Challenges and Opportunities in our Militaries: African Military Women’s Perspectives

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Challenges and Opportunities in our Militaries: African Military Women’s Perspectives

January

2015

UNITED STATES AFRICA COMMAND

J2 SPONSORED RESEARCH

Report Author: Liza Briggs PhD, Social Scientist

Field Researchers: Selam Alemayo PhD and Liza Briggs PhD

Challenges and Opportunities in Our Militaries:

African Military Women’s Perspectives

A Qualitative Research Study Report

Ugandan Female Peacekeeper

Photo from Chimreports January 2013

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This report is a product of the Intelligence Directorate (J2), based in Stuttgart, Germany. The

report author, Dr. Liza E.A. Briggs, is employed as a BAE Systems social scientist supporting

U.S. Africa Command. The statements, opinions, conclusions and recommendations in this

report are the authors alone and do not represent the official position of BAE Systems, U.S.

Africa Command, or the U.S. Government

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Table of Contents

Abbreviations and Acronyms ......................................................................................................... 4

Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................ 5

Background ..................................................................................................................................... 7

Study Description............................................................................................................................ 8

Military Overview ......................................................................................................................... 10

Themes and Findings .................................................................................................................... 12

Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 23

References ..................................................................................................................................... 25

Appendix I: Researchers .............................................................................................................. 28

Appendix II: Methodology ........................................................................................................... 29

Appendix III: Participant Demographics ...................................................................................... 31

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Abbreviations and Acronyms

African Union AU

African Union Mission in Somalia AMISOM

Armed Forces Liberia AFL

Battle Dress Uniform BDU

Combined Joint Task Force—Horn of Africa CJTF—HOA

Edward Beyan Kessely Barracks EBK Barracks

Ebola Virus Disease EVD

Executive Order 13595 EO 13595

Lord’s Resistance Army LRA

Ministry of Defense MOD

National Action Plan NAP

Office of Security Cooperation OSC

The United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali MINUSMA

Ugandan People’s Defense Force UPDF

United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 UNSCR 1325

United States US

Women Auxiliary Corps WAC

Women, Peace, and Security WPS

Women, Peace, and Security Working Group WPSWG

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Executive Summary

This report addresses the following questions:

1. What do female military personnel need and want to succeed in African militaries? (i.e.

recruitment/retention, training, attitudes, socio cultural roadblocks, promotion policies,

political agendas, other issues).

2. What are perceived benefits, gaps, value added, missed opportunities, and the overall

impact of U.S. and other investments supporting women in African militaries?

3. What lessons learned and best practice examples from this study can inform and improve

U.S. Africa Command and its components (CJTF-HOA) efforts to support women in

African militaries?

The study findings are:

Women primarily joined the military to secure a rewarding job. Their expectations,

frustrations, and the way they make sense of their military experience are linked to their

rationale for joining.

Most women believe there are deliberate and systemic roadblocks that undermine their

access to job training and promotion opportunities. These participants indentified access

to job training and promotion opportunities as their primary needs. In Liberia,

participants expressed a belief that women in the military have symbolic and political

importance but are not valued for their skills and abilities.

Study participants want U.S. Africa Command to support them by advocating for better

accountability, merit-based promotions, equal opportunity, and training access. Liberian

participants also want greater acknowledgment of their challenges and deep frustration

related to the military’s inability to provide basic needs (lodging, sanitation, and health

care).

Some participants mentioned using quota systems and alternative credential schemes to

support women’s success in the military. Most expect and prefer a merit-based system.

Despite challenges, women recognize and described the value they bring to the military.

Male and female participants detailed attributes they believe women bring to the military

setting. Nearly all participants acknowledged lingering negative stereotypes and stigma

associated with women who serve in the military.

Evidence exists that goals, policies, and rhetoric associated with external and

international ideals about Women Peace and Security (WPS) issues have not adequately

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trickled down to most of the women who participated in this study. There remain

opportunities and interest in partner education and mutual exchanges on WPS issues.

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When we undercut the

contributions of one gender e do

ourselves half the talent, half the

resources, half the potential of the

population. And as we approach

future challenges we must think

rather than fight our way through,

we need to be able to leverage all

of the best thinking out there.

General Martin E. Dempsey

Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff

Background

The United Nations Security Council adopted

Resolution 1325 (UNSCR 1325) 15-years ago.

UNSCR 1325 and related resolutions recognize the

impact of war on women and children and their

historic absence from peace processes and

stabilization initiatives. The resolution led the United

States and other countries to develop and implement

frameworks and actionable plans to incorporate and

recognize the role of women at all levels of conflict

prevention, management, and resolution.

