bonto L a k j a ' s o r i g i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s by t h e " f a m i l y " which uses t h e g r a v e y a r d (Table F-8a). The o l d e s t g r a v e s , as i n d i c a t e d by i n s p e c t i o n and what we were t o l d , a r e c a l l e d Makam P e t t a Sakga. They c o n s i s t o f f i v e s i n g l e s t o n e s , a p p a r e n t l y m a r k i n g n o r t h - s o u t h b u r i a l s , spaced a l o n g a d i l a p i d a t e d p l a t f o r m o f r e d b r i c k s 4 metres east-west by 1.5 metres wide. We c o u n t e d 15 l o o t e r ' s h o l e s by t h e p l a t f o r m and 19 more t o t h e immediate west. R e p o r t e d l y , a n t i q u e s were f i r s t f o u n d when t h e s c h o o l ' s f o u n d a t i o n s were b e i n g e x c a v a t e d , and c o n s i s t e d o f l o t s o f b l u e - a n d - w h i t e supplemented by Ming w h i t e w a r e s , Sawankhalok and a few c e l a d o n s . C o n f i r m i n g t h e r e p o r t o f many b u l i - b u l i ( j a r l e t s )
The spouted j a r may be a " g u s i " form, but t h i s specimen and t h e o t h e r s were e i t h e r g l a z e d brown or b l a c k , whereas " g u s i " j a r s are g l a z e d g r e e n i s h ( c f . H a r r i s s o n , 1986:44).
a TABLE 11-7. OBSERVATIONS ON THE BONTO LAKJA TEMPAYAN
L i p Shoulder Basal H e i g h t T o t a l Glaze Unglazed Base Comparisons J a r d i a m e t e r c i r c u m - d i a m e t e r t o h e i g h t Colour Colour ( H a r r i s s o n , 1986)
f e r e n c e s h o u l d e r
G.62.0.1 11.5 cm 110 cm 12.5 cm 27 cm 36 cm 5YR 4/4 7.5YR 6/6 35 (Chinese, ( r e d d i s h ( r e d d i s h 11-12th c e n t u r i e s )
brown) y e l l o w )
G.62.0.2 12 cm 112 cm 13 cm 27 cm 36 cm 5YR3/3 ( d a r k 7.5YR 6/4 35 (Chinese. r e d d i s h brown) ( l i g h t brown) 11-12th c e n t u r i e s )
G.62.0.3 11.5 cm 112 cm 12 cm 24 cm 33 cm 5YR3/2 ( d a r k 2.5Y 7/2 35 (Chinese, r e d d i s h brown) ( l i g h t g r e y ) 11-12th c e n t u r i e s )
G.62.0.4 6 cm 53.5 cm 11.5 cm 12.5 cm 19.5 cm 10YR 3/3 10YR 7/3 ( v e r y 26 (Vietnamese, ( d a r k brown) p a l e brown) 10-11th c e n t u r i e s )
G.62.0.5 9.5 cm 52.5 cm 11 cm 11.5 cm 16 cm 10YR 2/1 10YR 7/4 ( v e r y ( b l a c k ) p a l e brown)
Other d i a g n o s t i c t r a i t s . Four h o r i z o n t a l h andles on a l l j a r s (supplemented w i t h a spout and a v e r t i c a l h a ndle f o r p o u r i n g on G.62.0.4). Glaze comes r i g h t t o t h e base w i t h a smooth f i n i s h on a l l j a r s ( a l t h o u g h t h e r e i s some s l i g h t d r i p p i n g on G.62.0.4). Smooth base w i t h a f i n e f a b r i c c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o e i t h e r t h e " B r i t t l e w a r e " o r t h e "Guangdong" t y p e o f H a r r i s s o n ( 1 9 8 6 ) .
N.B. As a l l t h e j a r s a r e undecorated, s p e c i f i c comparisons w i t h examples f e a t u r e d i n H a r r i s s o n (1986) and elsewhere a r e s c a r c e because d e c o r a t e d j a r s a r e u s u a l l y p r e f e r r e d i n t h e books.
TABLE 11-8. RESULTS OF SOIL TESTS CARRIED OUT AT BONTO LAKJA
L o c a l i t y S o i l Type N u n s e l l Colour pH Reason f o r t e s t
S o i l Test 1, zone 4 where j a r s found
S o i l Test 2, zone 5 a t 5 cm d e p t h
S o i l Test 3, zone 5 a t 5 cm dep t h
S o i l Test 4, zone 8 (Kuburan Nenek Noyang)
S o i l Test 5, zone 9 a t 5 cm dep t h
S o i l Test 6, sawah bund n o r t h o f s c h o o l
G r i t t y s i l t w i t h some c l a y at 5 cm d e p t h
More g r i t t y s i l t w i t h l e s s c l a y t h a n S o i l Test 1
G r i t t y s i l t w i t h some c l a y and s m a l l g r a v e l s
Loose sandy s i l t a t 5 cm dep t h
S i l t s l i g h t l y l o o s e r and more sandy t h a n Test 4
Clayey s i l t a t 5 cm d e p t h
lOYR 3/3 6 (d a r k brown)
10YR 3/2 ( v e r y 6 V 2 d a r k g r e y i s h brown)
SYR 3/3 63/^ (d a r k r e d d i s h brown)
SYR 3/4 6 (d a r k r e d d i s h brown)
SYR 3/4 6 ( d a r k r e d d i s h brown)
SYR 3/4 6 (d a r k r e d d i s h brown)
P o s s i b l e human b u r i a l s
Comparison w i t h S o i l Test 1
Comparison w i t h S o i l Test 1
Known human b u r i a l s
Suspected human b u r i a l s
Unoccupied la n d w i t h o u t b u r i a l s
378
we were shown a "Ming r e d " example (Photo 11-23). S u r f a c e sherdage a l s o i n c l u d e d a 16th c e n t u r y p i e c e ( F i g u r e 11-12).
A s h o r t d i s t a n c e west l i e s Kuburan I s l a m Tuan S a i d whose 47 marked gr a v e s i n c l u d e a few o l d s t y l e s ( T a b l e F-8a). Tuan Said was r e p o r t e d t o be t h e nenek moyang o f Cikkoang people i n s o u t h T a k a l a r . H i s s h e l t e r e d grave shares a b r i c k p l a t f o r m , 13 metres e a s t - w e s t by f i v e metres wide, w i t h f o u r masonry marked gr a v e s (Photo 11-18). The o c c u r r e n c e o f two such p l a t f o r m s a t Bonto L a k j a and one a t K a c c i a p o i n t t o a l o c a l t r a d i t i o n . The 14 b r i c k s we measured, which showed l i t t l e s i z e v a r i a t i o n , have dimensions w i t h i n t h e g e n e r a l range observed a t t h e Makassar f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h no p a r t i c u l a r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n can be made ( F i g u r e 11-2).
Bonto L a k j a B a r a t c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e r i c e f i e l d s where some a n t i q u e s had r e p o r t e d l y been f o u n d (Photo 11-19). Zone 13 i n p a r t i c u l a r produced 206 t r a d e w a r e p i e c e s r a n g i n g between t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h and 1 9 t h - 2 0 t h c e n t u r i e s and 668 earthenware sherds (Appendix D ) . ^ ^ I t would appear t o mark a f o c u s o f h a b i t a t i o n u n t i l t h e 17th c e n t u r y ( F i g u r e 11-12), and p r o v i d e s a c h r o n o l o g i c a l l i n k between t h e p o s s i b l e pre-Ming j a r b u r i a l s , M i n g - p e r i o d p r e - I s l a m i c b u r i a l ground, and e a r l y I s l a m i c c e m e t e r i e s r e c o r d e d nearby.
A l l f o u r l o c a l i t i e s a t Bonto L a k j a might have o r i g i n a l l y belonged t o t h e same l a n d s u r f a c e , and t h e t o t a l t radewares i n d i c a t e a s t r o n g presence u n t i l t h e l a t e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y . Hence Bonto L a k j a , p o s s i b l y under a n o t h e r name, may have been one o f t h e l a r g e r v i l l a g e s a l o n g t h e lower G a r a s s i k u n t i l t h e 1669 r a i d s , o r changes i n r i v e r d i s c h a r g e p a t t e r n s , decreased t h e v i l l a g e ' s s u i t a b i l i t y . *
11.5 G a r a s s i k H e a r t l a n d (BGPM Group)
11.5.1 Benteng G a r a s s i k (Gowa 5)
The s i t e i s b e s t approached w i t h a s y n o p s i s o f my main i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . The 1977 f l o o d reduced G a r a s s i k kampung t o a v e s t i g e o f i t s f o r m e r s e l f , and what has s u r v i v e d o f h i s t o r i c a l G a r a s s i k must a l s o be a m i n u t e f r a c t i o n .
The zone 12 p i e c e s were a l s o from t h i s g e n e r a l area, brought t o us by c h i l d r e n .
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Nonetheless t h e e x t a n t remains i n c l u d e f o r t i f i c a t i o n s which i d e n t i f y t h e s i t e w i t h Benteng G a r a s s i k c i t e d i n t h e Bungaya t r e a t y f o r d e s t r u c t i o n (Andaya, 1981:306). The n a t u r e o f t h e o t h e r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d e b r i s f u r t h e r stamps t h e s i t e as h a v i n g been, i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y , o l d G a r a s s i k ' s c o r e .
I n t h e e a r l y 2 0 t h c e n t u r y , and a p p a r e n t l y as l a t e as 1969, t h e s i t e c o n s t i t u t e d t h e southwest t a i l o f G a r a s s i k kampung which t h e n l a y a c r o s s t h e Sungai Banda from "Bayoa 1". The Jeknekberang's 1977 f l o o d speared G a r a s s i k kampung, washing i t away o r c o v e r i n g i t w i t h s i l t s , a p a r t from Benteng G a r a s s i k . The Banda now r u n s s o u t h o f Bayoa, and t h e modern stream between G a r a s s i k and Bayoa i s p a r t o f a network o f channels where t h e Banda meets t h e Jeknekberang d e l t a ( F i g u r e 11-4). The s i n u o u s c o n t o u r s o f t h e f i e l d s around t h e s i t e , and t h e a l t e r n a t i o n o f s i l t s and sands i n t h e f i e l d s and t h e w e l l s ( F i g u r e 11-14), r e f l e c t t h e s e f l u v i a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e landscape d u r i n g t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y .
The former w a l l l i n e a l o n g Bayao's f o o t p a t h i s d i r e c t e d a t Benteng G a r a s s i k ' s n o r t h w e s t c o r n e r ( F i g u r e 11-14), c o r r o b o r a t i n g f o l k memories t h a t a b r i c k w a l l had once connected Bayoa and G a r a s s i k . The i n s i t u b r i c k w a l l a t G a r a s s i k ' s n o r t h w e s t c o r n e r i n c l u d e s a l i n e on t h e s u r f a c e , an i n t e r s e c t i o n exi>osed by a h o l e (Photo 11-26), and a c r o s s - s e c t i o n i n t h e bank o f a sunken f i e l d a t t h e n o r t h ( F i g u r e 1 1 - 3 a ) . T h i s p a r t o f G a r a s s i k a l s o c o n t a i n s a masonry p o s t - s u p p o r t (Photo 11-27) - one o f f i v e r e p o r t e d l y found a t t h e s i t e - and by f a r t h e main c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f b r i c k r u b b l e . Most o f t h e o t h e r b r i c k r u b b l e o c c u r s t o t h e e a s t i n a p a t t e r n which s u g g e s t s c o l l u v i a l r e d e p o s i t i o n from t h e n o r t h w e s t c o r n e r . However, n o r t h o f Benteng G a r a s s i k r u b b l e was r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e f i e l d f l a n k i n g t h e sunken f i e l d w i t h t h e exposed c r o s s - s e c t i o n , so t h e w a l l had p r o b a b l y c o n f i n e d n o r t h - n o r t h - e a s t towards Somba Opu. Thus t h e snatches o f G a r a s s i k ' s i n s i t u b r i c k w a l l appear t o o u t l i n e a s q u a r i s h
Without t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e i t would have been t e m p t i n g t o i n t e r p r e t t h e l i n e o f f i e l d s r u n n i n g west a l o n g Benteng Garassik's n o r t h b o r d e r , b e f o r e t u r n i n g n o r t h w e s t , as a remnant of t h e d e f e n s i v e d i t c h e s e xcavated a l o n g Makassar's coast i n t h e 1660s ( c f . Andaya, 1981:51). The work mapping the f i e l d s and r e c o r d i n g d e p o s i t s i n t h e w e l l p r o f i l e s was d i r e c t e d p r i m a r i l y by Sonny Wibisono.
