Changing Concepts and Shifting GoalsPost Literacy and Continuing Education in India
C.J. Daswani
MINISTRY OF HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENTGOVERNMENT OF INDIA
NEW DELHI
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNINGAND ADMINISTRATION
NEW DELHI
Published byThe Registrar, National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration,17-B, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delh,-11 0016 on behalf of Indian National Commission forCooperation with UNESCO, Ministry of Human Resource Development,Government of India, New Delhi - 110001.
© NIEPA and Indian National Commission for Cooperation with UNESCO
April 2000
The views expressed in the paper are those of the author and should not beattnbuted to NIEPA or the Government of India
Printed byThe Publication Unit, NIEPA at M/s. Thompson Press Services,X-42, Okhla Ph. 11, New Delhi - 110020.
Editorial Note
The EFA 2000 Assessment process in India was set in motion around the middle of 1999. The basicframework for the review process was given by the UNESCO. The framework consisted of eighteen indicatorsranging from literacy rate and enrollment figures to allocation of finances to primary education. Informationon these indicators was to form the overall framework for assessing the progress made. In India, a NationalAssessment Group was set up at the MHRD to coordinate the effort. The Group felt during its deliberationsthat mere statistical indicators will not capture the whole gamut of efforts that have gone on during thedecade. It was decided that while data on the quantitative indicators will be compiled, effort will be madeto carry out a qualitative review of the situation in a more comprehensive and objective manner with thehelp of independent reviewers.
In delineating the broad contours for the review process, developments in basic education during the EFAdecade was kept as the main focus. However, it was felt that in the Indian context, a natural time period forany such review was the launching of the National Policy on Education in 1986. It is not difficult to find therationale for this decision. In India's not so smooth journey towards the goal of UEE, National Policy onEducation - 1986 stands out as a significant landmark. The NPE had been formulated after conducting aprolonged nationwide debate on the problems and issues confronting the education system in the country.Further, along with the formulation of the policy a "Programme of Action" was adopted which clearlyoutlined the strategies and processes to be pursued for achieving UEE. This was followed by a frameworkof partnership between the Central and State Governments on a massive scale through a number ofCentrally Sponsored Schemes. With this in the backdrop, any review of EFA will virtually be a reflection onthe implementation of recommendations made by the NPE. Thus, for the present qualitative review, thoughthe 1990's remain the focus, developments in the post-NPE period form the larger canvass.
As is well known, 1990's saw the opening of the primary education scene to external assistance on a fairlylarge scale. Possibly as part of the commitments made by the international donor community at the domtienConference, the country saw the emergence of a large multi-State programme for EFA under the bannerof District Primary Education Programme. Alongside this, Rajasthan initiated a fairly large programme ofEFA under the name of Lok Jumbish. In the changed scenario, primary education in India truly became asubject of international scrutiny. The EFA projects have been in operation, gradually expanding to coverhalf the country, for six to eight years. These EFA initiatives coupled with various centrally sponsoredschemes have undoubtedly made 1990's the most intensive period of primary education development inIndia. Meanwhile, the literacy scene also got galvanized with mass literacy campaigns stretching across thelength and breadth of the country through the National Literacy Mission. Therefore, any EFA assessmentexercise carried out at the present juncture will throw light on the performance of these initiatives.
Another development in the last decade that forms a part of the backdrop for the review is the SupremeCourt judgment which, interpreting the constitutional provisions, declarea basic education as a fundamental
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right of every citizen requiring the State to make necessary provisions as a basic obligation. Currently, abill to amend the Constitution is under the consideration of the Parliament to incorporate education uptofourteen years as a fundamental right of every citizen. Simultaneously, at the international level, basiceducation got a prime place in the development discourse as a component of the Human DevelopmentIndex brought out by UNDP. These national and international developments have transformed the statusof UEE from merely being a public sector activity of the State to that of a legal obligation, societal responsibilityand moral commitment. To what extent have these been operationalised will be reflected in the review ofthe situation.
Having drawn the broad framework for the review exercise, the National Assessment Group identified anumber of themes covering a range of topics from literacy to financing of elementary education. A meetingof authors was held to discuss the process of preparing the review and to get a common perspective on thepurpose and expected outcome of the exercise. The reviews are based essentially on secondary sources,which document the developments in recent years. Each paper attempts to situate the review in the largereducation scene in the country and draw broad directions for the future. However, the structure of eachpaper was decided by the author keeping in view the theme being dealt with.
Initial drafts of the papers were shared by the authors in two Workshops attended by several Central andState Government officials, educationists and representatives of international agencies. The papers wererevised based on the feedback received during the Seminars. Individual discussions were also held withseveral of the authors while editing the papers. Some papers were rewritten.. Several papers came at thelast minute with very little time to edit or revise. Therefore, one can say that the papers as shared in thisseries are at different stages of finality. Some authors have already indicated their desire to revise the paper.Nevertheless it was considered important that they are shared in their present form at the World EducationForum being held at Dakar, Senegal from 26-28, April 2000. Thus, these twentyone thematic reviewpapers and four state specific case studies, listed below, form part of the country portfolio on EFA 2000Assessment along with the national report on the current status of EFA in India.
Thematic Reviews
Adult Literacy: Mass literacy campaigns of the NLM changed the common perception of adult educationprogrammes and established that if done in the right manner they can influence the scene significantly. Butwhat has been the ground reality? What has happened beyond literacy campaigns? Many scholars considerthat the value of the literacy campaigns lies not so much in imparting reading and writing skills to adultilliterates but in their capacity to influence the quality of life of the people. There are three papers dealingwith literacy and adult education: (1) Indian Engagement with Adult Education and Literacy, (2) LiteracyCampaigns and Social Mobilization, and (3) Changing Concepts and Shifting Goals: Post-literacy andContinuing Education in India. Together, the papers give a retrospective overview of the concepts involved,a review of the progress made and also take a critical look at the processes adopted.
Girls' Education: Many consider that the problem of universal elementary education in India is essentiallya problem of girls' education. The National policy on Education-1986 pointed out that the problem of girls'education can not be dealt with in isolation from the broader questions of women's status. In fact, this alsoled to special programmes addressing the issue of women empowerment such as Mahila Samakhya. Keepingthis in view, two papers are prepared: (1) Education of Girls in India: An Assessment; and (2) Education
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and the Status of Women. The papers while sounding positive highlight the long distance yet to be traversedfor achieving the goal of UEE for girls and for addressing the issue of gender equity in education.
Early Childhood Care and Education: Increasing empirical evidence points to the value of providing preschoolexperience to children not only for improving their readiness for schooling but also as part of meeting thebasic needs of children. The NPE called for taking an integrated view of early childhood care and education.The paper on Early Childhood Care and Education examines the situation comprehensively dealing withschool based pre-primary education programmes as well as the more wide spread ICDS programme.
Reaching the Marginalised: Data clearly point out that several groups of children continue to remain on themargin raising serious questions of equity in educational development. Many groups in India fall into thiscategory, which include the urban poor, child workers, children of ethnic minorities, and children withspecial needs. Four papers deal with this issue: (1) Children, Work and Education: Rethinking on Out-ofSchool Children, (2) Education ofthe Urban Disadvantaged, (3) Education among Tribals, and (4) Educationof Children with Special Needs. The four papers though on diverse themes, assess the reach of the currentprogrammes of EFA in meeting the educational needs of the marginalised groups.