In 2011, the U.S. President released the National

Action Plan (NAP) on WPS and signed Executive

Order (EO) 13595 titled, Instituting a National Action

Plan on WPS. The NAP provides the framework for

the U.S. response to UNSCR 1325, and combined

with E.O. 13595, directs U.S. Government agencies to

implement and report annually on progress toward the

NAP.

The US Africa Command women, peace, and security working group (WPSWG)members

significantly contributed to the interagency team that shaped the NAP content as evidenced by

references to the U.S. Africa Command WPSWG in the published document. This study

contributes to the NAP Outcome 1.4 which directs implementing agencies to establish processes

to evaluate and learn from activities undertaken in support of WPS initiatives.

UNSCR 1325 and the U.S. NAP focus on a broader conception of women and girls in the

security sector, while U.S. Africa Command’s lens tends to focus on accomplishing WPS and

NAP objective through military-to-military engagements. Current efforts include staff and host

nation education. U.S. Africa Command sponsors workshops and training that specifically target

including female military members. There is a longer term effort to include NAP objectives in

command planning documents to ensure continuity of effort and systemic integration.

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Study Description

Objectives

The objective of the study is to gain a deeper understanding of the issues, constraints, and

concerns experienced by women in African militaries. The study represents a deliberate decision

to feature African women’s opinions and points of view. The study moves away from

mainstream analysis and is narrative and descriptive. This study presumes the reader will

analyze and interpret the participant’s opinions.

U.S. Africa Command based data from 82 interviews, with participants from government

organizations (U.S. and African), African academics, and male and female members of African

militaries in Liberia and Uganda. Although non-African participants participated, the findings

focused on African points of view and opinions. See Appendix III for a demographic

summary of participants.

The research team designed the study in close collaboration with the U.S. Africa Command

WPSWG. The study builds on recent literature on women in African militaries and common

understandings about women in African militaries derived from insights gleaned during

conferences and other formal exchanges. The study adds nuance or validates what is already

known about the broad research topic and questions. The findings and descriptive data offer

concepts that can be included in command level and country team stakeholder’s planning in

Uganda and Liberia. The study is in accordance with specific methodological and ethical

considerations. See Appendix II for a more detailed discussion on the methodology.

Report Structure

The study findings are divided into three sections. The first section is a summary of the Ugandan

and Liberian militaries.

The second section highlights including women in African militaries and provides combined

participant responses via direct quotes. Participant responses are organized thematically and

include representative quotes from participants to support the themes. Throughout this section,

participant quotes reference types of participants (such as Armed Forces Liberia (AFL), the

Uganda People’s Defense Force (UPDF), Liberians, officers, enlisted, males). These references

delineated the perspectives of various types of participants.

The third section summarizes the study implications and offers comments and considerations for

future research and action on this topic.

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Study Limitations

This study is based on data from two cases, and it is qualitative in nature. The data is not evenly

distributed between the two countries. The findings cannot be generalized or used for predictive

analysis, country comparisons, or applied to other country contexts. The findings should be

incorporated as descriptive background that adds depth and perspective related to how women

interpret the topic and questions asked in the study.

Research Team

The fieldwork for this study was conducted by a two-person research team co-led by Drs. Selam

Alemayo and Liza Briggs. See Appendix I for biographical information about the

researchers.

Field Locations

Liberia and Uganda were selected for fieldwork based on the timing of the requests to visit,

resource constraints, and the willingness of host militaries to participate. The countries represent

some level of geographic diversity. (Uganda is an East African country and Liberia is in West

Africa).

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UPDF Female Tank Driver

Military Overview

Uganda

Uganda obtained independence from the

British in 1962. The UPDF has a land, air,

and marine force of approximately 50,000

people. Uganda has a longstanding history of

military involvement. Ugandan troops were

conscripts in the British Army during World

War I and the UPDF maintains a presence in

international engagements as contributors to

UN and AU missions.

The Ugandan military was pivotal during a

coup d’état and a series of internal conflicts

that resulted in the existing period of relative

stability under President Yoweri Museveni.

Women were formally welcomed into the

military via a presidential decree in the late

1980s and represent approximately 4 to 5

percent of the UPDF; the exact number is not

clear. The UPDF includes women in support

and combat positions. Women officers and

enlisted personnel serve as accountants,

legal officers, medics, and drivers in combat tank units. The first woman was promoted to the

rank of brigadier general in 2014.

Currently, the U.S. military and the UPDF work as partners to counter the Lord’s Resistance

Army (LRA). The United States provides training to support the AU peacekeeping force in

Somalia (AMISOM). During the fieldwork period, the United States was formalizing punitive

measures against Uganda, including sanctions that would impact training for the UPDF. The U.S

policy position was in response to Ugandan legislation that would have imposed harsh penalties

against homosexuals. Recently, the UPDF has garnered media attention amid charges that its

members raped women and girls during AMISOM support rotations.