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s t r u c t u r e , presumably a p a r a p e t , o u t s i d e a l i n e o f c o a s t a l w a l l ( F i g u r e 11-14).
The p a r a p e t marks t h e f o r t ' s l o c a t i o n b u t i s not t h e a c t u a l f o r t . As shown i n F i g u r e 11-15,^^ " e a r l y " p i e c e s (and f l a k e d s t o n e a r t e f a c t s ) were w i d e l y but s p a r s e l y d i s t r i b u t e d , even o c c u r r i n g i n t h e sunken f i e l d s w hich, o f c o u r s e , drop i n t o t h e s i t e ' s o l d e r d e p o s i t s . But t h e "Ming" and "Qing BW" p i e c e s - w h i c h would c o v e r any 17th c e n t u r y p i e c e s - were s p e c i f i c a l l y c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e r a i s e d area o f s i l t s s o u t h e a s t o f t h e b r i c k w o r k s . Many a n t i q u e s have r e p o r t e d l y been found w i t h i n t h i s r a i s e d area (none i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g f i e l d s ) which a l s o i n c l u d e s two o l d , v e n e r a t e d I s l a m i c graves ( T a b l e F-8b). As t h i s p a r t o f t h e s i t e appears t o have l o n g been a f o c u s o f h a b i t a t i o n w i t h some b u r i a l s , s e n t i m e n t a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s would have d i c t a t e d i t s f o r t i f i c a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n , say, t h e area a b u t t i n g t h e p a r a p e t ' s n o r t h w e s t . P r o b a b l y a l s o t h e most s t a b l e s u r f a c e would have a t t r a c t e d f o r t i f i c a t i o n w h i l e , m u t a t i s m u t a n d i s , t h e works would have s u b s e q u e n t l y p r o t e c t e d t h e d e p o s i t s . But t h e r e a r e no c l e a r s i g n s o f b r i c k w o r k s c o i n c i d i n g w i t h t h e s i t e ' s a r c h a e o l o g i c a l h e a r t . Hence G a r a s s i k F o r t would appear t o have been e s s e n t i a l l y earthen.^''
The s i t e ' s t r a d e w a r e p r o f i l e summarises t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e t r a d e w a r e s i n s i d e and o u t s i d e t h e apparent f o r t ( F i g u r e 11-21). The s i t e ' s h i g h c o u n t s o f coarse stoneware
^* The two s m a l l s u r v e y e d squares i n F i g u r e s 11-14 and 11-15 are remnants o f SSPHAP's i n i t i a l work a t G a r a s s i k b e f o r e I r e a l i s e d t h a t s u r v e y i n g by q u a d r a n t s r a t h e r t h a n land-use zones was j u s t a waste o f t i m e . We had a l s o surveyed some o t h e r s m a l l squares b u t t h e s e were s u b s e q u e n t l y r e p l a c e d by s u r v e y o f t h e land-use zones i n c l u d i n g t h e squares. Zone 6, i t s h o u l d be mentioned, was n o t e d and surveyed by two o f SSPHAP's crew members on s e p a r a t e o c c a s i o n s . A l l o f t h e "Ming" and Qing Swatow i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s were c o l l e c t e d on t h e f i r s t o c c a s i o n (G.5.6 i n Appendix D); t h e o t h e r p i e c e s were r e t u r n e d and so c o u l d have been among t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s on th e second o c c a s i o n (G.5.6B i n Appendix D); hence my a n a l y s i s adds t h e c o u n t s f o r t h e c l a s s e s c o l l e c t e d on t h e f i r s t o c c a s i o n but o t h e r w i s e uses whichever count i s h i g h e r . Note a l s o t h a t G.5.1 i s a g e n e r a l c o l l e c t i o n made on SSPHAP's f i r s t v i s i t , and provenanced no more t i g h t l y t h a n t o t h e r a i s e d p a r t o f t h e s i t e southwest o f t h e b r i c k w o r k s .
The argument a d m i t t e d l y appeals t h r o u g h c i r c u m s t a n t i a l evidence and d e f a u l t r a t h e r t h a n d i r e c t e v i d e n c e , but no o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e seems a t a l l a t t r a c t i v e u n t i l e x c a v a t i o n r e c o v e r s evidence t o t h e c o n t r a r y .
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sherds (Appendix D) a l s o i n d i c a t e that at v a r i o u s times i t was e i t h e r a palace c e n t r e ( c f . 11.4.1) or a port. ^
The tradewares a l s o i n d i c a t e a c l e a r o r i g i n by at l e a s t the 14th century.^® The point c o n t e x t u a l i s e s the s i t e ' s name which almost c e r t a i n l y d e r i v e s from north Java (Reid, 1983a). G r e s i k was a leading s p i c e s port from the e a r l y 15th century, following what must have been a meteoric r i s e given Ma Huan's report, w r i t t e n i n 1433, that i t had been founded by Chinese l a t e i n the 14th century (Guy, 1986:32-33). The name must a l s o have been q u i c k l y g r a f t e d onto Makassar's shores given that G a r a s s i k e x i s t e d as a kingdom by the l a t e 15th century (Figure 4-6). The 15th century, indeed e a r l y 15th century surge i n G a r a s s i k ' s histogram probably corresponds t o when the settlement took G r e s i k ' s name. But t h i s would have occurred i n the context o f G r e s i k Javanese e x e r t i n g major i n f l u e n c e on an already w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d community.
The histogram's l a t e 15th century dip ( F i g u r e 11-19) might be r e l a t e d t o a d e c l i n e i n G a r a s s i k ' s fortunes d i r e c t l y preceding i t s absorption by Gowa a t c.1500. But i t might be more parsimonious t o i n t e r p r e t the r e s u l t as an a r t e f a c t o f a n a l y s i s , e.g. the d i f f i c u l t y i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g l a t e 15th century p i e c e s from 1 6 t h century p i e c e s . A b e t t e r p e r s p e c t i v e might be gained from evening out the tradeware p r o f i l e i n t o a g e n e r a l i s e d 15th century apogee. At the same time, the strong presence o f p i e c e s dated to the 1 6 t h century i s not t o t a l l y anomalous,even though the period witnessed G a r a s s i k ' s absorption (4.3) and the establishment o f Somba Opu a short d i s t a n c e t o the north (11.4.2). Benteng G a r a s s i k could well have remained a port o r a l o c a l population c e n t r e throughout the 16th century. A l l i n a l l , I i n t e r p r e t the s i t e as a h i s t o r i c a l palimpsest whose v a r i o u s r d l e s - small 15th century palace, 17th century f o r t r e s s , and more g e n e r a l l y a b u r i a l , h a b i t a t i o n and port area - are not r e a d i l y disentangled by s u r f a c e survey alone.
^* The observed tradewares include a range of r a r e l y recorded c l a s s e s which, not withbut some misgivings, I g e n e r a l l y assigned to 14th-15th century c l a s s e s (Appendix D; Photo 11-24) .
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11.5.2 Bayoa 1 (Ujung Pandang 1)
D u r i n g t h e 1980s Bayoa's v i l l a g e r s r a i d e d a n e s t o f a n t i q u e s i n an area now c o n t a i n i n g two c o n c e n t r i c ejnpang ( f i s h ponds) t i d a l l y i n u n d a t e d v i a t h e Sungai Bontorea (Banda). I n s p e c t i n g t h e i n n e r empang we found f i v e f r a g m e n t s o f bronze l e a f (Photo 11-29) and, o r i e n t e d 130° from n o r t h , t h e v i s i b l e o u t l i n e o f a d u n i o r l o g c o f f i n (Photo 11-30). The banks o f t h e i n n e r empang appeared a r t i f i c i a l l y b u i l t up b u t t h e n o r t h e r n f a c e s o f t h e o u t e r empang r e t a i n e d t h e o r i g i n a l d e p o s i t s (Photo 11-28). A r t e f a c t u a l remains were e s s e n t i a l l y r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e banks o f t h e i n n e r empang and e a s t e r n o u t e r empang, so we t r e a t e d t h e v e r t i c a l f a c e s and d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d h o r i z o n t a l s u r f a c e s as e i g h t s u r v e y zones ( F i g u r e s 11-16). The r e s u l t i n g p a t t e r n s o f t r a d e w a r e d e n s i t i e s h i g h l i g h t t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f "Ming" and "Qing BW" p i e c e s i n t h e empang compared t o t h e r e s t o f Bayoa ( F i g u r e 11-16). A f t e r s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n t h e t r a d e w a r e s d a t e m a i n l y between t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h and t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r i e s , w i t h an apparent 15th c e n t u r y peak ( F i g u r e 1 1 - 2 1 ) . ^ ' Other observed remains i n c l u d e d 73 b r i c k f r a g m e n t s ; seven T r i d a c n a s h e l l s presumably b r o u g h t i n as gravegoods o r f o r f u n e r a r y f e a s t s ; and n i n e f r a g m e n t s o f bone, none o f w h i c h l o o k e d c l e a r l y human (Photo 11-32) .
On 20 September 1986, c o i n c i d i n g w i t h t h e r e t u r n o f Sonny Wibisono who had c o - d i r e c t e d t h e i n i t i a l s u r v e y , Suaka s a l v a g e d t h e d u n i (Photo 11-31). The e x c a v a t i o n r e v e a l e d a h o l l o w e d l o g w i t h two s l i t s i n t h e base, e n c l o s e d by a p a r t l y p r e s e r v e d o u t r i g g e r r e s t i n g on wooden end s u p p o r t s ( F i g u r e 11-17c). The l o g measured 4 metres l o n g , 90 cm wide and 30 cn deep, and t h e o u t r i g g e r was 5 metres l o n g by 1.2 metres. Some
A r a t i o n a l e f o r z o n i n g t h e empang was t o a n a l y s e t h e w i t h i n - d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e t r a d e w a r e s , but 40 t r a d e w a r e s spread over e i g h t zones comes t o a s m a l l sample i n each case, and t h e a l t e r n a t i o n o f h i g h and n u l l t r a d e w a r e d e n s i t i e s r e f l e c t s t h e zones' s m a l l a r e a s . Earthenwares, i n c l u d i n g fragments o f "cogwheel p o t s " ( c f . Photo 7-16) and f i n e l y i n c i s e d and stamped s h e r d s , were r e c o r d e d i n abundance (Appendix D). O b v i o u s l y t h e r a t i o o f earthenwares t o t r a d e w a r e s i s anomalously h i g h by g e n e r a l s t a n d a r d s , which presumably r e f l e c t s t h e g r e a t e r v i s i b i l i t y o f earthenware sherdage on c l e a n v e r t i c a l s u r f a c e s t h a n on v e g e t a t e d and s c u f f e d h o r i z o n t a l s u r f a c e s .
38
earthenware and b l u e - a n d - w h i t e sherds were found i n t h e e x c a v a t i o n . I i n s p e c t e d t h e b a u l k s whose p r o f i l e s can be p r o j e c t e d a g a i n s t zone 1's p r o f i l e , u s i n g t h e t o p l e v e l a l o n g zone 1 as my datum ( F i g u r e 11-17a). The comparison p l a c e s t h e duni a t t h e base o f t h e s i l t y c l a y s w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e t h e bottom h a l f o f t h e empang's d e p o s i t s , i m m e d i a t e l y on t o p o f b l a c k , g r i t t y beach sands (whi c h I would i n t e r p r e t as t h e t a i l o f t h e Ujung Pandang c h e n i e r s ) . The d e p o s i t s a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e d u n i were y e l l o w i s h and s l i g h t l y a c i d i c , c o n t r a s t i n g w i t h t h e a l k a l i n e , brown t o b l a c k d e p o s i t s elsewhere.