Teacher and Teacher Education: As the Education Commission 1964-66 pointed out, the destiny of thecountry is being shaped in the classrooms. And, it is the teachers who hold the key position in determiningthe course of transaction that takes place in schools and classrooms. Thus, an analysis of the status ofteachers and their professional preparation needs a close analysis in the context of EFA. Two papers on thesubject are presented: (1) Primary Teacher Training in the EFA Decade, and (2) Status of ElementaryTeachers in India. The first paper takes stock of the programmes of teacher training in terms of institutionalarrangements available as well as innovative efforts initiated in recent years. The second paper adopts abroad perspective on the subject and deals with different categories of teachers involved in basic educationprogrammes.
Teaching-Learning Material: Curriculum and textbook preparation has come to be generally perceived asa centralized activity carried out, directly or indirectly, under the control and supervision of State Governmentbodies. One could see significant changes in this regard during the 1990s. The first steps in decentralizingmaterial production to make it more locally relevant were taken by the National Literacy Mission. The EFAprojects also gave tremendous impetus to the process of producing child friendly textbooks. New frameworkof collaboration between Government institutions and NGOs also seem to have emerged. But the area isstill rid with many critical issues. These are dealt with in the paper: Texts in Context: An EFA 2000 Review- Development of Curricula, Textbooks, and Teaching Learning Materials.
Media in EFA: The 1990s, particularly through the mass literacy campaigns, demonstrated the potential oftraditional media and methods in the field of education. Use of electronic media in building a positiveenvironment in favour of EFA efforts also got a big boost during the period. What has been the overall roleof media in relation to EFA? How can the profile of media in EFA efforts be enhanced? These and otherrelated questions have been systematically addressed in the review paper on Role of Media in EducationFor All.
Quality ofSchooling: The NPE redefined UEE to include not only provision of universal access and universalparticipation but also achievement of acceptable standards of learning. This brought to centre stage issues
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related to quality. Two papers address this issue: (1) Learning Conditions for Primary Education: A Reviewand (2) Learner Achievement in Primary Schools.
Management Strategies for EFA: The NPE advocated for adopting a participatory approach for educationalmanagement and considered the goal of EFA unachievable without the active involvement of the civilsociety. Building partnership between Government and Non-Government agencies has been repeatedlyendorsed by policy makers. But what space do they really occupy in the overall EFA effort? Similarly, roleof private efforts in provision of education has come for serious consideration in recent years. The newPanchayati Raj initiatives take management issues into the larger context of political administration. Theseare the themes and issues addressed in a set of four papers: (1) Role and Contribution of NGOs to BasicEducation, (2) Decentralisation of Education, (3) Role of Private Schools in Basic Education, and (4)Participatory Micro-Planning for Universal Primary Education.
Financing of Elementary Education: The move to make basic education a fundamental right and theacwmpanying effort to assess the funds required for universalizing elementary education has brought tosharp focus the question of financing elementary education in India. Acceptance of relatively large sizesupport from external funding agencies for the purpose has compounded the issue. There are some whostill consider that India can and should finance its basic education from domestic sources. Expectation insome quarters that privatisation could help mobilize substantial resources for EFA has added a third dimensionto the debate. These issues are dealt with in the paper: Financing of Elementary Education in India.
State Specific Case Studies
It is fully recognized that sustainable change and development in basic education is highly conditioned byState specific contexts. Mere funds and schemes from the Centre will not guarantee the achievement ofUEE goals. It is highly dependent on traditions and values of the local people; commitment and enthusiasmof the State level educational leadership; and capacity to adopt innovative approaches. Viewed from sucha perspective authentic accounts of EFA achievement would demand understanding the processes, problemsand prospects of achieving EFA in every State independently. But, that would have been too ambitious. Indepth analysis of the situation was carried out in four selected States. namely, Himachal Pradesh, Mizoram,Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. From the EFA process and achievement point of view, the four States get selfselected. Success of Himachal Pradesh came into lime light with the PROBE study which pointed out howthe State has gone way ahead of some of its neighbouring States. The study on Himachal Pradesh whichis aptly entitled: Primary Education in Himachal Pradesh: Examining a Success Story, captures the factorscontributing to the relatively quick progress made by the State. The Mizoram study: EFA in Mizoram: TheDynamics of Success brings out the unique role played by local youth and women organizations within thebackground of pioneering work done by religious organizations. Tami! Nadu case study, Progress TowardsEducation for All: The Case of Tamil Nadu, presents a success story of a different kind. The overt socialpolicies and programmes of the State. including the famous Nutritious Noon Meal Scheme, are attributedto have made a significant impact on school enrollment in the 1980s. Subsequently, with its apparentsuccess in controlling the population growth, the state has got the opportunity to pursue quality concernsof EFA in an effective manner. Rajasthan cannot stake claim to join the company of the other three Statesbased on quantitative progress in EFA. In the league table of States of India, Rajasthan continues to occupya very low rank. The case of EFA in Rajasthan is entitled, Universal Elementary Education in Rajasthan: AStudy with Focus on Innovative Strategies. The study takes a look at exemplar practices adopted in two
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major programmes contributing to EFA goals, namely, Shiksha Karmi and Lok Jumbish.
The review exercise was carried out with the full involvement of the Department of Education, Governmentof India. I should record my thanks to the Indian National Commission for Cooperation with UNESCO forgiving not only full support and cooperation but also a free hand in carrying out the work. In particular, Ishould acknowledge the special interest taken by Mr. Champak Chatterji and Mr. Abhimanyu Singh. Thetask was carried out with financial assistance from UNESCO and UNDP. Support has also been forthcomingfrom other agencies such as UNICEF, UNFPA and the World Bank in carrying out several supportiv~
activities involved in the exercise. Without this generous support it would not have been possible to completethe work.
In the beginning, the idea of bringing together more than twentyfive experts from across the country tocontribute to the review series appeared to be too ambitious. But the personal commitment of the authorssaw the whole exercise through. Editing the papers, smoothening the sharp edges and filling in the fuzzyspots, but without disturbing the integrity of the arguments of the reviewers was a challenging task. But theexercise has been done in a spirit of collaboration contributing to the common cause of achieving the goalsof EFA. Iwould like to thank all the authors for the unhesitating professional support and friendly cooperationextended in completing the work.
The EFA 2000 Assessment process began nearly a year ago. The project including the preparation of thenational EFA Report was implemented by NIEPA. Unquestioned support from the Director of NIFPA andthe Administration was critical for the completion of the work. Bringing out the papers in print in recordtime was possible due to the total involvement of the Publication Unit of NIEPA. I should acknowledge theprofessional help and guidance given by Professor M.S. Yadav in editing the papers. Contribution of Dr.Mona Sedwal to the whole exercise was enormous. Working as a single person EFA Cell, she coordinateda variety of activities, apart from contributing substantially to the editing work.