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Liberia

Liberia was established in 1847. A central

political and historical feature in Liberia is the

relationship between the elite ruling class that

descended from repatriated slaves and freed

blacks from the United States and the Caribbean

and the majority indigenous population. Liberia

endured a civil war from 1989 to 2003. The

civil war led to wide distrust in the security

forces. As part of the 2003 Accra peace

agreement, the AFL decommissioned in 2003.

Between 2005 and 2007, U.S. contractors

recruited, vetted and trained a new force, also

named the AFL.

Women have been a part of the AFL for more

than 30 years. In the mid-1970s, women served

in the AFL as members of the Women Auxiliary

Corps (WAC). In 1987, the AFL commissioned

the first female officer, Kate Juwle. During the civil war women and girls served as camp wives,

child soldiers, and combatants.

Approximately 2,100 land and coast guard personnel comprise the AFL. President Ellen Johnson

Sirleaf was vocal in supporting efforts to include women in the armed forces. Widespread media

campaigns promoted the concept of establishing and maintaining gender balance in the public

sphere. Women represent approximately 7 to 8 percent of the current AFL and serve in support

jobs, such as drivers, medics, personnel, and communication specialists. The highest ranking

female in the current iteration of the AFL is a lieutenant colonel.

The U.S. military enjoys a close and longstanding relationship with the AFL, characterized by

training exchanges and support via mentoring for the AFL. Since the reconstitution of the

military, the AFL has remained untested as a fighting force. The AFL is beginning to participate

in international peacekeeping missions and has been supporting humanitarian efforts to counter

the Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) crisis in Liberia.

Researchers with female AFL personnel.

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Themes and Findings

How and Why Women Join the Military?

Study participants were asked how they were recruited, and why they joined the military. The

overall theme related to how women were recruited in Uganda and Liberia was through direct

recruitment campaigns (e.g. newspaper, radio, television) and through their involvement in sport-

related teams and events. Most participants said they joined the military to secure stable jobs.

One Ugandan officer explained,

I had just finished my studies and I saw an ad in the New Vision newspaper. So, I went

for interviews and then went on to military training.

(#9, female, lieutenant, Ugandan, 25, Personnel and Administration, military)

An enlisted Liberian personnel noted,

Well, I heard about the recruitment through the radio. I had been through the war and

after the wars I had a small beauty salon but it wasn’t enough for me financially, so I

chose the military life.

(#36, female, corporal, Liberian, 36, Transportation, military)

An enlisted women described a key event that positively influenced her decision to join the

military.

Initially, I was not interested in the military at all because of what happened here during

the war, and my family was not involved with the military. But something happened, and I

found myself imprisoned for 2 days for no cause. It was very bad, and the man who was

responsible for me being put in prison would not listen to me. It was during this time I

realized I did not have a voice nor any cash. I wanted to be someone who could make a

difference and have worth as a woman, so I joined the army in 2007. After I completed

basic training, I got a pass and went to see the man who had imprisoned me. He smiled,

saluted me and said, “Let’s let bygones be bygones.”

(#45, female, private first class, Liberian, 42, Transportation, military)

Other motivations for joining the military include a desire to challenge gender assumptions, the

positive influence of family members and role models who served in the military, and pursuit of

personal ideals (i.e. nationalism, family history, overcoming challenges).

One Ugandan female expressed aspects of these sentiments as follows,

In traditional society woman are seen as weak, so I was defying the rules!

(#21, female, lieutenant, Ugandan, 32, Military Intelligence, military)

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A Captain offered,

My late father was a soldier. He served the past regimes, so I wanted to join too. My

brother was also a soldier.

(#7, female, captain, Ugandan, 45, Protocol Officer, military)

An AFL recruits’ comment characterizes a combination of motivations,

I want to take care of the citizens of my country. My country needs me, so I want to make

myself available. Plus I believe a female can do just as well as a man in the military.

(#60, female, private, Liberian, 27, Truck Driver, military)

Training, Promotion, and Other Roadblocks

Training and promotions are the main mechanisms for career advancement in professional

military organizations. Participants talked about women’s access to training, promotion

opportunities, policies, and practices they believe stymie women’s ability to advance in the

military. Liberian participants spoke extensively on this topic, often highlighting deeply rooted

frustrations about their experiences. The extensive quotes in this segment reflect participant

interest and intensity on these themes.

In terms of training, Ugandan participants mentioned pragmatic and technical reasons for

training women in the military. One Ugandan officer offered,

Women need more training to aid them with merit based promotions. So what I mean by

that is skills training or formal education on things, like how to use computers and

secretarial skills.