We were i n f o r m e d t h a t many a n t i q u e s had been found w i t h t h e d u n i b u t no human remains were d e s c r i b e d . I t would seem t h a t d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f p o s s i b l y s e v e r a l c o r p s e s , and t o some degree t h e c o f f i n i t s e l f , had c r e a t e d a s l i g h t l y a c i d i c m i c r o - e n v i r o n m e n t i n which wood b u t no human bones were p r e s e r v e d , even though t h e d e p o s i t s a r e g e n e r a l l y a l k a l i n e . Two samples, Bayoa A and Bayoa B r e s p e c t i v e l y , were t a k e n from t h e o u t s i d e o f t h e l o g ' s n o r t h and eas t ends f o r r a d i o c a r b o n d a t i n g . Bayoa A d a t e d a t 101.7 + 2.2 *Modern (ANU-5926), which c o n v e r t s t o 50 (70) 250 BP i f we f o l l o w t h e 101.7 d a t e , w h i l e Bayoa B was d a t e d 270 + 120 BP (ANU-5927), i . e . a c o r r e c t e d d a t e o f 310 BP w i t h a s i n g l e S.D. range between 30 and 480 BP ( S t u i v e r and Pearson, 1986:810). I f we i g n o r e Bayoa A and f o c u s on t h e o l d e r p a r t o f Bayoa B's range t h e d u n i c o u l d be as o l d as t h e 1 5 t h - 1 6 t h c e n t u r i e s . But a 17th c e n t u r y d a t e c a t c h e s t h e o v e r l a p between t h e two r a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s and must be p r e f e r r e d , even though g r e a t e r Gowa had embraced I s l a m by t h i s stage.^° Nor can we argue t h e specimen might m e r e l y be an abandoned canoe; i t s p e r f o r a t e d base ( t o d r a i n t h e decomposing body f l u i d s ) and east-west o r i e n t a t i o n a l s o c h a r a c t e r i s e t h e l o g c o f f i n s e xcavated a t
^° The s k e t c h i n e s s o f my r e c o r d s n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , b o t h samples c l e a r l y came from i n s i d e t h e t r e e - t r u n k which s u p p l i e d t h e l o g , and so would merely d a t e when t h e t r e e was a l i v e . I t c o u l d have been a f a s t - g r o w i n g t r e e f e l l e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o make t h e c o f f i n , so a d a t e i n t h e 17th c e n t u r y can s t i l l s t a n d as t h e best e s t i m a t e . On t h e o t h e r hand, a d a t e as l a t e as t h e 18th c e n t u r y would be a l l o w e d by th e tradewares found i n t h e empang.
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Agop A t a s , Sabah ( B e l l w o o d , 1988b:103) and Palambeang, Pangkep ( T j a n d r a s a s m i t a , 1970:23-24).^^
N o r t h o f t h e empang a p a s t u r e f u l l o f l o o t e r ' s h o l e s reaches Bayoa's cemetery which i s i t s e l f f l a n k e d by f u r t h e r l o o t e d areas ( F i g u r e 11-16). The cemetery's 94 marked graves i n c l u d e t h r e e e a s t - w e s t examples overgrown by t r e e - r o o t s (Photo 11-33; T a b l e F-8b). A s l i g h t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f " e a r l y " and "Ming" t r a d e w a r e p i e c e s o c c u r s i n t h e v i c i n i t y ( F i g u r e 11-18). Hence i t seems t h a t from t h e e a s t p a r t o f t h e empang t o t h e f o o t p a t h a l o n g t h e cemetery, t h e area had been used f o r b u r i a l s , i n c l u d i n g a s u b s t a n t i a l s y n c r e t i s t I s l a m i c phase which might have l a s t e d t i l l t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r y .
A n t i q u e s had a l s o r e p o r t e d l y been found t h r o u g h o u t t h e kampung, i n c l u d i n g t h r e e s t i l l u n s o l d 1 6 t h - 1 7 t h c e n t u r y p i e c e s (Photos 11-35 and 11-36). The r e p o r t matches t h e wide d i s p e r s a l o f "Ming" sherdage ( F i g u r e 11-18). However, i t i s h a r d t o say whether o c c u p a t i o n d e b r i s o r goods a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i s o l a t e d g r a v e s a r e i n v o l v e d . ; . ̂
Bayoa's f o o t p a t h r u n s between t h e streams which f l a n k t h e kampung. B r i c k r u b b l e o c c u r s r i g h t a l o n g t h e f o o t p a t h which t h u s marks t h e f o r m e r w a l l t h r o u g h t h e s i t e (Photo 11-37). The area s o u t h o f t h e f o o t p a t h has c l e a r l y been t h e focus o f Bayoa's o c c u p a t i o n , a t l e a s t between t h e 15th and 1 9 t h c e n t u r i e s ( F i g u r e 11-21). The e a r l y 2 0 t h c e n t u r y maps show t h a t t h e f o o t p a t h marks t h e f o r m e r b o r d e r between kampung and backswamp a t t h e n o r t h . However, t h e kampung used t o e x t e n d f u r t h e r s o u t h , p a s t t h e empang t o t h e p o i n t on t h e Bontorea l a b e l l e d zone 34. Here I n o t i c e d some o b j e c t s e r o d i n g out o f t h e bank i n t o t h e s t r e a m (Photo 11-34), and some c h i l d r e n f i s h i n g f o r m o l l u s c s r e t r i e v e d f u r t h e r o b j e c t s i n t h e water. The c o m b i n a t i o n o f a r t e f a c t s and a r e m a r k a b l e range o f n a t u r a l s t o n e ( T a b l e 11-9; Photos 11-38 and 11-39) p o i n t s t o an a r t i f i c i a l d e p o s i t , p a r t i c u l a r l y as pebbles were n o t observed a t comparable d e p t h s i n t h e empang. Something o t h e r t h a n an 1 8 t h t o 2 0 t h c e n t u r y r u b b i s h dump i s i n v o l v e d because
'̂' The Agap Atas l o g c o f f i n a l s o had a j a r underneath t h e h o l e t o c a t c h t h e body f l u i d s ( B e l l w o o d , 1988b:252-253); f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f i t s d a t i n g , see 13.2.3. The Palambeang c o f f i n was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h decomposed human bones and 1 5 t h - 1 6 t h c e n t u r y t r a d e w a r e s . . „
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TABLE 11-9. OBJECTS FISHED OUT OF THE BONTOREA AT ZONE 34 ^
Type o f Ob j e c t Number " Weight
Late Ming BW p l a t e f o o t r i n g s h e r d 1 63 gm Sawankhalok brownware tempayan base 1 (2 sherds) 323 gm Earthenware sherds ( j a r s and bowls) 9 735 gm Fragments o f o l d r e d b r i c k 18 ? V o l c a n i c s t o n e w i t h rough i n c i s e d l i n e 1 230 gm Flaked q u a r t z i t e p ebble 1 136 gm Flak e o f b a s a l t 1 6 gm Large r l a t e r i t i c p ebbles 21 ? Smaller l a t e r i t i c p e b b l e s 3 350 gm Slabs o f s l a t e 2 s m a l l e r i s 220 gm Limestone pebbles 2 686 gm Other s e d i m e n t a r y pebbles 2 174 gm Quartz pebbles 9 ? Other pebbles ( l a r g e ) 15 ? Other pebbles ( s m a l l ) , = 72 ?
N.B. The f l a k e d q u a r t z i t e p ebble and b a s a l t f l a k e a r e o n l y p r o b a b l y p r o d u c t s o f i n t e n t i o n a l f l a k i n g and even t h e n need not be p r e h i s t o r i c . Only c o l l e c t e d o b j e c t s were weighed. The l a t e Ming BW p i e c e i s i n c l u d e d i n Bayoa's t o t a l t r a d e w a r e s p r o f i l e b u t n o t i n t h e empang o r " s o u t h o f f o o t p a t h " p r o f i l e s ( F i g u r e 11-21).
t h e d a t a b l e a r t e f a c t s f a l l i n t h e 1 6 t h - 1 7 t h c e n t u r i e s . One p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e range o f non-ceramic o b j e c t s would be t h e i r i n c l u s i o n as s u p p o r t m a t e r i a l s i n t h e base o f an e a r t h e n w a l l . Hence I t e n t a t i v e l y i n f e r t h a t an e a r t h f o r t had been b u i l t a t Bayoa, p o s s i b l y c o n f i n e d t o t h e t r i a n g u l a r area between zones 20, 34 and 25. Such a f o r t would resemble Benteng G a r a s s i k i n h a v i n g been b u i l t b e h i n d t h e c o a s t a l w a l l a t a major f o c u s o f c o a s t a l o c c u p a t i o n . ^ ^
Bayoa 1 can be c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d as a main s e t t l e m e n t o f Gowa's Bajau (Bayo) p o p u l a t i o n whose m a r i t i m e s e r v i c e s t o Gowa a r e r e p o r t e d by Speelman ( R e i d , 1983a:126). The s i t e ' s t o t a l t r a d e w a r e s p r o f i l e s u g gests o c c u p a t i o n by t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h c e n t u r i e s p r e c e d i n g t h e main phase whi c h spanned t h e 15 t h and 16th c e n t u r i e s ( F i g u r e 11-21). Even b e t t e r t h a n Benteng G a r a s s i k ' s t r a d e w a r e p r o f i l e , Bayoa's c o r r e l a t e s w i t h what we can deduce o f G a r a s s i k ' s h i s t o r y , i m p l y i n g t h a t t h e Bajau p l a y e d a major r d l e i n G a r a s s i k ' s r i s e ( c f . R e i d , 1983a: 128-129). The Bajau's c o n t i n u e d importance t i l l t h e
-"•̂ There i s no c l e a r r e c o r d o f a Bayoa f o r t , b ut t h e 1650 European s k e t c h o f Makassar does m i s l a b e l Benteng Barombong as "Bayoa F o r t " . , , , ,
386
l a t e 1 7th c e n t u r y i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e t r a d e w a r e p r o f i l e and t h e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e s i t e had been f o r t i f i e d .
11.5.3 Paknakkukang-Pattukangang (OP2) r =
The dominant l a n d f o r m a t t h i s s i t e ( F i g u r e 11-19), a c u r v e d body o f b r o w n i s h g r e y sands, appears t o be a c h e n i e r d e p o s i t e d by a p r o t o h i s t o r i c a l a n c e s t o r o f t h e G a r a s s i k ( 1 1 . 1 ) . The c h e n i e r ' s n o r t h boundary used t o be t h e Banda mouth; as shown by t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y land-use maps, Paknakkukang's main s e t t l e m e n t (UP.2.1) o c c u p i e d an i s l a n d i n t h e mouth. I n 1977 t h e Jeknekberang f o r g e d a new s o u t h o u t l e t i m m e d i a t e l y n o r t h o f Paknakkukang. The s t o n e r o a d a l o n g t h e west base o f t h e c h e n i e r marks t h e pre-1977 s h o r e l i n e , b u t s i n c e 1977 a sandy s t r i p s e v e r a l hundred metres wide has been d e p o s i t e d f u r t h e r westward. Nonetheless t h e s m a l l channel which r u n s t h r o u g h Paknakkukang, and t h e backswamp c o n v e r t e d t o f i s h ponds b e h i n d t h e c h e n i e r , do n o t appear t o have changed much, even i f t h e y used t o a r t i c u l a t e w i t h t h e Banda and not w i t h t h e Jeknekberang. The backswamp may even have e x i s t e d by 1660 i f t h e 1660 s k e t c h (Boxer, 1967:Plate I I I ) can be b e l i e v e d .
The most o b v i o u s remnant f o r t i f i c a t i o n , a mounded l i n e o f b r i c k w a l l w h i c h a c t u a l l y c r o s s e s Paknakkukang's s m a l l channel (Photo 11-41; F i g u r e 11-3b), has p r e v i o u s l y been i n t e r p r e t e d as a w a l l o f Benteng Paknakkukang (Nurhadi e t a l . , 1983:10-11; K a l l u p a , 1985:151-152). But t h e r e a r e no t r a c e s o f c o n n e c t i n g b r i c k w a l l , r a t h e r t h e w a l l p e t e r s o u t a t one o f t h e sandy mounds i n t h e bamboo gro v e which screens t h e w a l l f r o m t h e r o a d . However, t h e r e i s a low heaped l i n e w h ich c o n n e c t s t h e mounds, and i t shows t h a t Paknakkukang was an e a r t h e n f o r t w i t h f i v e mounded b a s t i o n f e a t u r e s ( F i g u r e 11-19; Photo 11-42).^^ T h i s p e r s p e c t i v e f r e e s t h e b r i c k w a l l f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as p a r t o f t h e c o a s t a l w a l l between Paknakkukang and Ujung Tana.
- * • • - . -
D e t e c t i o n o f t h e f o r t r e s s w a l l i s d i f f i c u l t because t h e bamboos obscure a h o l i s t i c view o f t h e s i t e ' s r e l i e f and because p r i o r e x p e c t a t i o n s i n v o l v e d a b r i c k f o r t r a t h e r t h a n an e a r t h e n one. I t t o o k me p e r s o n a l l y f o u r v i s i t s and a l o t o f p u z z l i n g b e f o r e I c o u l d make t h e mental s w i t c h .