The review papers may not be euphoric about the status of EFA in the country. Yet, all of them areemphatic that the 1990s have broken new grounds in almost every area of basic education whether thereference is to adult literacy, decentralized planning, improved access, preparation of teaching-learningmaterial or reaching the marginalised. Progress during the last decade demonstrates that though difficult,the EFA goals are not unachievable. It is hoped that the objective documentation resulting from the exercisewill help steer the EFA activities in the year 2000 and onwards with increased pace and intensity.
. .
New DelhiApril 2000
R.GovindaNational Institute of Educational
Planning and Administration
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About the Author
C.J.Daswani is currently working as a Consultant atUNESCO, New Delhi. He has earlier been a professor atthe National Council of Educational Research andTraining and has also been on the faculty of severaluniversities in India and outside teaching linguistics andnon-formal education.
Contents
Page
Abbreviations v
Section I INTRODUCTION 1
Context 1
Adult Education as part of General Education 2Adult Education as Social Education 2
Adult Education for Development 3Jan Shikshan Nilayam 5
Section 11 POST - LITERACY AND CONTINUING EDUCATION:
NLM PERSPECTIVE 7
Unclear Concepts 7UNESCO Perspective on Post Literacy and Continuing Education 8NLM Perspective on PL and CE 9
Why Post Literacy 11Shifting Goals of Post Literacy 12.Programmes of Continuing Education 13
The Prerak 15
Section III THE BOTTOMLINE 17
References 19
Abbreviations
APPEAL
CE
CEC
Eps
FOPs
IGPs
liPs.
JSN
NAEP
NCEC
NGO
NLMNPAE
NPE
PL
PLPs
POA
PROAP
QUPs
TLC
UKUNESCO
USA
ZSS
Asia-Pacific Programme of Education for All
Continuing Education.
Continuing Education Centres
Equivalency Programmes
Future Oriented Continuing Programmes
Income Generating Programmes
Individual Interest Promotion Programmes
Jan Shikshan Nilayarn
. National Adult Education Programme
Nodal Continuing Education Centres
Non Governmental Organisation
National Literacy Mission
National Programme of Adult Education
National Policy on Education
Post Literacy
Post Literacy Programmes
Programme of Action
Principal Regional Office for Asia and Pacific
Quality of Life Improvement Programmes
Total Literacy Campaign
United Kingdom
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
United States of America
Zilla Saksharta Samiti
I od
Conte
From late nineteen thirties to the present, all policy
statements and programme strategies of adult.
education in India mention post literacy (PL) and/"
or continuing education (CE) as important
components of adult education. Successive
programmes of adult education have reiterated
the significance of PL and CE in creating a learning
society, yet no programme has systemically
transitioned from basic literacy to PL and CE.
Some programmes of adult education were
obviously planned initially to only achieve' the goal
of basic literacy, and did not visualize any role for
PL or CE. Subsequently, during the
implementation of the programme, it was realized
that basic literacy by itself was not enough to lead
to the goal of creating a learning society, and
therefore, PL and CE were appended to the basic
,literacy component.
Although these two terms recur in many
programme documents, there is little consistency
in their use. In some cases PL is· used
synonymously with CE, in other cases CE
subsumes Plo This inconsistency can give rise to
the perception that the two concepts are perhaps
vague or unclear, or poorly apprehended.
Nor has there been any consistency in determining
the duration of the basic literacy, post literacy and
continuing education components. The inter
linkages between basic literacy and post literacy
on the one hand, and between post literacy and
continuing education on the other, have never
been clearly enunciated. As a result, it is not clear
for how long each component or stage will last.
In the process, programmes of adult education
seldom go beyond the initial stage of imparting
basic literacy skills.
In order to evaluate the role of PL and CE in
achieving widespread adult education, it is
necessary to unde~stand why programmes o! PLand CE have not succeeded so far. Possibly, shifts
in the goals of adult education have contributed
to the lack of clarity abot.t the place of PL and CE
in adult education. Or, pl.:fhaps the very concepts
of PL and CE have undergone conceptual
evolution from one programme of adult education
to the np-xt.
When we analyze these underlying causes of
changes in the concepts of PL and <;:E~ and theshifts in goals, we may be in a position to
understand how the current strategies of post
literacy and continuing education are different
from their fore-runners, and what likelihood there
is of success for the present progi ammes of PL
and CE.
----------D
Changing Concepts and Shifting Goals :Post Literacy and Continuing Education in India
Adult Education as Part of General Education
In its Report in 1939, the Adult Education
Committee of the Central Advisory Board of
Education recommended that adult education
should be recognized as an essential component in
the system ofpublic instruction. According to the
Committee, the function of adult education would
be to:
(a) make adults literate in the narrow sense;
(b) encourage already literate and newly made
literate adults to continue (our emphasis) their
education; and
(c) enable adults to proceed to more advanced
stages of education.
The Committee recognized the fact that because of
lack of stimulus or facilities, newly made literate
adults inevitably relapse into illiteracy., In order to
avoid such relapse, the Committee recommended
that appropriate instructional programmes should
be provided, which may awaken the interest of the
adult and create in him the desire to continue his
education. The Committee felt that interest and
desire for further education are best awakened
through vocational courses. (Shah, 1999)
This is perhaps the earliest extant reference to
continuing education in the context of adult
education. It is significant to note that where
continuing education is concerned, the Committee
does not make a distinction between the already
literate and the neo-literate. Clearly, this is not CE,
as it is- understood in the present programmes of
adult education. In the report, adult literacy is seen
as a tool for providing an impetus for further
education. Obviously, the intention of the
Committee was to underline the importance of
creating opportunities (through continuing
education, such as vocational courses), which would
enable adults to voluntarily continue their education.
This is an issue to which we will return in the context
of current strategies for PL and CE. It must be noted,
however, that the 1939 Committee does not
mention post literacy.
Adult Education as Social Education
Almost ten years after the 1939 Committee, the
Central Advisory Board of Education set up another
committee in 1948 to examine "A Scheme for Adult
Education ·and Literacy" (Shah, 1999). This
committee declared that the previous programme
of adult education had been confined to 'literacy
work'; hence it recommended that the scheme
should be rechristened "A Scheme for Social
Education". The committee felt that while the work
of literacy must continue with the goal of achieving
50 per cent literacy in the country within a period
of five years, greater emphasis needs to be placed
on social aspects of education. According to this
committee, the objectives of social education should
include, among other things, basic literacy and
nu~eracy, and continuation of education through
libraries, discussion groups, clubs and institutions
like people's colleges. The primary objectives,
however, were seen as related to citizenship,
democracy; cultural heritage, health, cooperation,
moral values, and the like. What is important to
note is that this committee links continuing education
to libraries and discussion groups, a concept that
11-------------11
we find in the latest formulation of CE. Also, the
concept of CE as part of social education is basically
different from the earlier concept of literacy as a tool
for continuing general education.
Interestingly, the 1948 committee recommended
that the Government of India should arrange to send
educationists for training in social education to
foreign countries, particularly the UK, USA, Russia,
China and Mexico. One assumes the committee
felt that these countries had already experimented
with models of social education, which India could
profitably learn from. It is, of course, curious that
although 'people's colleges' are mentioned,
Denmark is not listed among the important countries
where educationists could be trained.
In 1963, another committee, on "operation of social
education" (Shah, 1999), recommended several
steps for strengthening the programme of social
education. This committee stressed that literacy
'should be given a proper place in the comprehensive
programme of social education. Among various
steps recommended for strengthening social
education, the committee wanted proper
arrangements to be made for further and continuing
education by organizing adult schools, evening
colleges, correspondence courses, and refresher
courses. It is interesting to note that by 1963, the
concept of continuing education had become
refined, although the shadow of general education
seems to accompany CE, both in the 1948 and 1963
versions.
The shift in emphasis on literacy is clearly discernible
in the 1963 version of social education. In 1948,
literacy had been relegated to the background, with
Introduction
social education occupying centre stage. In the 1963
version literacy is reinstated and given a 'proper
place' in the programme of social education. One
gets the impression that the 1963 committee felt that
literacy had been denied its role in the scheme of
social education. This 'on and off' sentiment with
regard to literacy has always influenced adult
education in India.
The relationship between literacy and social
education was further elaborated in 1965 by theStanding Committee, on social education, of the
Central Advisory Board of Education (Shah, 1999).
The Standing Committee, ostensibly, wished to
underscore the importance of social education, and
stated that adult education IS social education. In
the opinion of the Committee, since mere literacy
does not interest adults, social education providesa comprehensive' concept of adult education.
Further and continuing education, -therefore, are
seen as a part of numerous activities that are
necessary to realize the objectives of social
education.
Adult Education for Development
Three decades after the programme of adult
education as social education was mooted, the
Government of India formulated in 1978 an adult
education programme which was markedly different
from the earlier attempts in that it proposed to link
adult education to development. Called the
National Adult Education Programme (NAEP), it
was designed with the objective of providing, to
approximately 100 million illiterate persons in the
age-group 15-35, "skills for self-directed learning
leading to self-reliant and active role in their own
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Changing Concepts and Shifting Goals:Post Literacy and Continuing Education in India
development and in the development of their
environment" (Shah, 1999). NAEp, therefore, was
seen as a means to bring about a fundamental
change in the process of sodo-economic
development.
Literacy was seen as an indispensable component
of NAEp, which was described as a 'massive
programme'. It was envisaged that different types
of programmes would be organized as part of the
NAEp, including:
1. Literacy with assured follow-up.
2. Conventional functional literacy.
3. Functional literacy supportive of a dominant
development programme.
4. Literacy with learning-cum-action groups.
5. Literacy for conscientization and formation
of organizations of the poor.
In addition to basic literacy as an indispensable
component, NAEP included two more
components, i.e. 'functionality' and 'awareness'.
Since literacy was visualized as the primary focus,
NAEP was implemented through literacy centres
that provided 350 hours of literacy instruction
spread over a period of 9 to 10 months. It was
also envisaged tt.lat about 35 million illiterate adults
would be made literate in the first five years, after
which the programmes would be diversified, aimed
at creating a learning society with life-long
education as a cherished goal.
In the policy fo~mulation for NAEp, the concepts
of PL and CE do not figure except, by implication,
in the context of" literacy with assured follow-up".
However, in 1979 a Committee on Post Literacy
and Follow-up Programmes recommended that
post literacy and follow-up programmes were as
important as the literacy programme itself, and the
agency responsible for the literacy programme
should also organize the post literacy and follow
up programmes. In its recommendations, this
committee also suggested that a time would come
when "organized groups within the community
would take over the responsibility for activities of
continuing education and group action for
community development" (Shah, 1999).
It may be noticed here that the committee
. recommendation on post literacy clearly (and quite
rightly) presupposes literacy skills. Post literacy
here is not a programme of 'mopping up', or' a
programme of 'second-chance' for those whose
literacy skills are fragile.
The progression from the 1939 programme of adult
education as part of general education, to adult
education as social education, and then to adult
education as development can be seen from
several angles. Despite the .l'netoric, the basic
orientation in all the programmes has been literacy.
In the social education phase the attempt to locate
literacy in the larger context of social education
was eventually reversed in order to reinstate literacy
as the most important component. In the first two'
programmes, the basic literacy component was not
clearly delineated. Only during the NAEP a
specific time frame and total duration of the literacy
component were clearly specified.
In the first two programmes, the concept of PL
was not included, and continuing education was
seen as a positive desideratum, to be achieved after
.:..--------------11
the acquisition of basic literacy skills. Post
literacy was introduced for the first time in 1978
as part of NAEp, where PL was seen as a part of
'follow-up' to succeed acquisition of literacy
skills.
The concept of post literacy was further
.elaborated in the recommendations of the
Review Committee on the NAEP. Set up after
only eighteen months from launching of NAEP;
the Committee submitted its report in early
1980. The Committee Report said that the
provision of post literacy and follow-up, as
envisaged in the NAEp, was not enough. "This
is insufficient for an effective and purposeful
adult education programme, especially if its
content is to be wider and is to lead to tangible
development." (Review Committee Report).
The Committee recommended a three-stage
programme spread over a period of three years:
the first stage of 300-350 hours of basic literacy
spread over a period of one year, followed by
the second stage of 150 hours spread over a
period of one year for reinforcement of literacy
skills together with functionality, and the third
stage of 100 hours spread over a period of one
year for achievement of self-reliance in literacy
and functionality. It may be noticed that the
three stages actually concentrate on literacy,
taking the learners from basic literacy to self
reliant literacy. The focus is literacy, and post
literacy and follow-up stages come after the self
reliance in literacy is achieved.
11
Introduction
Jan Shikshan Nilayam
After the change of the Central Government in
1980, the NAEP was greatly trimmed and
converted into the National Programme of Adult
Education (NPAE), which was linked to the already
existing Rural Functional Literacy Programme.
The NAEP Review Committee proposal for a three
year literacy programme was shelved. However,
in 1982-83 the government co;"menced funding
a post literacy and follow-up programme with a 4
month PL component after the basic literacy
component, followed by a yearlong follow-up
.programme.
This programme eventually saw the birth of the
Jan Shikshan Nilayam (JSN). The JSN was
conceived as a permanent institution located in
the rural areas. It was planned to establish one
JSN for a population of about 5000 people, and.
was supposed to serve a cluster of four to five
villages for post literacy needs of the neo-literates
who had completed the 300-350 hour one-year
literacy programme in an adult education centre.
"The intention behind establishing JSNs all over
the country in a phased manner was to·
institutionalise the post literacy and continuing
education programme and converge various
activities at one nodal centre. JSNs included
programmes which were being organized as part
of farmers' training programmes, rural radio forum,
youth clubs, women's groups (mahila mandal),
mobile and village library system and rural reading
rooms." (Scheme of Continuing Education)
Post - Literacy and Continuing Education :NLM Perspective'
The Total Literacy Campaign (TLC) of the National
Literacy Mission (NLM) was conceived basically
as a literacy programme different from the NAEP
in its implementation. Although the National Policy
on Education (NPE, 1986) and Programme of
Action (POA, 1986) had conceived, as in NAEp,
adult education as comprising basic literacy plus
post literacy and follow-up, the TLCs which
commenced in 1988 did not include any conscious
provision for PL or CE. The mass-based campaign
approach experimented with in Ernakulam, and
generalized for the TLC model, was the central
focus of the NLM. The campaign approach was
adopted because, among other things, it
supposedly accelerated the acquisition of basic
literacy skills, in addition to harnessing "social
forces and channelising the energies of people
towards meeting the ultimate objective of effecting
a qualitative change in their own lives." The
duration of the literacy component in the TLC was
reduced from 350 hours to 200 hours to becompleted in 6-8 months.