A f t e r s u r v e y i n g t h e w a l l l i n e , I met Paknakkukang's tokoh raasyarakat ( s o c i a l exemplar) who e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h r e e o f t h e mounds had been pakbenderang ( f l a g s t a n d s ) , i n c l u d i n g t h e Maccinik Sombala ( P l a c e t o Watch f o r S a i l s ) a t t h e n o r t h w e s t where t h e saukang now s t a n d s . I a l s o observed some s t r a y l o o t e r ' s h o l e s which showed t h a t b r i c k r u b b l e and c o r a l b l o c k s had o c c a s i o n a l l y been i n c l u d e d t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e packed sandy m a t r i x o f t h e w a l l s and b a s t i o n s (Photo 11-43). * The f o r t d i s p l a y s s u r p r i s i n g l y i n s u b s t a n t i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n i n view o f i t s s t r a t e g i c l o c a t i o n a t t h e G a r a s s i k mouth ( F i g u r e 11-1) a l t h o u g h , t o be s u r e , t h e Dutch o c c u p i e d Paknakkukang i n 1660 w i t h ease (Andaya, 1981:49). F u r t h e r , t h e c o a s t a l w a l l b e h i n d Paknakkxikang might have h i n d e r e d g r e a t e r Gowa's defence o f t h e f o r t j u s t as i t a p p a r e n t l y h e l p e d c u r t a i l any Dutch movement i n l a n d .
The most e l e v a t e d p a r t o f t h e e x t a n t f o r t r e s s o c c u r s a t t h e s o u t h . Here t h e w a l l l i n e c u r v e s beneath and around t h e I s l a m i c cemetery which s e r v e s Paknakkukang and Pattukangang. There a r e two tombs r e p o r t e d l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e a r l y 1 7th c e n t u r y f o u n d e r s o f Paknakkukang's l i n e o f to k o h masyarakat.
These a r e t h e "man from London" (Photo 11-40), who can be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a renegade Englishman who c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m b e f o r e d y i n g i n 1637,^"* and h i s w i f e . A s i m i l a r s h e l t e r e d grave on t h e southwest b a s t i o n was a s c r i b e d t o a former Paknakkukang "owner" o f unremembered name ( T a b l e F-8b).^'
We counted 63 l o o t e r ' s h o l e s a d j a c e n t t o t h e cemetery and heard t h a t l o t s o f b l u e - a n d - w h i t e , merah and brownwares had been r e c o v e r e d . Wares s t i l l u n s o l d from t h e l o o t i n g comprised t h r e e Ming w h i t e w a r e s , two Ming BW bowls, t h r e e Ming Swatow, one Wanli BW, one T r a n s i t i o n a l BW and t h r e e Swatow p i e c e s (Photos 11-45 and 11-46). These d a t e between t h e 1 5 t h and
34 The p r e s e n t tokoh masyarakat, who i d e n t i f i e d h i m s e l f as t e n t h i n t h e l i n e , gave q u i t e a d e t a i l e d account. The "man from London" c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m and t h e n m a r r i e d i n t o t h e Paknakkukang community. H i s son Abdul S a i d was tokoh masyarakat when t h e Dutch o c c u p i e d t h e s i t e . These d e t a i l s match t h e European r e c o r d s o f an E n g l i s h c o n s t a b l e who j o i n e d up w i t h Gowa as t h e c h i e f a d v i s e r on f i r e a r m s . He c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m b e f o r e d y i n g i n 1637 (de Crucq, 1941:95). ^= T h i s "owner" might be i d e n t i f i a b l e w i t h Kg Paknakkukang (PKK1), a Sanrabone p r i n c e s s who m a r r i e d T a l l o k ' s S u l t a n Mudhaffar i n t h e e a r l y 17th c e n t u r y ( F i g u r e 4-10).
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17th c e n t u r i e s , and hence l i n k c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y with the I s l a m i c cemetery's 17th century to modern graves. As the f o r t ' s south w a l l s n e a t l y enclose the b u r i a l area, i t would appear to have served as an a x i a l point when Abdullah planned the f o r t ' s c o n s t r u c t i o n .
The c h e n i e r d i r e c t l y south of Paknakkukang, shown as Pattukangang kampung on the Dutch land-use maps, c o n t a i n s what I c a l l the Pattukangang w a l l . I t s t r a c e s begin 50 metres south of Benteng Pattukangang and follow a southward course before c r o s s i n g the stone road (Photo 11-40) and j o i n i n g the Barombong c o a s t a l w a l l ( F i g u r e 11-2). As the Pattukangang w a l l does not connect with Paknakkukang's f o r t i f i c a t i o n s ( F i g u r e 11-17), and appears to have been b u i l t of anomalously t h i c k b r i c k s ( E . 2 . 3 ) , i t was probably a d i s t i n c t c o n s t r u c t i o n event. My reading of the r e c o r d s dates i t to the 1660s, 30 y e a r s a f t e r Paknakkukang's works ( 1 1 . 1 ) .
"Ming" p i e c e s were widely i f t h i n l y d i s p e r s e d along the che n i e r ( F i g u r e 11-20). The comparatively strong d e n s i t y of "Ming" p i e c e s i n s i d e Benteng Paknakkukang r e f l e c t s some examples found i n l o o t e r ' s h o l e s ; elsewhere bamboo leaves comprehensively l i t t e r e d the ground. But there i s no c l e a r evidence that the f o r t i f i c a t i o n s ever protected a l o c a l s ettlement, even i f Benteng Paknakkukang protected the b u r i a l ground. Paknakkukang's occupation by over 500 Dutch s o l d i e r s for s e v e r a l months i n 1660 (Andaya, 1981:49-56), might be a s s o c i a t e d with the s t r o n g d e n s i t y of "Qing BW" p i e c e s i n zone 2 at the f o r t ' s northeast w a l l . ^ * The marked absence of " r e c e n t " p i e c e s i n the c e n t r e of the s i t e could correspond to i t s former use as a f i r i n g range by the Dutch, as reported by the tokoh masyarakat.^"'
The tradeware p r o f i l e s suggest that Pattukangang had been occupied by the 15th century ( F i g u r e 11-21). While
^® i . e . the s o l d i e r s had spent more time around Benteng Paknakkukang than a c t u a l l y i n s i d e i t . 500 people i n the f o r t r e s s would be a r e a l squeeze. From Andaya's account i t i s not q u i t e c l e a r how many months of Dutch occupation were involved.
The report i s confirmed by Sonny Wibisono's recovery of a corroded b u l l e t near zone 13. I should a l s o acknowledge Wibisono's involvement i n the s i t e ' s i n i t i a l survey, e s p e c i a l l y that he f i r s t n o t i c e d the point where the Pattukangang b r i c k w a l l s t a r t e d .
Paknakkukang's sherdage does n o t d a t e b e f o r e t h e 16th c e n t u r y , t h i s p a r t o f t h e s i t e i n c l u d e s t h e p r e - I s l a m i c b u r i a l ground where wares as o l d as t h e 15 t h c e n t u r y have been fo u n d . Pattukangang (PTK) r e c u r s as a k a r a e n g s h i p t h r o u g h t h e 15th and 17 t h c e n t u r i e s , i n c l u d i n g an i n i t i a l a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h G a r a s s i k ( e . g . F i g u r e 4 - 6 ) . The r a r i t y o f the toponym removes t h e l a s t c o n c e i v a b l e o b s t a c l e t o i d e n t i f y i n g t h e s i t e w i t h h i s t o r i c a l Pattukangang. As t h e e a r l i e s t o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e toponym Paknakkukang d a t e s t o t h e • e a r l y 17th c e n t u r y , i t seems l i k e l y t h a t Paknakkukang e i t h e r budded o f f o r was g r a f t e d o n t o Pattukangang a t t h i s j u n c t u r e , p o s s i b l y i n response t o t h e d e p o s i t i o n o f new h a b i t a b l e l a n d * at t h e G a r a s s i k ' s s o u t h o u t l e t .
11.5.4 Mamampang (Ujung Pandang 5) and o v e r v i e w
Mamampang appears on t h e Dutch land-use maps, b u t not on t h e , I n d o n e s i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s , as a t i n y kampung on t h e s o u t h b o r d e r o f t h e e x t e n s i v e backswamp between Pattukangang and Kacc i a . We surv e y e d i t as a p o s s i b l e match t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l toponym Mamampang; n o t because o f r e p o r t e d l o o t i n g o r o l d I s l a m i c graves which were as absent as h o u s i n g a t t h i s abandoned kampung. The t h i n s c a t t e r o f s u r f a c e sherdage i n c l u d e d a few " c o l o n i a l " p i e c e s and, a t one p a r t i c u l a r l o c a l i t y (Photo 11-47), a few "Ming" p i e c e s ( F i g u r e 11-22). Given t h e t h o r o u g h geomorphic r e w o r k i n g o f t h i s g e n e r a l area, t h e "Ming" p i e c e s would c o n s t i t u t e an adequate b a s i s t o i d e n t i f y t h e s i t e w i t h t h e h i s t o r i c a l toponym, except f o r t h e d i r e c t e v i d e n c e l i n k i n g h i s t o r i c a l Mamampang w i t h Makan Manyampang ( 8 . 5 . 1 ) . . ,
Mamampang f i n i s h e s o ur d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e BGPM s i t e s . T h e i r combined c h r o n o l o g i c a l histograun shows a presence o f p i e c e s , a f t e r s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n , as pronounced i n t h e 15th c e n t u r y as a t any l a t e r j u n c t u r e ( F i g u r e 11-21). I i n t e r p r e t t h i s as t h e p e r i o d when t h e a n c e s t r a l G a r a s s i k r i v e r had d e p o s i t e d t h e Paknakkukang-Pattukangang c h e n i e r and was debouching, v i a a n o r t h e a s t c u r v i n g o u t l e t , a t Bayoa and Ga r a s s i k . A quantum l e a p i n t r a d e between t h e communities a l o n g t h e Ga r a s s i k d e l t a and Java a p p a r e n t l y a l s o o c c u r r e d a t t h i s s t a g e , r e s u l t i n g i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e s m a l l
390
p o r t - p o l i t y o f G a r a s s i k . The area e n c l o s e d by t h e BGPM s i t e s ( F i g u r e 11-5a) p o s s i b l y a p p r o x i m a t e s o l d G a r a s s i k ' s p o l i t i c a l h e a r t . The new o u t l e t s l i g h t l y t o t h e n o r t h , which t h e G a r a s s i k r i v e r a p p a r e n t l y f o r g e d by t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y , c o u l d be r e l a t e d t o Somba Opu's subsequent ascendancy.
11.6 The GMTB Group
Gotong (OPS) i s a s m a l l r a i s e d area o f s i l t y f i e l d s (Photo 11-48) w i t h 103 l o o t e r ' s h o l e s . The main a n t i q u e s r e p o r t e d were b l u e - a n d - w h i t e c e r a m i c s , a l o n g w i t h some Sawankhalok and cel a d o n s . The s m a l l sample o f "Ming" p i e c e s found on s i t e p o s s i b l y s u g g e s t s a m a i n l y 1 5 t h c e n t u r y b u r i a l ground ( F i g u r e 11-23). The i n d i c a t i o n s o f a d e c l i n e i n t o t h e 16th c e n t u r y a r e s u p p o r t e d by t h e absence o f I s l a m i c marked gr a v e s . The more r e c e n t t r a d e w a r e s suggest s p o r a d i c o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e s i t e a f t e r t h e l a t e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y .
S h o r t l y a f t e r I s 1 a m i s a t i o n t h e Gotong people might have moved t h e i r b u r i a l ground t o Timbuseng. My n o t e s d e s c r i b e Makam Timbuseng as an o l d t o modern g r a v e y a r d which had never been l o o t e d .
S t r o n g e r e v i d e n c e o f 1 7 t h c e n t u r y I s l a m i c b u r i a l s o c c u r r e d some 80 metres t o t h e s o u t h where we r e c o r d e d two s h e l t e r e d g raves w i t h f i n e l y c a r v e d wooden n i s a n on a p l a t f o r m o f o l d - l o o k i n g b r i c k s (Photo 11-49; Ta b l e F-8b). We were t o l d t h a t t h e s e were t h e o l d e s t g r a v e s i n Timbuseng, p l u s t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n . The two gr a v e s were a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Karaeng Papok, a m u b a i i g ( I s l a m i c p r e a c h e r ) from Pangkep, and h i s companion. They d i d n o t s t a n d i n an a n c e s t r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e Timbuseng v i l l a g e r s . However, people from t h e Pangkep i s l a n d s o f t e n came t o pay homage.
200 metres f u r t h e r s o u t h we r e c o r d e d a Swatow p i e c e i n a ladang ("Timbuseng" i n F i g u r e 11-4a; 0.9.1 i n Appendix D). The o t h e r t r a d e w a r e s h e r e and a t Makam Kg Papok (0.9.2) were a l l Qing t o r e c e n t ( F i g u r e 11-23).