The post literacy component, which was visualised
in the NPE and PGA (1986) and further elaborated
in the revised POA (1992), was conceptually
incorporated in the programme and was sought
to be delivered immediately after the TLC phase.
The campaign mode was perceived to be so
successful that the PL component was also cast in
the campaign mode, leading to the notion of Post
Literacy Campaign (PLC) for twenty four months
following the TLC. The revised PGA (1992) also
mentioned the necessity for devising a programmeof continuing education.
Unclear Concepts
The foregoing description of the programmes of
adult education clearly shows that the twin
concepts of post literacy and continuing education
have undergone several changes in these
programmes. In 1939, post literacy had no place
in the programme, and continuing education
carried the wide ranging connotation of non-formal
education, which neo-literates (and the already
literate) could voluntarily pursue on their own. The
underlying assumption, it would seem, was that
literacy programmes by themselves were enough
to equip the neoliterate adult with stable literacy
as well as an urge to continue hislher education.
The social education programme, on the other
hand, was predicated on the premise that literacy
skills are not an essential pre-requisite for education
in citizenship, personal development, moral-ethical
values, nation building, and so on. Basic literacy
was seen only as an element in creating complete
and socially responsible individuals, who are able
to continue their education in a variety of ways,
II---~-----------II
Changing Concepts and hlftmg Goals'Post LIteracy and Continuing ducahon in IIlola
through correspondence, night classes or in a
community college. The social education model
did not assign any place to post literacy.
While the first two programmes saw literacy as
a tool for continuation of general education, the
NAEP perceived literacy as an enabling element
in personal, social, economic, and national
development. However, although the concept
of PL is introduced in the NAEp, the vagueness
remains. PL is clubbed with 'follow-up'. Follow
up of what, one may ask. Follow-up of literacy,
presumably, or perhaps of post literacy.
As we noticed above, the Review Committee
on NAEP was convinced that 350 hours of
literacy with assured follow-up was not adequate
for self reliant literacy, and, therefore, it
recommended a three-year literacy programme
spread over three years. In fact, the Review
Committee had stated that since literacy was not
effectively linked to post literacy and follow-up,
a large number of neo-Iiterates ran the risk of
relapsing into illiteracy. That, precisely is the
critical issue. How should literacy be linked to
PL and follow-up, and to PL and CE?
It would not be unfair to conclude that the
concepts of PL and CE in the programmes of
adult education before the NLM programme
were, at best, hazy. The haziness resulted from
the fact that literacy was perceived as the central
goal, and anything by way of post literacy and
follow-up was seen as a desirable additionality,
without a clear-cut model or strategy for linking
literacy with PL and CE. The establishment of
the Jan Shikshan Nilayams ,was a bold and
pioneering attempt, but for want of political
commitment and administrative support, it
remained under-developed and under
nourished. It was ultimately abandoned for
want of clear conceptualization of how post
literacy could be linked to basic literacy.
UNESCO Perspective on Post Literacy d d
Continuing Ed cat·on
Even as the concepts of PL and CE in adult
education were gradually evolving within the
Indian context, at the international level there
was considerable debate on the fundamental
concept of a learning society. The concept of a
learning society was first advanced in the
famous UNESCO report of 1972, titled
"Learning to Be". According to this report, a
learning society is one in which all agencies in
the society are educational providers, and not
just those whose primary responsibility is to
provide education. By implication, in a learning
society, all citizens are engaged in learning.
The debate on these concepts gave rise to the
related concept of continuing education in
relation to life-long learning. The Asia-Pacific
Programme of Education for All (APPEAL) was
formulated in 1980s as a programme of human
development through education. Described as
the most effective type ofeducation , continuing
education under APPEAL is defined as a
"broad-based concept, which includes all the
learni'ng opportunities all people want or need
outside of basic literacy education and primary
education." (PROAP, 1996).
-----------------
APPEAL has categorized continuing education into
six types:
1. Post Literacy Programmes (PLPs)
2. Equivalency Programmes (EPs)
3. Quality of Life Improvement Programmes
(QLlPs)
4. Income Generating Programmes (lGPs)
5. Individual Interest Promotion Programmes
(liPs)
6. Future Oriented Continuing Programmes
(FOPs).
Within the APPEAL categorization, post literacy is
one type of continuing education which has the
objective of 'maintaining and enhancing literacy
and general basic work skills enabling adults to
function effectively in their societies'. The
underlying assumption here is that clients of PLPs
have already acquired the basic literacy skills. The
remaining five categories of CE are self
explanatory, and will be further discussed below.
The notion Education for All was incorporated in
the famous "World Declaration on Education for
All", popularly known as the Jomtien Declaration
of 1990. In the 'context of youth and adults, the
Jomtien declaration has the following vision:
"The basic learning needs of youth and adults are
diverse and should be met through a variety of
delivery systems. Literacy programmes are
indispensable because literacy is a necessary skill
in itself and the foundation of other life skills.
Li.teracy in the mother tongue strengthens cultural
identity and heritage. Other needs can be served
by: skills training, apprenticeships, and formal and
Post Literacy and Continuing
Education: NLM Perspective
non-formal programmes in health, nutrition,
population, agricultural techniques, the
environment, science technology, family life,
including fertility awareness, and other societal
issues." (World Declaration on Education for All,
1990)
Quite naturally, the Jomtien Declaration drew
upon a host of experiences from the participating
countries, including India. Already, the NPE and
POA (1986) had drawn heavily from the earlier
programmes of adult education, particularly the
NAEp, in the country, as well as from the
conceptual formulations of APPEAL. The
relationship betwe'en the Indian formulations on
adult education and the Jomtien formulation is
indeed symbiotic. The basic ingredients in the
Jomtien Declaration can be found in the NPE and
POA (1986), and the goals of the Jomtien
Declaration were incorporated in the goals of the
NLM. The UNESCO perspective on PL and CE,
then, is expounded in the APPEAL formulation
where PL is one type of C£.
L Perspective on PL and C
If the concepts of post literacy and continuing
education were unclear and vague in the earlier
programmes of adult education, in the
programmes of NLM, they are constantly changing
to the point of having become confused and
confusing. Although, as we will see below, the
NLM has borrowed heavily from the APPEAL
formulation, the linkage between PL and CE has
not been clearly established. Consequently, the
relationship between basic literacy and PUCE
continues to be fluid and ambivalent. This fluidity
Changing Concepts and Shifting Goals:Post Literacy and Continuing Education in India
and ambivalence is best reflected in the multiple
formulations of PL and CE in the NLM documents.
A word about the NLM documents. In the past
few years, the NLM has issued a number of
documents recording the progress of the literacy
programmes. Although these documents are very
well produced, and very attractive to look at, not
all of them indicate the year of publication. In the
occasional document, one may infer the date of
publication from the preface, or from the imprint
of the Press where the document is published,
usually given at the bottom of the back cover in
small type. Consequently, it is almost impossible
to determine the chronological sequence of these
documents. And, since each document reports
different sets of statistics, it is not easy to draw clear
inferences about the status of the programmes from
the data and the information provided in these
documents.