B i l a y a Lama (Gowa 11) i s a s m a l l r a i s e d area w i t h around 50 t o 100 marked I s l a m i c g r a v e s which appear v e r y o l d t o modern ( T a b l e F-8b). The s i t e ' s s h e l t e r e d g r a v e (Photo 11-50) i s a s c r i b e d t o a Gowa karaeng whose name was n o t r e c a l l e d . 11 h o l e s s t i l l d o t t e d t h e cemetery from t h e l o o t i n g which had
391
reportedly occurred 20 y e a r s beforehand. The antiques, mostly blue-and-white but a l s o some celadons, merah, brownwares and Sawankhalok, were r e p o r t e d l y found four to f i v e metres below ground. T h i s b u r i a l ground appears to have been i n continuous use from at l e a s t the 16th century t i l l the present, even though the only tradeware sherdage at the s i t e was Qing to ^ recent { F i g u r e 11-23).
The tradewares p r o f i l e of the GMTB s i t e s combined suggests occupation of the area by at l e a s t the 15th century. The apparent e a r l y 17th century n a d i r { F i g u r e 11-23) could be the r e s u l t of inadequate sampling. The s i t e s are so unimpressive that they would seem to mark the s o c i a l as w e l l as the s p a t i a l periphery of p r e c o l o n i a l Makassar.
11.7 The Aeng C l u s t e r
11.7.1 Barombong {Ujung Pandang 3)
Af t e r jagging a c r o s s the stone road at Pattukangang { F i g u r e 11-19), the extant w a l l l i n e meets a r i d g e of l i g h t brownish grey sands running along the west s i d e of the road to Barombong. A continuous l i n e of b r i c k rubble, studded with o c c a s i o n a l exposures of in s i t u b r i c k s , can be t r a c e d along the sand ridge for 800 metres { F i g u r e 11-1). I n August 1986 SSPHAP's team made a rough s k e t c h of the north 400 metres of the Barombong w a l l . We s t a r t e d with the s e c t i o n which t r a v e r s e s Pattukangang Baru, noted that 150 metres could not be d i r e c t l y surveyed because the Barombong naval t r a i n i n g c o l l e g e has been b u i l t over the w a l l l i n e , and observed only Qing to recent sherdage and modern I s l a m i c graves. We had a l s o sketched the remaining 400 metres, but i n t h i s case I l a t e r decided on a p l a n e - t a b l e survey and f u l l e r documentation of the q u i t e i n t e r e s t i n g a s s o c i a t e d remains. The resurvey was c a r r i e d out i n June 1987 ( F i g u r e 11-24).
At the north i s the I s l a m i c grave of "Tuan Biraeng" which looked to be of 18th century v i n t a g e . The bole of a banyan t r e e has grown r i g h t over i t and i s s t a r t i n g to envelope the corrugated i r o n s h e l t e r p r o t e c t i n g the grave. A l a t e Ming BW piece was found with other, l a t e r tradewares { F i g u r e 11-26). Further south i s Kuburan Islam Tangaya, a modern cemtery
b u i l t on the w a l l l i n e (Table F-8b), where the e a r l i e s t recorded tradewares were Swatow (F i g u r e 11-26). Also, a small looted area a c r o s s the road had r e p o r t e d l y produced approximately 40 blue-and-white, Sawankhalok and celadon p i e c e s , p l u s a ceramic b i r d f i g u r i n e . The sandy drop between the wall l i n e and the beach s t e a d i l y widens to t h i s point, and s h o r t l y southwards the longshore d e p o s i t s break away from the mainland to c r e a t e a seawater i n l e t (Photo 11-2). The i n l e t reaches as f a r north as Saukang Patanna Parasangang which abuts the s h e l t e r e d grave of Tuan Caddi. Tuan Caddi r e p o r t e d l y h a i l e d from Cikkoang i n south T a k a l a r , and thus p a i r s with Bonto L a k j a ' s Tuan S a i d (11.4.3). Even though no l o o t i n g had occurred, the wealth of s u r f a c e tradewares included two 13th-14th century p i e c e s , and 16th century and l a t e r p i e c e s otherwise ( F i g u r e 11-26). *
F u r t h e r south the w a l l l i n e c r o s s e s the road and f i n i s h e s i n s e v e r a l s c a t t e r s which seem to o u t l i n e a small polygon. Unless the shape merely r e f l e c t s chance d i s p e r s a l caused by housing developments, i t suggests a b a s t i o n . Barombong Fort had presumably e x i s t e d here at the end of the w a l l l i n e , and the absence of any f u r t h e r b r i c k rubble suggests that i t had been an earthen f o r t r e s s .
Immediately west of the p o s s i b l e b a s t i o n , a duni and some ceramics were r e p o r t e d l y looted at the i n l e t a f t e r being o r i g i n a l l y exposed by e r o s i o n (Photo 11-53). We found only Qing and l a t e r p i e c e s here,^® but p i e c e s as e a r l y as the 16th century were found around Kuburan Islam Barombong to the immediate south ( F i g u r e 11-26). The circumstances of the cemetery suggest i t should date back to the 17th century, and such a v i n t a g e could be suggested f o r Makam Salekowa which a l s o s e r v e s as a saukang (Table F-8b).
I n t o t a l i t y the Barombong p i e c e s suggest occupation of t h i s o l d longshore r i d g e by the 13th-14th c e n t u r i e s , but only s p o r a d i c a l l y u n t i l the l a t e 16th century ( F i g u r e 11-26).^' The small s i z e of the two looted a r e a s , and the reported
^® The tradeware p i e c e s from zone 3 (the looted area) and zone 4 (the p o s s i b l e b a s t i o n ) were c o l l e c t e d s e p a r a t e l y i n the f i e l d , but I mixed them up while washing them and hence they are both placed under "zone 4" i n Appendix D.
Note that the t o t a l Barombong p i e c e s include the Qing to recent p i e c e s recorded at Pattukangang Baru (U.3.8).
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f i n d s , agree w i t h such a s c e n a r i o . T h i s p r e v i o u s l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t area a c h i e v e d s t r a t e g i c s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e e a r l y 1 7 t h c e n t u r y when i t f e l l under t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f A b d u l l a h ' s s t e p b r o t h e r . Kg Mamampang G a r a s s i k Barombong x ( F i g u r e 4 - 6 ) , and when i t s f i r s t f o r t i f i c a t i o n s were b u i l t . ;
11.7.2 Bontoa (UP26) and Ujung K a s s i k (UP6)
Makam Kuno Bontoa c o v e r s around 30 metres by 20 metres and has graves which my n o t e s r e c o r d as o f 1 7 t h / 1 8 t h t o 2 0 t h c e n t u r y v i n t a g e (Photo 11-54; Ta b l e F-Bc). There a r e a few s u s p i c i o u s h o l e s i n t h e s c r u b , c o n f i r m i n g a r e p o r t t h a t some a n t i q u e s were found h e r e (S. R a s y i d A., p e r s . comm.), even though l o c a l s d e n i e d any l o o t i n g . Bontoa i s l o c a l l y renowned as t h e s i t e where t h e Bungaya T r e a t y was s i g n e d i n 1667 ( K a l l u p a , 1985:154-156; Sagimun, 1985:234). Hence Bontoa was a 'small v i l l a g e near Barombong c a l l e d Bungaya' (Andaya, 1981:98) i n 1667 and so would appear t o have s e a t e d t h e mid-17th c e n t u r y Bungaya k a r a e n g s h i p ( F i g u r e 4-17).
Ujung K a s s i k i s a s m a l l kampung a l o n g t h e Aeng i n l e t s o u t h of where i t meets t h e sea a t Kuburan I s l a m Barombong. An o l d I s l a m i c marked grave s i t s on a mound grown over by a s u c c u l e n t (Photo 11-55). R e p o r t e d l y people had found many a n t i q u e s - l o t s o f b l u e - a n d - w h i t e , b u t a l s o merah, ce l a d o n s , i r o n ( i n c l u d i n g a k r i s ) and bronze - n e x t t o t h e grave i n l a n d now c o v e r e d by t h e i n l e t . The o n l y t r a d e w a r e sherds which we r e c o r d e d here (UP.6.1) and on t h e a d j a c e n t beach (UP.6.2) were Qing and European ( F i g u r e 11-26).
11-7.3 Aengtoa, Jonggoa Batu-Batu and Karama
Aengtoa (Teikalar 2) o c c u p i e s a bend o f t h e Aeng r i v e r , s t i l l t i d a l a t t h i s p o i n t , s o u t h o f Ujung K a s s i k . The s i t e ' s d e p o s i t s c o n s i s t o f a s i l t y c l a y w i t h some sand and g r i t , r a n g i n g i n c o l o u r from l i g h t b r o w n i s h g r e y a t t h e n o r t h t o r e d d i s h brown a t t h e s o u t h . E l e v a t i o n v a r i e s between seven metres a s l a t t h e n o r t h and f o u r metres a s l a t t h e s o u t h .
Aengtoa appears t o have c o n t a i n e d a s u b s t a n t i a l p o p u l a t i o n from p r e - I s l a m i c t i m e s . R e p o r t e d l y c e r a m i c s which were g e n e r a l l y b l u e - a n d - w h i t e , b u t a l s o merah and c e l a d o n s , were
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r e c o v e r e d from s i x d i s c r e t e areas e i t h e r f u l l o f l o o t e r ' s h o l e s o r i n d i c a t e d as p r o d u c t i v e a r e a s . Two l o o t e d areas are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h " o l d " I s l a m i c g r a v e y a r d s , w h i l e t h e s i t e a l s o c o n t a i n s an i s o l a t e d b r i c k s e p u l c h r e and a "new" g r a v e y a r d (Table F-8c). The main cemetery c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l groups o f " o l d " g r a v e s a t d i s t i n c t o r i e n t a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g one group whose graves v a r y between 125° and 145° from n o r t h ( F i g u r e 11-25). S u r f a c e t r a d e w a r e s range between t h e 1 5 t h and 2 0 t h c e n t u r i e s , a l t h o u g h w i t h t h e s u g g e s t i o n o f an e a r l y 17th c e n t u r y d i p ( F i g u r e 11-26). Non-ceramic f i n d s a t t h e s i t e i n c l u d e d a s t o n e p e s t l e (T. 2 .4.1 1 ) .
A kampung s t r u n g a l o n g a r a i s e d beach r i d g e , c a l l e d Jonggoa on t h e Dutch land-use maps, i s now d i v i d e d i n t o Jonggoa a t t h e n o r t h and Batu-Batu a t t h e s o u t h . At t h e kampung b o r d e r l i e s t h e I s l a m i c cemetery o f Jonggoa Batu-Batu ( T a k a l a r 5 ) . The marked g r a v e s would appear t o have o r i g i n a t e d by t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y , g i v e n t h e presence o f an east-west o r i e n t e d s t o n e arrangement and a t l e a s t 100 masonry markers l a c k i n g n i s a n (Photo 11-56; Ta b l e F-8c). The s m a l l sample o f t r a d e w a r e s a t t h e cemetery was a l l Qing and l a t e r ( F i g u r e 11-27), w h i l e an a n t i q u e r e p o r t e d l y r e c o v e r e d from t h e s i t e l o o k s l i k e a Qing brownware j a r (Photo 11-51). The s i t e can be matched w i t h t h e m i d - 1 7 t h c e n t u r y Batu-Batu k a r a e n g s h i p ( F i g u r e 4 - 6 ) , ^ ^ p a r t i c u l a r l y as i t i s t h e o n l y Batu-Batu I can f i n d on t h e 1693 map ( F i g u r e 5 - 5 ) . However, t h e l a t e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y Batu-Batu k a r a e n g s h i p , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a T a l l o k p r i n c e s s who m a r r i e d T u n i j a l l o k ( F i g u r e 4-8), would e i t h e r r e f e r t o t h i s a rea i n a more g e n e r a l sense, o r r e f e r t o some o t h e r u n i d e n t i f e d p l a c e .
Karama ( T a k a l a r 34) l i e s a c r o s s t h e Aeng r i v e r from Aengtoa, near a backswamp e x t e n d i n g b e h i n d t h e beach r i d g e which c o n t a i n s Jonggoa Batu-Batu ( F i g u r e 1 1-4). My a d m i t t e d l y s parse n o t e s document i t as a SSPHAP h i s t o r i c a l s i t e . I t s o l d e r cemetery c o n t a i n s masonry markers l a c k i n g n i s a n (Table
The p e s t l e i s a water-rounded pebble o f h a r d metamorphic s t o n e . I t i s n a t u r a l l y f r a c t u r e d a t one end, and abraded and s l i g h t l y f l a t t e n e d and g l o s s e d a t t h e o t h e r . I t i s 105 mm l o n g and 42 by 30 mm i n c r o s s - s e c t i o n , and weighs around 250 grams. ^' T h i s Kg Batu-Batu l o s t h i s l i f e i n 1660 def e n d i n g : j ^ . j ^ ^ , . Paknakkukang a g a i n s t t h e Dutch (LB:123).
F ^ c ) , w h i l e l o o t i n g a t Karama has y i e l d e d a n t i q u e s (A. Rasyid S. , p e r s . comm.). At a l a t e r s t a g e I was shown a -̂ r c o l l e c t i o n o f a n t i q u e s r e p o r t e d l y r e c o v e r e d by t h e "Aeng" i n h a b i t a n t s when t h e y dug an empang. Given t h e l o c a l land-use p a t t e r n s and o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e are a , t h i s had o c c u r r e d a t Aengtoa o r Karama. As t h e c o l l e c t i o n spans t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h t o t h e 19th c e n t u r i e s (Photo 11-52), i t may not a l l be from j one l o c a l i t y . -̂ r-.̂
11.7.4 Pangkajeknek, Summanak and Pakkala Toa A -
Kompleks Makam Pangkajeknek ( T a k a l a r 3) l i e s a l o n g t h e Kaba l l o k a n g - t h e name o f t h e Aeng r i v e r i n l a n d from Aengtoa - i n an area o f sawah and empang ( F i g u r e 1 1-4). The cemetery covers around 50 metres square and i n c o r p o r a t e s two s h e l t e r e d g r aves, i n c l u d i n g t h a t o f "Majiyaurang Dg Gassing" which i s r e p o r t e d l y t h e o l d e s t . A s m a l l area o f around 15 l o o t e r ' s h o l e s was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a few Qing and l a t e r s u r f a c e tradewares ( F i g u r e 11-27). Even though we d a t e d t h e o l d e s t marked graves t o t h e 18 t h c e n t u r y , t h e s i t e has produced a n t i q u e s (A. Rasyid S., p e r s . comm.) and so proba±>ly has a t l e a s t 17th c e n t u r y o r i g i n s .
A s h o r t d i s t a n c e n o r t h l i e K a t i n t i n g and Summanak, b o t h synonymous w i t h 1 7 t h c e n t u r y k a r a e n g s h i p s . K a t i n t i n g , now a d e s e r t e d kampung, can be r e j e c t e d as an o l d toponym. I t c o n t a i n s no s i g n s o f any b u r i a l remains; t h e observed sherdage (T.31.1 i n Appendix D) i s a l l Qing t o r e c e n t ; and Kg K a t i n t i n g h i m s e l f i s b u r i e d a t T a l l o k ( 1 4 . 2 . 4 ) . The ci r c u m s t a n c e s o f Summanak ( T a k a l a r 3 3 ) , however, a r e a l l p o s i t i v e . I t s cemetery i n c l u d e s o l d as w e l l as modern s t y l e s ( T able F-8c; Photo 11-57); a few a n t i q u e s have been found here (A. Rasyid S., p e r s . comm.); t h e s i t e i s d e p i c t e d on t h e 1693 map ( F i g u r e 5 - 5 ) ; and Kg Summanak was a son o f Kg Mamampang G a r a s s i k Barombong ( 1 1 . 7 . 1 ) . D e s p i t e t h e s i t e ' s u n s p e c t a c u l a r q u a l i t i e s , i t can be i d e n t i f i e d as t h e ka r a e n g s h i p o f an i m p o r t a n t T a l l o k n o b l e who v i e d w i t h Kg Karunrung f o r t h e regency a f t e r Mahmud's d e a t h ( 3 . 5 . 1 ) .
Pakkala Toa ( T a k a l a r 4 ) , an area o f l i g h t brown c l a y s , comprises two s i t e a reas. Pakkala Toa B a r a t s t r a d d l e s t h e road which runs n o r t h w a r d s a l o n g t h e east s i d e o f t h e
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K a b a l l o k a n g ( F i g u r e 11-4). West o f t h e ro a d i s a cemetery (zone 5) w i t h around 40 marked graves which a r e e i t h e r o l d masonry s t y l e s , o r modern wooden s t y l e s where c h i l d r e n a r e b u r i e d ( T a b l e F - 8 c ) . Many o f t h e masonry gra v e s have been l a r g e l y b u r i e d i n d e p o s i t s , n o t a b l y one east-west d i r e c t e d s l a b b e d marker (Photo 11-58). Two o f t h e a b u t t i n g f i e l d s (zones 3 and 6) were bare o f t r a d e w a r e s , b u t one ploughed f i e l d t o t h e e a s t (zone 2) c o n t a i n e d " e a r l y " and "Ming" p i e c e s . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 180 metres t o t h e east l i e s Pakkala Toa Timur. A Swatow p i e c e was fo u n d i n a f i e l d (zone 4 ) , 100 metres from a v e n e r a t e d g r a v e c o n s i s t i n g o f two st o n e s 1.6 metres a p a r t a l o n g an eas t - w e s t a x i s ( i n zone 1 ) . There were no s i g n s o f l o o t i n g and l o c a l s d e n i e d i t had o c c u r r e d , a l t h o u g h Pakkala i s known t o have produced a few a n t i q u e s (A. Rasyid S., p e r s . comm.). I n any case t h e s m a l l t r a d e w a r e s sample c o v e r s a v e r y l o n g p e r i o d ( F i g u r e 1 1 - 2 7 ) , and t h e I s l a m i c b u r i a l s , a t l e a s t , would d a t e from t h e 17t h c e n t u r y .
11 .7.5 Overview *
As t h e s t o r y has i t , Gowa's le g e n d a r y second r u l e r b o r n o f t h e Tomanurung, Massalangga Barayang, had ascended ( d i s a p p e a r e d ) on t h e n o r t h s i d e o f Jonggoa (SG:12; F i g u r e 2 - 2 ) . ^ ^ Jonggoa mentioned above i s t h e o n l y i n s t a n c e a t a l l near Gowa, and I was d i s a p p o i n t e d by t h e l a c k o f evidence t o i d e n t i f y i t as a v e r y o l d toponym. On r e f l e c t i o n , I see t h e s t o r y i n v o k e s Jonggoa ( U j u n g Gowa) t o say t h a t Massalangga Barayang ascended a t " t h e e n d - p o i n t o f Gowa" r a t h e r t h a n t o i d e n t i f y some p a r t i c u l a r p l a c e where t h i s o c c u r r e d .
I n one sense, th o u g h , t h e Aeng c l u s t e r marks t h e e n d - p o i n t o f Gowa. I t i n c l u d e s Makassar's southernmost f o r t i f i c a t i o n s a t Barombong; t h e p l a c e where t h e Bungaya t r e a t y was s i g n e d ; A e n g ( t o a ) , where g r e a t e r Gowa p r e p a r e d a major d e f e n s i v e post unbreached d u r i n g t h e 1667 Makassar War (LB:133; Andaya, 1981:90-97 p a s s . ) ; and Batu- B a t u , which t h e o f f e n s i v e f o r c e s o c c u p i e d (LB:134). I t i n c l u d e s two k a r a e n g s h i p s a s s o c i a t e d
''̂ As might be expected of a f i g u r e of Massalangga Barayang's prowess, h i s ascent was marked by an appropriate d i s p l a y from the firmaments, i n t h i s case a crack of l i g h t n i n g and a downpour of hot r a i n . : •
w i t h i m p o r t a n t T a l l o k n o b l e s (Barombong and Summanak) and two ka r a e n g s h i p s , a p p a r e n t l y o u t s i d e t h e major l i n e a g e groups, v mentioned i n t h e mid- 1 7 t h c e n t u r y g e n e a l o g i c a l r e c o r d s ^ ^ (Bungaya and B a t u - B a t u ) . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , Aeng(toa) i s absent from t h e g e n e a l o g i c a l r e c o r d s , even though i t was c l e a r l y t h e c l u s t e r ' s c e n t r a l p l a c e . I t i s t e m p t i n g t o l i n k t h e e a r l y 17th c e n t u r y gap i n Aengtoa's t r a d e w a r e s p r o f i l e ( F i g u r e 11-24) w i t h an e m i g r a t i o n t o s u r r o u n d i n g kampungs, e s p e c i a l l y Barombong, i n response t o g r e a t e r Gowa's h e i g h t e n e d i n t e r e s t i n t h e area .
I n r e t u r n , Aeng's e l i t e members would appear t o have m a i n t a i n e d a r e s i l i e n t independence d u r i n g t h e j u n c t u r e . P r o b a b l y t h e i r p r i d e s t i l l d w e l t i n t h e r e c e n t p a s t when Aeng e i t h e r r u l e d a l i t t l e p o l i t y a l o n g t h e Aeng-Kaballokang r i v e r , o r e n j o y e d t h e s t a t u s o f b e i n g o l d G a r a s s i k ' s j u n i o r p a r t n e r . -v-,?
11.8 The A n t i q u i t y o f "Makassar"
The s i t e s i n c l u d e d i n Speelman's p r e c o l o n i a l Makassar t o g e t h e r show a tr a d e w a r e s p r o f i l e w hich sweeps upwards from t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h c e n t u r i e s , peaks i n t h e 16t h and e a r l y 1 7th c e n t u r i e s , and drop s s h a r p l y t h e r e a f t e r ( F i g u r e 11-23). The e a r l y 16th c e n t u r y appears as t h e s p e c i f i c apogee; a l t h o u g h t h i s i s p a r t l y an a r t e f a c t o f analysis,'•'* i t does c o r r e s p o n d t o when p o w e r f u l n e i g h b o u r i n g kingdoms - Gowa, T a l l o k and Siang - t o o k a sh a r p i n t e r e s t i n t h e G a r a s s i k d e l t a ( F i g u r e 4-7). The c o n v e r s i o n o f 15th c e n t u r y G a r a s s i k i n t o a major p o r t by t h e e a r l y 1 6 t h c e n t u r y i s a l s o c l e a r from Paiva's 1544 d e s c r i p t i o n .
The evidence s t r o n g l y i n d i c a t e s c o n s i d e r a b l e t r a d i n g a c t i v i t y h ere by t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h c e n t u r i e s . On t o p o f t h e e a r l y p i e c e s a t t h e "Makassar" s i t e s themselves ( F i g u r e 11-23), t h e area s u r e l y s e r v e d as t h e s e a f r o n t f o r t h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f t h e f a r g r e a t e r share o f e a r l y c e r a m i c s a t s i t e s a l o n g t h e mi d d l e Jeknekberang (Chapters 6 t o 9 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , r e c h a n n e l i n g o f
Not o n l y t h e s i t e c o n s i s t e n t l y c l o s e t o t h e c l u s t e r ' s s p a t i a l c e n t r e ( F i g u r e 11-5), but a l s o t h e l a r g e s t s i t e i n t h e c l u s t e r and a complex b u r i a l ground ( F i g u r e 11-23).
See f o o t n o t e s 16 and 17.
398
t h e Garassik-Jeknekberang d e l t a has d e s t r o y e d many s i t e s . The o l d e r a s i t e , t h e g r e a t e r t h e chance o f i t s d e s t r u c t i o n , and so t h e o l d e s t phases o f Makassar's t r a d e w a r e p r o f i l e c o u l d w e l l be s y s t e m a t i c a l l y u n d e r r e p r e s e n t e d .
The Javanese poem Desawarnana (Nagarakertagama) o f 1365 c i t e s "Makasar", a l o n g w i t h S e l a y a r , among t h e " i s l a n d s " known t o t h e e a s t (Pigeaud, 1960:16-17). However, b o t h P e l r a s (1981:154) and, more f o r c e f u l l y , R eid (1983a) argue t h a t t h i s Makasar was n o t t h e same p l a c e as 1 7 t h c e n t u r y Makassar. I n Reid's view, t r a d e t o t h e Makassar area b e f o r e c.1500 was almost e n t i r e l y r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e s o u t h c o a s t , and e a r l i e r r e f e r e n c e s t o "Makassar" i n v o l v e d t h e Bajau i n h a b i t i n g t h e southwest c o a s t ' s o f f s h o r e i s l a n d s . Reid's f i r s t p o i n t i s d i s p r o v e d by t h e c e r a m i c s e v i d e n c e ( a l t h o u g h I cannot comment on whether o r n o t t h e s o u t h c o a s t e n j o y e d more o f t h e e a r l y t r a d e ) . Reid's second p o i n t needs a d a p t i n g : s e v e r a l l i n e s of e v i d e n c e suggest t h a t t h e Bajau p l a y e d a major p a r t i n r e g u l a r i s i n g South S u l a w e s i ' s e a r l y l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a d e l i n k s , b u t t h e s e were Baj a u based a t r i v e r m o u t h p o r t s r a t h e r t h a n on i s l a n d s (11.5.2; 1 3 . 1 ) .