As mentioned in earlier, the NPE (1986) and the
POA (1986,1992) had visualised programmes of
PL and CE as follow-up programmes of the basic
literacy programmes. In 1986, the only model for
literacy programmes was the centre-based model
of the NAEP. The National Literacy Mission was
set up as a Technology Mission whose function
was to provide all the essential technological and
material inputs without which literacy programmes
were likely to languish and fail. The co,:!notation
of societal mission was to be added later on, when
in 1990 the campaign mode was adopted as the
preferred methodology for imparting literacy. The
campaign mode necessarily meant mobilization of
social forces and involvement of a large number
of literate people from the society in the literacy
programme. Hence the term 'mission' took on
the sense of 'missionary'.
While the NLM was shopping, between 1988 and
1990, for a suitable model for its literacy
programme, both PL and CE were put on the back
burner, and the JSN model continued to operate
half-heartedly. After the success of the Total
Literacy Campaign (TLC) in Ernakulam in 1990,
the campaign model was adopted as the model
for the basic literacy programme. From then on,
the energies of the NLM were spent entirely on
quickly inundating the country with TLCs in as
many districts as possible. As the TLC model
succeeded in more and more districts, it was
generalised and its components became
progressively standardized. Between 1990 and
1993, a large number of districts were declared
totally literate. As one looks back, those were
heady days, for it seemed that adult illiteracy would
soon be banished. The main focus was on
achieving basic literacy in as many districts in the
country in as short a time as possible. In the
meantime, the scheme of JSNs continued to exist.
As is customary with educational programmes and
schemes, in 1993 an Expert Group was appointed
by the Government to "undertake a Status-cum
Impact Evaluation of Literacy Campaigns
launched in different parts of the country since
1990-91."(Report of Expert Group). Chaired by
Professor Arun Ghosh, a former member of the
Planning Commission, the Group submitted its
report in 1994. The Expert Group Report
evaluated not only the total literacy campaigns,
but also the extant programmes of post literacy
and continuing education. The Report sheds light
11-------------11
on not only the status and impact of PUCE, but
also on how the concepts of PL and CE were
apprehended within the NLM.
Most significantly, the Group felt that, "PUCE
should not be attempted in the campaign mode.
New forms 6f institutionalization, new agencies of
organization, new attitudes towards this phase of
the programme, fundamentally different from the
TLC phase, are required. The term PLC which
denotes yet. another campaign is therefore a
misnomer, and should be replaced by the
designation PUCE." (Report of Expert Group).
The Group was also of the view that, among other
things:
1. To begin with, there was no clear conceptual
framework for the post literacy phase.
2. Carrying out a successful PUCE programme
is a major problem
3. The TLC and PL/CE phases must be
integrated.
4. Organizational control of the PUCE must be
different from that of the TLC structure.
At the same time as the Expert Group was
constituted, another committee was constituted to
study the earlier scheme of Jan Shikshan Nilayam
and advise the Government on the future strategies
for PUCE in the context of TLCs.
Against the backdrop of recommendations of the
Expert Group, and the committee on JSNs, an
NLM document (Towards a Literate India)
published in 1998 says, "Since post literacy
programmes also rely considerably on the
Post -Literacy and Continuing
Education: NLM Perspective
campaign mode, these are commonly described
as Post Literacy Campaigns... " (p.29). Similarly,
a 1996 document (Strategies for Post Literacy) of
the NLM, declares, "... NLM has visualized PLC
as an extension of TLC ... " (p.6). The same
document also states, "Post-literacy is both a part
and a process of continuing education." (p.18) A
little earlier, on the same page (18), it is stated,
"Continuing education goes beyond post-literacy."
Yet another document (A People's Movement)
published at the end of 1999, declares that anintegrated 'Literacy Campaign' will amalgamate
all the features of the earlier Total Literacy and Post. Literacy phases.
It would not be impossible to reconcile the above .
seemingly contradictory pronouncements, because
the concepts of PL and CE continue to be hazy,
and the terms are used ambiguously, if not loosely.
The basic confusion can be traced to the separation
of post literacy from continuing education. In the
APPEAL framework given above (8), post literacy
programmes are part of continuing education. The
NLM, on the other hand, for justifiable reasons,
has clubbed post literacy with basic literacy. In a
manner of speaking, the NLM formulations on PL
and CE have attempted to borrow the APPEAL
model without accepting the PLPs as part of that
model.
Why Post Literacy
The APPEAL model of continuing education
describes the clientele group of post literacy
programmes as, '~I youth and adults (school drop
outs and semi-literates}". There is no mention of
neo-literates among the ~lientele group.
-------------111
Changing Concepts and Shifting Goals:Post Literacy and Continuing Education in India
The justification for post literacy in the NLM
programmes is different: "While a large number
(of learners in TLC) achieve levels laid down by
the NLM; a significant number do not, and many
remain non-starters. Even those who do achieve
the prescribed literacy levels, acquire only 'fragile'
literacy. Without a meaningful post-literacy
programme. many of these relapse into illiteracy."
(Towards a Literate India, 1998, p.29). In 1994,
the (Arun Ghosh) Expert Group had voiced a
similar sentiment: "There is real fragility in literacy
achievements and thus very serious problem of
relapse of neo-literates even in districts where there
have been successful TLCs. This problem is
aggravated in cases of long time lags between TLC
& PUCE." (Expert Group Report, 1994, p.30).
The reason for fragile literacy is not because of a
time lag between basic literacy and post literacy.
The real reason is that the TLCs were designed to
provide only fragile literacy, hence the need for
post literacy. The Review Committee on NAEP in
1980 had rightly diagnosed the problem and found
350 hours of literacy in the ten-month course
insufficient. Therefore it had recommended 600
contact hours of literacy spread over a period of
three years. The NLM, in its wisdom, had cut down
the basic literacy component to 200 hours spread
over a period of 6-8 months, without the provision
of PL for a long time after the TLC.
The NLM went a step further and specified a
detailed curriculum in the 3R's for the TLC. The
basis for specifying the levels of competencies in
reading, writing and numeracy is not clear. but it
is assumed that adult non-Iiterates can achieve
these levels. "There is no research evidence to
support the implicit assumption that the TLC
curriculum can be acquired within the stipulated
time-period. It is well known that children require
at least three to four years to achieve independent
reading skills. Although adults are believed to have
certain advantages of cognitive maturity, it is also
believed that they do not necessarily acquire basic
reading skills at a more rapid pace." (Daswani,
1996). No wonder, then, that the literacy levels
achieved even in the more successful TLCs were
fragile.
It must, of course, be pointed out that after the
TLC, the NLM had visualized a twenty-four month
PL phase, but in most cases the PL phase did not
follow the TLC and the neo-literates actually
relapsed into illiteracy. Even now, of the 448 TLC
districts only 234 have been sanctioned post
literacy programmes.
Shi ing Goals of Post Literacy
In the earlier (pre-1999) formulation, each PLC
had a life of two years. During this two year period,
the PLC was supposed to fulfil four major goals.
These are specified in the 1996 document
'Strategies for Post Literacy" as under:
1. Remediation: To help remedy the deficiencies
of learning in the basic literacy phase and to
help the neo-literates reach the desired level
of achievement.
2. Continuation: To consolidate and improve
the learning skiIls already acquired by the neo
literates with a 'view to making them self
reliant.
-------------11
3. Application: To help neo-literates attain the
ability to use the newly acquired skills and
make them adequately functionally literate.
4. Communitisation: To help neo-literates to
organise themselves for securing services
under programmes related to health, family
welfare, child care, nutrition, agriculture,
animal husbandry, etc.
The 1998 document (Towards a Literate India) lists
five major objectives for a PLC:
1. Remediation
• those not covered by TLC to be madeliterate.
• Those below minimum level of learning to be
enabled to achieve it.
2. Continuation
• stabilisation, reinforcement and upgradation of
learning.
3. Application
• to living and working conditions.
4. Communitisation
• group action for participation in development
process.
5. Skill training
• life skills, communication skills, vocational skills.
The latest (November 1999) version stipulates that,
" Literacy campaigns would continue to run in
those areas where there are large pools of residual
illiteracy. At the same time, for those who have
Post -Literacy and ContinUing
Education: NLM Perspective
crossed the basic learning phase, programmes of
consolidation, remediation, vocational skills,
integration with life skills and such other aspects
would be considered the basic unit. ... Therefore,
Total Literacy Campaign and Post Literacy
Campaign actually constitute two operational
stages on the learning continuum and now under
the same scheme will operate in smooth
progression ... " (A People's Movement, 1999,
p.60).
What is significant to note is that, at least for the
present, NLM has delinked PL from CE and linked
it inextricably with TLC.
Programmes of Continuing Education
The NLM had designed a scheme of continuing
education for neo-literates, which came into force
on January 1, 1996. This scheme replaced the
earlier scheme of providing continuing education
through the Jan Shikshan Nilayam, which had
been introduced in 1988. It would be interesting
to recapture the sequence of events in the provision
of continuing education for neo-literates.
In 1980, the Review Committee on NAEP had
recommended a three-year literacy programme.
This was not accepted. Instead a 4-month literacy
programme followed by a year-long follow-up
programme was launched in 1982. The NPE and
PGA in 1986 had stipulated that for a successful
programme of adult education, it was important
to provide for post literacy and continuing
education. In response to this the scheme of JSNs
was launched in 1988. Following the adoption of
the campaign mode for basic literacy, the scheme
11 -------------111
Changing Concepts and Shifting Goals:
Post Literacy and Continuing Education in India
of JSNs was reviewed in 1993, and it was decided
to replace this scheme with a new scheme of
Continuing Education Centres (CEC). However,
the scheme of CECs was launched only in 1996.(Incidentally, the latest NLM document declares
that the scheme of CE was launched in 1995')The 1999 Document states that, 'The structure of
continuing education programme, launched in
1995 (sic) as a fully funded centrally-sponsored
scheme, will be retained and further strengthened
and expanded in scope and content." (A People's
Movement)
The main objective of the scheme is to
institutionalize continuing education for neo
Iiterates, which is achieved by establishing CECs.
The scheme provides for flexibility in designing and
implementation of CE programmes in order to
cater to the needs of the neo-Iiterates. More specific
objectives of the scheme are:
6. Provision of facilities for retention and
reinforcement of literacy skills.
7. Application of functional literacy for qualityof life improvement.
8. Dissemination of information on
development programmes for participation.
9. Creation of awareness on national concerns
10. Training in vocational skills.
11. Provision of library.
12. Organization of cultural and recreational
activities.
The responsibility for the implementation of the
scheme rests with Zilla Saksharta Samiti (ZSS)
headed by the Collector, with assistance from
voluntary agencies, mahila mandals, panchayati
raj institutions, Nehru Yuvak Kendras, etc. The
scheme provides ample freedom to the ZSS to
create new structures at the grass-roots level for
effective implementation of the CE programmes.
Under the scheme, programmes of CE will be
implemented through the CECs. "A continuing
education centre will be set up for a population
2000-2500 so that it caters to the needs of at least
500-1000 neo-literates." It is also envisaged that
a Nodal Continuing Centre will be set up for a
cluster of 10-15 CECs. Each CEC and NCEC will
be run by a Prerak and an Assistant Prerak, who
will together provide the facilities at the centres
and coordinate the various activities. The principal
function of a CEC will be to provide the following
facilities:
1. Library
2. Reading Room
3. Learning Centre
4. Training Centre
5. fnformation Centre
6. Charcha Mandal
7. Development Centre
8. Cultural Centre
9. Sports Centre.
The scheme, in principle, provides flexibility and
freedom to the ZSS for planning and developing
CE programmes, which are sensitive to the local
environment, conditions and needs of the local
population, particularly the new-Iiterates. At the
I
111-------------11
same time the NLM has identified four broad
programmes areas, which can help the CECs
develop specific programmes in specific situations.
These four programme areas are identical to the
CE programmes contained in the APPEAL
documents. The programme areas are:
1. Equivalency Programmes (EPs) - designed
as alternative education programmes
equivalent to existing formal, general or
vocational education.
2. Income Generating Programmes (IGPs)
designed for acquisition or upgradation of
vocational skills for income generating
activities.
3. Quality of Life Improvement Programmes
(QLlPs) - designed to equip the learners with
essential knowledge, attitudes, values and
skills, both as individuals and members of thecommunity.
4. Individual Interest Promotion Programmes
(IIPPs) - designed to provide opportunities
for individuals to participate in and learn
about their own chosen social, cultural,
spiritual, health, physical, and artistic interests.
As is evident, the CECs, conceived and planned
under the scheme of continuing education, will
become nerve centres for life-long learning. A
number of already existing institutions and
development departments are expected to lend
support to the CECs/NCECs. Since vocational
training will be an important function of the CECs,
the government has expanded and strengthened
Post -Literacy and Continuing
Education: NLM Perspective
the erstwhile Shramik Vidyapeeths to serve as
support institutions at the district Ie.vel. These
institutions have been rechristened Jan Shikshan
Sansthans (JSS) and charged with the
responsibility of addressing the vocational training
needs of neo-Iiterates and other rural youth and
adults: The JSSs will, of course, continue the
vocational training of industrial workers as well as
urban youth and adults. The Government has
also decided that the scheme of CE should
converge with programmes of Nehru Yuvak
Kendras, National Service Scheme, National
Service Volunteer Scheme, and others at the
grassroots level. The infrastructure of these
institutions will, as far as possible, be utilized to
facilitate functioning of the CE scheme.
These are lofty ideas, but there are many fuzzy
edges. The Central Government has decided to
finance the scheme fully for three years (or is it
five?), and the States will share the costs 50:50
after the third year. In addition to the 60 odd CECs
already in operation, only fifty more will be set up
during the remaining period of the ninth plan. But
the scheme is supposed "allow for opening of
continuing education centres in every major
village ... ". When (?) these CECs are actually set
up, the annual running costs should be in the
neighbourhood of five thousand crores!