Makassar i s a v e r y r a r e toponym. N o r m a l l y , r a r i t y o f a toponym i n c r e a s e s our c o n f i d e n c e i n making t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , b u t n o t i n t h i s case. Makassar o c c u r s so r a r e l y p r e c i s e l y because i t was a name used o n l y by o u t s i d e r s . To my knowledge, t h e Makassar t e x t s always r e f e r t o 1 6 t h - 1 7 t h c e n t u r y Makassar by a n o t h e r name, u s u a l l y Somba Opu. I n c o n t r a s t Makassar t o t h e Portuguese was v i r t u a l l y synonymous w i t h South S u l a w e s i . I n c.1515 P i r e s d e s c r i b e d 'Maca^ar' as a l a r g e c o v m t r y w i t h numerous i s l a n d s (Cortesao, 1944), and t h e m i d - 1 6 t h c e n t u r y Portuguese r e c o r d s used Makassar t o mean t h e B u g i s c o a s t l i n e between Siang and Suppak, whose r u l e r s P a i v a had b a p t i s e d (Jacobs, 1966:272-277). Hence "Makasar" as c i t e d i n t h e Desawarnana was p r o b a b l y a l s o a g e n e r a l placename.
The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e , n o t t h e " i d e n t i t y " o f t h e toponym, pr o v e s t h a t Gowa and i t s e n v i r o n s e n j o y e d r e g u l a r t r a d e l i n k s w i t h t h e w i d e r a r c h i p e l a g o by t h e 1 3 t h - 1 4 t h c e n t u r i e s .
P R O B A B L E D R O W N E D
R I V E R 3 E D S
S U N G A I
J E K N E K B E R A N G
F I G U R E 11-1A. \ L A T E P L E I S T O C E N E
(AFTER WHITTEN ET AL,1987 19)
• BONE-BONE MARINE SHELL SAMPLE
B E N T E N G T U A ( A N U - 5 9 2 5 )
y-FIVE METRE CONTOUR LINE
M O D E R N COASTLINE
F I G U R E 11-1B. M I D - H O L O C E N E
T R A N S G R E S S I O N , - C . 4 3 0 0 B P
4 UJUNG PANDANG CHENIERS
• S A N R A B O N E
0 10 S U N G A I
J E K N E K B E R A N G
FIGURE 11-lC. LATE PREHISTORY
(LATE H O L O C E N E )
F I G U R E 11-10. CIRCA 15TH CENTURY
FIGURE 11-1E.17TH CENTURY
T O N A S A FORMATION
L I M E S T O N E
E O C E N E TO MIDDLE M I O C E N E
C A M B A F O R M A T I O N
M A R I N E S E D I M E N T A R Y ROCKS/
VOLCANICS EARLY TO MID MIOCENE
B A T U R A P E - C I N D A K O
V O L C A N I C S
LATE P L I O C E N E
C O A S T A L A L L U V I A L
DEPOSITS
H O L O C E N E
SUNGAI M A R O S ,
F I G U R E 1-1F. M O D E R N S I T U A T I O N
F I G U R E 1 1 - 1 . S I L K 3 C 3 E S T E 3 D P T n r - y i r j s j - 1 - w r K r i - T r u M O F " T H E C 3 E X 3 M O F J J P H O I L / Z X 3 1 C l f V L
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F I C S O R E 1 1 - 2 . t S A R A S S I K ( M A K A S S A R ) FXDRTIF-ICZATIOCSIS AND AVE3RAC5E: B R I C K S I Z E S
In siru Q 2 '̂''̂ collapsed rubble i i i -inroctwoll
FIGURE 11-3A. BENTENG GARASSIK, ZONE 7
FJOXiB 11-3B. PAKNAKKUKANG SECTION HXPOSBD BY L C O T E R ' S HOLE
F I G O R E 1 1 — 3 . C 3 Q A S T A I L . W A X J L . S E S Z T T I C D N S
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ITlMor.so
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FICSURE 1 1 - 4 . S I T E S OF* G A R A S S I K AND NORTH E K D I X I J M B A I S I C 3 K E K I C 3
r < i T P F Y n i i n T K , r , M M m . ^ c D o c v c M T c n A r n n c c D. A L L SITE SURVEYED AND I N F E R R E D ; JOINS C.SITEEXCLUDING WALUJOIJ^S^ P̂ ^̂ ^̂ ^̂ ACROSS PREVENTED ACROSS INFERRED CHANNELS
F I G U R E 1 1 — 5 . CXXJSTE3?INC3 F>ATTE3?JNS O W T H E G A R A S S I K S I T l
l ^ - e . NORTH POLOMBANGKENG STTE CLUSTERS
Kompung
Brown corrpocted cloys (10YR5/3) With o scuffed
sondy surfoce
Sowofi
FIGURE 11-7. KACCIA LAMA
20
metres
0 hioles two metres oport (looted north-X south oriented buriol'')
Sowoh
Sowoh
Reportedly looted orea ' •
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S O H B A O P O S O M B A O P U S O M B A O P U S O I B A O P O F R O N T
2 0 H E S 1 t < Z O N E 3 I L I s I J O H E 3 I F I E L O l O l l Z 0 » E 8 ( E I s | ( Z 0 I I E S 2 , 3 - 7 1 ( Z O N E S
P D L U C E P K L R C E B U I L D I N G S I (loi
1 6 5 7 P I E C E S I ( 1 2 5 P I E C E S I ( 2 9 3 P I E C E S I ( « ? P I E C E S !
O X 1 0 X 2 0 X
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01 N C S
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S E A S O I B A
P R O M T O P O
( 1 3 * 2
1 4 , P I E C E S I
P I E C E S I
F I M E C L A S S E S - J L - B R O A D C L A S S E S -
F IGUR i : 1 1 - 8 . STANDARD ISED C H R O N O l OGICAL H ISTOGRAMS - AREAS OF SOMBA O P U
BENTENG G A R A S S I K l o u i s i O E a p p n n E m F O H I I Z O H E S
7 1 0 1 2 t 1 7 ) - 12 P I E C E S
I I N S I O E P P P P R E N I F O R I I Z O N E S
1 1 0 i, 1 3 1 0 1 6 1 - S l l P I E C E S
OX I X ox I X ox I X ox 2X
ENPAHG SOUTH OF FOOTPATH
NORTH OF FOOTPATH T O T A L
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PAKNAK- P A T T O - PAKNAKKUKANG/ KOKANG KAHGANG PATTUKANGANG A^P**"^
BATOA 1 I 4 0
P I E C E S I
1 2 5 4
PI E C E S )
I 1 1 1
P I E C E S I I 4 0 S P I E C E S I
1 1 7 3
P I E C E S I
( 1 7 S
P I E C E S ) (3 5 3 P I E C E S I (7 P I E C E S )
2X 4X 6X
G A R A S S I K HEARTLAND
( 1 3 9 1 P I E C E S I
8 X
F IGURE 1 1 - 2 2 . S T A N D A R D I S E D C H R O N O L O G I C A E H ISTOGRAMS ( B R O A D G E A S S E S ) - - GARASS IK I I E A R I E A N D
1200
1300
1400
1 5 0 0
1 6 0 0
1 7 0 0
1 8 0 0
1 9 0 0
I
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1 9 8 6 OX .5X
GOTOHG
I 2 7
P I E C C S I
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( 16
p i e c E s i
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P I E C E S 1
OX .5X OX I X
B I L A Y A LAHA
( 2 3
P I E C E S )
GHTB S I T E S
( 32
P I E C E S I
OX l O X 20X 25X
P R E C O L O N I A L MAKASSAR
( 3 4 4 4 P I E C E S I
OX .5X OX .5X OX .5X OX .5X OX .5X O X l O X 20X 25X MAKAN T I M - B I L A Y A GMTB
GOTONG KG PAPOK BOSENG LAMA S I T E S P R E C O L O N I A L MAKASSAR
( 2 7
P I E C E S )
( 1 6
P I E C E S I
( 2 6
P I E C E S I
( 2 3 ( 3 2
P I E C E S I P I E C E S I ( 3 4 4 4 P I E C E S )
• F I N E C L A S S E S - BROAD C L A S S E S •
I IGURE 1 1 - 2 3 . STANDARDISED GHRONOLOGIGAL HISTOGRAMS - GMTB SUES &c TOTAL MAKASSAR GEUS ILR
M A K A M /
T U A N B I R A E N G T - ^ ^
\
\
Z O N E 5
I S T A T I O N I V
% MAPPED BRICK RUBBLE
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BAMBOOS
BANANAS
C . 2 0 0 M E T R B T O
F I G U R E 11-2A..
B A R O M B O N G WA'
^ E M P A N G
A E N G M O U T H
« PASTURE/GRASSED
($ W E E D Y
BAVIBOOS
LOOIER'S HOLES
rn SHELlERED/ENCLOSEa '—̂ GRAVES
SUNKEN FIELDS
N E W CEMETERY C/ •!> O C ^
F I G U R E 1 1 - 2 5 . A E N G T O A
1200
1 3 0 0
1 4 0 0
1 5 0 0
1 6 0 0
1 7 0 0
1 8 0 0
1 9 0 0
1 9 8 6
054 OX I X UX I X
HAKAH SAUKAMG TOAM TAMKAYA PARA-
B I R A E M G SAHGANG I b 1 1 5 4 [ 1 8 3
P I E C E S I P I E C E S I P I E C E S I
OX I X
BAROKBONG
OX 3X OX I X OX I X OX I X OX I X OX I X OX
JQHGGQA
2X 5 X O X l O X 20X 3 0 %
H A L L L I H E
1 3 4 5 P I E C E S I ( 6 5 8 P I E C E S )
• c u r - T n . PAHGKA- PAKKALA K A S S I K J E K H E K TOA B*TO- AEMG C L U S T E R T O T A L G A R A S S I K S D P E R C L U S T E H
BATU ( 1 3 ( 3 1 6 17 ( 1 6 1 1 3
P I E C E S I P I E C E S I P I E C E ' , ) P I E C E S ) P I E C E S ) ( 1 1 0 2 P I E C E S I ( 4 5 4 t P I E C E S )
I ICUI?E 1 1 - 2 6 . S T A N I : ) A F ? D I S I : D C H R O N O L O G I C A I I I I S IOGRAMS ( F I N E CLASSES) - A E N G CI USTEf^ & A L L C H . I l
F I G U R E 1 1 - 2 7 . S T A N D A R D I S E D G E I R O N O L O G I G A I H I S T O G R A M S ( B R O A D G L A S S E S ) - A E N G G L U S T E R & C H . 1 1
Photo 11-1. F e r r y c r o s s i n g t h e s o u t h o u t l e t o f t h e Jeknekberang
c r e a t e d d u r i n g t h e 1977 f l o o d , l o c a l l y known as Balang Beru ("New Swamp"). The e a s t e r n par:
o f Benteng Somba Opu i s b e h i n d t h e t r e e s a t r e a r .
Photo 11-2. The view n o r t h f r o m t h e beach a t Kuburan I s l a m Barombong, showing t h e i n l e t between t h e o l d sand r i d g e a l o n g which
t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y Barombong w a l l was b u i l t a t r i g h t , and t h e r e c e n t l o n g s h o r e bar a t l e f t .
The l a t t e r does n o t appear on t h e e a r l y 2 0 t h c e n t u r y Dutch land-use maps, n o r even on t h e I n d o n e s i a n 1969 land-use map.
Photo 11-3. P l a n o f Benteng Sonba Opu and e x c a v a t i o n s made by Suaka
Pe n i n g g a l a n S e j a r a h dan P u r b a k a l a Sulawesi S e l a t a n . The l i n e o f squares from west t o e a s t suggests t h a t these
e x c a v a t i o n s were f o l l o w i n g t h e f o r t ' s n o r t h w a l l .
Photo: I a n C a l d w e l l .
Photo 11-4. Benteng Somba Opu, example o f a b r i c k w a l l base excavated a t some p o i n t a l o n g t h e f o o t p a t h a t t h e n o r t h o f t h e s i t e .
P hoto: P e t e r S p i l l e t t Daeng M a k u l l e .