The Prerak
The lynch pin for the CEC is the Prerak, (and the
Assistant Prerak). The Prerak of the CEC will
receive an honorarium of Rs.700 per month and
the Assistant Prerak, Rs.500. Between the two of
them, they are supposed to coordinate/run/
11 -------------111
Changing Concepts and Shifting Goals:Post Literacy and Continuing Education in India
manage a Centre, wh}ch provides at least nine
different kinds of facilities. They will liaise with a
variety of institutions, and individuals within the
official government structures, and NGOs. They
will have to run and manage a host of on-going
programmes for about 1000 neo-literates in their
catchment area.
Judging by the honoraria determined for these two
functionaries, they would have to have some other
additional means of livelihood. Consequently,' they
will be available only part-time, while the CECs is
designed to be a full-time centre. Of course, if the
CEC is run by an NGO, the two preraks could be
employed full time by the NGO and made available
part time.
But that still leaves the question of the job
description for the preraks and their qualifications.
It is possible that the NLM has already visualized
this problem, and a solution has been devised.
Perhaps, some the volunteers from the TLC
programmes will be able to handle the job. Yet, it
would seem to be a difficult task to locate a large
number of individuals who fit the bill. And, even
if 'qualified' individuals were found, how would
they relate to the entire 'official' machinery from
the District Collector downwards?
11-------------
The Bottomline
It is over sixty years since the notion of continuing
education was first introduced in the context of
adult education. The concept has undergone
several evolutionary changes and reincarnations.
The concept of post literacy became entwined with
continuing education, and remained clung to it
until it was separated recently. Both PL and CE in
India have covered a tortuous journey in the sixty
odd years. In the analysis presented above, an
attempt has been made to understand the
changing connotations and implications of the two
concepts. Whether the analysis offered above is
tenable or not, several issues need, at least, to be
raised, even if not resolved.
First, what are the preconditions for the success of
a post literacy programme? At a simplistic, or even
superficial, level does post literacy not imply
existence of literacy? Why do we not say 'post
fragile literacy', or 'post minimal literacy'? The
answer, possibly, is that literacy is a prerequisite or
precondition for post literacy. Post literacy can
succeed only when the participants have already
acquired stable literacy. If a person has not
acquired stable literacy skills, he/she will not benefit
from post literacy. Of course, one can be
euphemistic and use the term 'post literacy' to
mean extension of literacy training. In fact the
post literacy programmes have been only
extensions of the basic literacy courses, because
the non-Iiterates had not become stable Iiterates,
whether through NAEP of TLC. Therefore, for a
post literacy programme to succeed, it is necessary
to ensure that the non-literate is equipped with
stable literacy skills before the basic literacy
programme is terminated. The NAEP review
committee had stipulated a three-year period.
Perhaps that is the critical period for acquiring
stable literacy.
Second, do any advantages accrue to a non-literate
when he/she becomes a neo-Iiterate? Or, what
function does minimal literacy have in a society in
which a large number of people are illiterate? The
answer, probably, is that there is no immediate
advantage. There are several notional benefits,
which are clear to the literacy activist or a literacy
functionary (for different reasons), but to the non
literate learner these are not immediately
discernable. In a partially literate society, a large
number of non-literate persons function within their
sodo-economic realities. Unless their newly
acquired literacy skills can rapidly ameliorate their
conditions, literacy can never become attractive.
For any literacy endeavour to succeed, it would
seem to be necessary to create conditions where
literacy (however minimal) can bring economic
and social advantages to the neo-Iiterate. If that
were to be ensured, PL and CE programmes would
be demanded rather than be provided.
11-----------~-IEI
Changing Concepts and Shifting Goals:Post Literacy and Continuing Education in India
Third, how long does it take for a totally illiterate
family to become fully literate? Is it reasonable to
expect that a family will become literate in one
generation? Experience has shown that it takes
two or even three generations for a family to travel
from illiteracy to total literacy. When we are
dealing with traditional non-literates, we need to
plan an integrated educational package
encompassing the adult non-literate, his/her
children, and his/her grandchildren. Unless we
are willing to support the family through this three
gerieration saga, all attempts will fall short of the
goal. Unfortunately, up until now, all adult
education programmes have been in the project
mode, co-extensive with a Plan period in the form
of a scheme, and financial provisions are actually
made on an annual basis.
Fourth, how is a literate or learning society
created? A literate society is seldom created
through literacy training. A literate society is one
where literacy has become a critical input for all
social and economic activities within the society.
A learning society is one where the resources of
literacy are harnessed for living in peace and
harmony, and for the common good.
Fifth, can a mass programme like adult education,
which aims at basic changes in the social structure,
and believes in conscientization, be run by the
official government machinery that is by definition
committed to the 'status-quo'? And can this
machinery actually promote and nurture
'independent' non-governmental action at the
grassroots level?
The bottom line is that unless programmes of post
literacy and continuing education address these
issues and more, they will continue to be vague
and hazy.
11----'-----------11
References
A People's Movement, NLM. 1999.
Continuing Education for Development,
UNESCO, PROAp, Bangkok. 1996.
Daswani, c.J.: Total Literacy Campaign in India:
Status and Issues. Paper read at 1996 World
Literacy Conference, Philadelphia. 1996.
Evaluation of Literacy Campaign in India, Report
of Expert Group, NLM. 1994.
National Policy on Education, Government of
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EFA 2000 Assessment: INDIAThematic Reviews and Case Studies
Indian Engagement with Adult Educationand LiteracyA.Mathew
Social Mobilization and Total LiteracyCampaignsAnita Dighe
Changing Concepts and Shifting Goals:Post-literacy and ContinuingEducation in IndiaC.J.Daswani
Early Childhood Care and EducationVenita Kaul
Education of Girls in India:An AssessmentUsha Nayar
Education of the Urban DisadvantagedVandana Chakrabarty
Children, Work and Education:Rethinking on Out-of-School ChildrenSharada Jain
Education of Children with Spec,al NeedsSudesh Mukhopadhyay and M.N.G. Mani
Education among TribalsK.Sujatha
Participatory Micro-Planning for UniversalPrimary EducationAbhimanyu Singh
Learning Conditions for Primary Education: A ReviewM.S.Yadav and Meenakshi Bhardwaj
Learner Achievement in Primary SchoolsM.S.Yadav and Meenakshi Bhardwaj
Texts in Context : An EFA 2000 Review Development of Curricula, Textbooks, andTeaching Learning MaterialsAnita Rampal
Primary Teacher Training in the EFA DecadeC.Seshadrl
Status of Elementary Teachers in IndiaA.S.Seetharamu
Education and the Status of WomenVimala Ramachandran
Decentralisation of EducationVinod Raina
Role of Private Schools in Basic EducationAnuradha De, Manabi Majumdar, MeeraSamson and Claire Noronha
Role and Contribution of NGOs to BasicEducationDisha Nawani
Role of Media in Education For AllAvik Ghosh
Financing of Elementary Education inIndiaJandhyala B.G. Tilak
EFA in Mizoram: The Dynamics of SuccessS. Hom Chaudhurl
Primary Education in Himachal Pradesh:Examining a Success StoryAnuradha De, Claire Noronha and MeeraSamson
Universal Elementary Education inRajasthan: A Study with Focus on Innovative StrategiesSumitra Chowdhury
Progress Towards Education for All: TheCase of Tamil NaduP.Radhakrishnan and R.Akhila