Photo 11-5. Benteng Sonba Opu, showing Suaka's e x c a v a t i o n o f t h e s t i l l
p a r t l y i n t a c t west w a l l . The p i c t u r e g i v e s an idea o f i t s massive c o n s t r u c t i o n .
Photo: P e t e r S p i l l e t t Daeng M a k u l l e .
Photo 11-6. Suaka's e x c a v a t i o n o f t h e southwest b a s t i o n o r
M a c c i n i k Sombala ("Watch f o r t h e S a i l s " ) , Benteng Somba Opu.
Photo: P e t e r S p i l l e t t Daeng M a k u l l e .
Photo 11-7. N a r i a n g polong ( " f r a g m e n t a r y cannon") and t h e a s s o c i a t e d tomb
a t t h e s o u t h o f Benteng Somba Opu.
Photo: P e t e r S p i l l e t t Daeng M a k u l l e .
Photo 11-8. Apparent i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s i n s i d e
Benteng Somba Opu's west w a l l . C i r c u l a r mound, p o s s i b l y a f l a g s t a n d , a t v e r y f r o n t . Mounded r i d g e , p o s s i b l y an i n t e r n a l w a l l , a t r e a r .
Photo 11-9. Ol d keramat ( h o l y ) masonry I s l a m i c s e p u l c h r e ,
S a p i r e a , Benteng Somba Opu.
Photo 11-10. S h e l t e r e d g r a v e s a t t h e I s l a m i c cemetery a t Pattung.
Sonny Wibisono, o f P u s l i t a r k e n a s , a t r i g h t .
Photo 11-11. Swatow B l u e - a n d - w h i t e p l a t e r e p o r t e d l y found a t Pattung, f e a t u r i n g "Ducks i n a L o t u s Pond 1" ( H a r r i s s o n , 1979).
Reverse has p a r t l y g l a z e d base and d i r t y f o o t .
Photo 11-12. Ming bowls r e p o r t e d l y e x c a v a t e d a t Ka c c i a Lama.
L e f t : BW bowl w i t h l o t u s s c r o l l on r e v e r s e and undecorated i n t e r i o r . 1 5 t h c e n t u r y t o judge from t h e unglazed base.
R i g h t : "Redware" w i t h r e d and green enamels making a f l o r a l s p r a y . I n s i d e c e n t r e has a c a l l i g r a p h i c m o t i f i n r e d enamels.
Photo 11-13. L i o n f i g u r i n e , c a r v e d f r o m a s i l i c e o u s s e m i - p r e c i o u s stone,
r e p o r t e d l y e x c a v a t e d a t K a c c i a Lama.
Photos 11-14 and 11-15. The two f i n e l y decorated masonry grave markers at the south
I s l a m i c cemetery, K a c c i a Lama. The example at top f e a t u r e s Arabic s c r i p t .
Photo 11-16. Bayoa 2. The l i n e of t r e e s at r e a r
marks the course of the Sungai Banda.
I
P hoto 11-17. Bonto L a k j a S e l a t a n ,
w i t h t h e r a n g i n g p o l e i n d i c a t i n g t h e s p o t where t h e f i v e tempayan (stoneware j a r s ) were r e p o r t e d l y found.
Photo 11-18. Bonto L a k j a B a r a t Daya, showing t h e s h e l t e r e d g r a v e o f "Tuan
S a i d " and t h e b r i c k p l a t f o r m beneath i t .
P hoto 11-19. Bonto L a k j a B a r a t , w i t h zone 13 i n t h e c e n t r e o f t h e photo.
The l i n e o f t r e e s a t r e a r marks t h e c o u r s e o f t h e Sungai Banda.
I
Photos 11-20 t o 11-22. The brownware tempayan f o u n d a t Bonto L a k j a S e l a t a n .
J a r s 1 t o 3 f r o m t o p t o b o t t o m .
Photo 11-23. J a r 4 o r t h e s p o u t e d j a r ( l e f t ) , and J a r 5 o r t h e blakcware
j a r ( r i g h t ) , f o u n d a t Bonto L a k j a S e l a t a n .
Photo 11-24. The Ming merah b u J u - b u l i (Ming j a r l e t w i t h o v e r g l a z e enamels) r e p o r t e d l y dug up a t Bonto L a k j a Timur Daya. Base unglazed.
Photo 11-25. G.5.1.2, b a s a l s h e r d t o a bowl found a t Benteng Garassik. Note t h e s o l a r m o t i f i n c e n t r e and u n g l a z e d s t a c k i n g r i n g . Base u n g l a z e d . A p p a r e n t l y A Vietnamese i r o n - p a i n t e d ware.
Photo 11-26. The h o l e a t Benteng G a r a s s i k e x p o s i n g
t h e a p parent i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e c o a s t a l w a l l ( w h i c h c o n t i n u e s i n f r o n t o f t h e p h o t o graph) and t h e short
l i n e o f b r i c k s t r i k i n g westwards.
Photo 11-27. The masonry p o s t - s u p p o r t seen i n t h e n o r t h w e s t c o r n e r of
Benteng G a r a s s i k , a p p a r e n t l y one o f f i v e f o u n d a t t h e s i t e .
Photo 11-28. Bayoa Empang, n o r t h f a c e , zone 1.
Karaeng Demmanari i s shown crouched, r e c o r d i n g t h e a r t e f a c t u a l c o n t e n t s .
Photo 11-29. The f i v e f r a g m e n t s o f bronze l e a f c o l l e c t e d from Bayoa
Empang. T h i c k n e s s v a r i e s between 0.5 mm and 2 mm. T o t a l w e i g h t 1.5 gm. O x i d i s e d ; s u r f a c e c o l o u r i s greener f t h a n M u n s e l l g l e y 5G 5/2.
Photos 11-30 and 11-31. The Bayoa Empang d u n i , as f i r s t seen ( l e f t ) and a f t e r i t
e x c a v a t i o n by Suaka ( r i g h t ) . Note t h e complete and semi-complete T r i d a c n a s h e l l s near t h e d u n i ( l e f t ) .
P hotographs l o o k s o u t h - e a s t - e a s t .
Photo 11-32. Bone f r a g m e n t s found a l o n g t h e west f a c e o f Bayoa Empang.
None l o o k s human, and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s u n c l e a r .
Photo 11-33. One o f t h e e a s t - w e s t o r i e n t e d , masonry marked graves
i n t h e I s l a m i c cemetery a t Bayoa 1.
Photo 11-34. Bayoa 1, zone 34, on t h e bank o f t h e Sungai Bontorea (Banda)
where an unusual c o l l e c t i o n o f o b j e c t s was found e r o d i n g f r o m t h e bank, and i n t h e water i m m e d i a t e l y below.
Photo 11-35. Bases t o two m i n i a t u r e b l u e - a n d - w h i t e covered bowls
r e p o r t e d l y f o u n d i n t h e g e n e r a l kampung area o f Bayoa 1 .
L e f t : Swatow, e x t e r i o r d e c o r a t e d o n l y w i t h Swatow roundels.
R i g h t : I d e n t i f i e d as "Ming Swatow". A complete specimen of t h e p i e c e , G.62.13.71, from Bonto L a k j a B a r a t .
Photo 11-36. A t h i r d base t o a m i n i a t u r e b l u e - a n d - w h i t e c o v e r e d bowl found a t Bayoa 1 kampung
P r o b a b l y l a t e Ming.
Photo 11-37. Bayoa 1 f o o t p a t h a t t h e .
southwest o f t h e s i t e , one of t h e c l e a r e r segments showing t h e l i n e o f b r i c k r u b b l e .
Photo 11-38. Fragments o f o l d r e d b r i c k s f o u n d a t zone 34, Bayoa 1.
Photo 11-39. Some o f t h e r o c k s f o u n d a t zone 34, Bayoa 1,
i n c l u d i n g two l i m e s t o n e p e b b l e s a. q u a r t z pebble ( r i g h t ) a t t h e f r o n t .
Photo 11-40. The exposed l i n e o f i n s i t u b r i c k w a l l a t Pattukangang where
i t c r o s s e s t h e r o a d t o j o i n t h e Barombong w a l l .
Photo 1 Hole e x p o s i n g t h e f o u n d a t i o n s
w a l l where i t r u n s above Note t h e presence o f b o t h
1-41 . o f t h e Paknakkukang c o a s t a l t h e backswamp e n t r a n c e , l a r g e and s m a l l b r i c k s .
Photo 11-42. The c e n t r a l e a s t e r n b a s t i o n mound o f Benteng Paknakkukang,
l o c a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d as a pakbenderang ( f l a g s t a n d ) .
F i e l d w o r k e r s Dubel D r i w a n t o r o and Iwan Sumantri (obscured) a r e on t o p .
Photo 11-43. A l o o t e r ' s h o l e i n t h e w a l l o f Benteng Paknakkukang, showing a c o r a l b l o c k w h i c h was presumably p l a c e d t h e r e as s u p p o r t .
Photo 11-44. Paknakkukang's t o k o h masyarakat ( s o c i a l exemplar) and h i s wTfe t n s i d e ?he tomb o f t h e gra v e o f " t h e man from London .
Photos 11-45 and 11-46. A n t i q u e s r e p o r t e d l y l o o t e d f r o m t h e cemetery i n s i d e
Benteng Paknakkukang.
Photo 11-45: t o p row, l e f t t o r i g h t , Ming BW bowl and Wanli BW p l a t e ;
b o t t o m row, l e f t t o r i g h t , Ming Swatow BW bowl, Ming w h i t e w a r e t e a p o t and cup.
Photo 11-46: t o p row, l e f t t o r i g h t , Swatow c o v e r t o bowl, body t o Swatow co v e r e d b o w l , body t o Ming Swatow co v e r e d b o w l , Ming BW bowl; b o t t o m row, l e f t t o r i g h t , Swatow c o v e r t o b o w l , body t o Ming Swatow c o v e r e d b o w l , c o v e r t o Ming w h i t e w a r e covered bowl,
c o v e r t o " T r a n s i t i o n a l BW" bo w l .
Photo 11-47. Mamampang,
w i t h t h e boy crouched a t t h e s c a t t e r o f "Ming"
Photo 11-48. Gotong, t h e area l o o t e d f o r a n t i q u e s .
Photo 11-49. Makam Karaeng Papok, Timbuseng.
Photo 11-50. B i l a y a Lama, t h e s h e l t e r e d g r a v e o f a Gowa Karaeng whose name
has been f o r g o t t e n .
Photo 11-51.
. ^ J ^ ^ Z ^ ^ ^ I - ^ i - ^ ™ - •
Photo 11-52. A n t i q u e s r e p o r t e d l y r e c o v e r e d d u r i n g t h e e x c a v a t i o n o f a f i s h pond by t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f e i t h e r Karama o r Aengtoa.
Font l e f t : two Wanli BW bowls. Behind them: t h r e e Qing BW p i e c e s ( c o v e r , bowl l a c k i n g cover,
spoon) and a Swatow BW bowl ( l a c k i n g c o v e r ) a t r i g h t . To t h e immediate r i g h t : two Vietnamese monochrome bowls. F r o n t r i g h t : Dehua e a r l y w h i t e w a r e bowl ( l a c k i n g c o v e r ) . Rear r i g h t : L a t e Ming brownware j a r ( g l a z e m o s t l y l o s t ) .
Photo 1 1 - 5 3 . Barombong, zone 3 , t h e r e p o r t e d l y l o o t e d a r e a . Behind i t
t h e same i n l e t shown i n Photo 1 1-1.
Photo 1 1 - 5 4 . Kanpung Bontoa, where t h e 1667 Bungaya T r e a t y was s i g n e d
Some o f t h e o l d g r a v e s a t t h e I s l a m i c cemetery.
Photo 1 1 - 5 5 . Ujung K a s s i k , showing t h e o l d I s l a m i c g rave
overgrown by a c a c t u s a t f r o n t , and t h e g e n e r a l area o f r e p o r t e d l o o t i n g b e h i n d i t .
Photo 11-56. The I s l a m i c cemetery a t Jonggoa Batu-Batu, showing some o f
t h e o l d masonry markers and t h e modern b r i c k c o r r a l a t r e a r .
Photo 11-57. Kuburan I s l a m Summanak,
showing some o f t h e o l d masonry g r a v e s .
Photo 11-58. Pakkala Toa B a r a t , showing t h e east-west d i r e c t e d l i n e o f masonry b l o c k s b u r i e d by d e p o s i t s except a t t h i s exposure,
i n t e r p r e t e d as an e a s t - w e s t o r i e n t e d I s l a m i c g r a v e .