(#6, female, lieutenant colonel, Ugandan, 42, Medial Logistics, military)

Liberian participants highlighted perceived gender gaps in training and promotion opportunities,

while opining that women face intentional and systemic exclusion.

One enlisted AFL member noted,

We do not get training to improve our skills and so we have no career advancement.

There are schools for drivers in China. They send males and leave the females out. They

have never sent any females to train as drivers.

(#36, Female, corporal, Liberian, 36, Transportation, military)

Another enlisted personnel furthered,

We had initial training when we joined. I studied midwifery, but now, medics do not go to

training. Many of us are women. We have had no refresher training. Thank god for the

Internet because that is how we manage…we have to learn on our own!

(#41, female, staff sergeant, Liberian, 35, Medic, military)

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A Liberian officer offered the following comment about a promotion decision in the Coast

Guard,

The chief of staff of the Coast Guard is a male. There is a female in the Coast Guard who

has been there since the beginning of its creation. This female has a Bachelor’s degree

and training. He is new to the job, and he does not have the same background as she has,

yet we saw him get promoted. Now she is training him and backing him up in the job.

(#27, female, lieutenantt colonel, Liberian, 39, Personnel, military)

Another officer commenting on AFL promotion practices added,

Women have been doing the work. We are always in the back supporting! If I am in the

back, and I am doing the work, why can’t I be in the front?

(#23, female, captain. Liberian, 39, Communication Officer, military)

In Uganda and Liberia, participants mentioned specific policies they believe have a negative

impact on womens’ opportunities for growth, advancement, and personal well being.

Two Ugandan officers had this exchange about a UPDF policy,

The 4-year rule impacts female officers. They are not allowed to marry. Male soldiers

can produce during this time but women officers cannot have children. After about 4 to 6

years in the military, women begin to get opportunities to go to a course, but these come

after the end of the 4-year rule and by then the female is pregnant and not able to attend

training needed for career advancement.

(#6, female, lieutenant colonel, Ugandan, 42, Medical Logistics, military)

A male officer countered,

Okay, but this is like the 10 commandments in the bible. This policy was developed by

the higher authorities to deter deserters and give soldiers a chance to learn how to take

care of him or herself. During the 4 years a soldier can learn how to support himself

financially. It is not just about whether to have babies or not. It is a policy to improve

general preparation for life

(#5, male, major, Ugandan, 36, civil Military Affairs, military)

The female officer retorted,

Policies are policies. Policies are made for everyone, but the point is these policies effect

men and women differently! Something should be done to make the 4-year rule work so

women don’t see it as a waste of their time.


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A few Liberian participants talked about a policy restricting pregnancy they believe unfairly

penalizes women and puts their health at risk.

Single women in uniform who are pregnant must be married. Men do not feel the weight

of this rule. We have 1-month’s time to marry, or we have to lose the child (sic. Get an

abortion). So you see women just willing to marry anyone to make things work. One

woman was forced to take out her baby, and it went badly for her. She almost died.

(#38, female, first sergeant, Liberian, 26, Human Resources Specialist, military)

The researchers asked each group of participants to discuss and agree on 3 words that summarize

what women need to improve their experience in their respective militaries. The top three

responses across participants were training, promotions, and equal opportunity.

Lower-ranking participants added a fourth word, accommodations, to their list. They referenced

gaps in services, such as lodging and health care. One Liberian participant described issues with

provisions in detail.

Although money comes out of our checks for insurance, when we go to the health clinic

on EBK (Edward Beyan Kessely Barracks) there is no medication, and we must go

through a lot of bureaucracy. We should be able to use our insurance vouchers for

service in the civilian clinic, but the MOD [Ministry of Defense]isn’t paying the civilian

hospital for the services they are supposed to provide.

Also, in the barracks we have to take our drinking water from a rusty pump. The water

comes from a reservoir that has dead animals and contaminants in it, so we buy our own

drinking water.

(#46, female, private first class, Liberian, 35, Supply Specialist, military)

Another Liberian woman described her experience living in the barracks.

I had taken my daughter to live with me in the barrack. There were some problems where

she was living. The room I lived in was very small. I had to keep many of my belongings

packed in bags all over the place and the space was crowded. I was in the kitchen

cooking and holding my daughter in my arms. My skirt got caught on the pot and hot

soup burned my daughter very badly. (Participant starts crying).

(#42, female, corporal, Liberian, 40, Communication Specialist, military)

Participants in Liberia expressed high levels of frustration about women’s perceived utility in the

military. Many viewed their negative experiences as evidence that their roles and inclusion in the

AFL are ceremonial and symbolic. The following captures the collective opinions,

We females are used as “big picture.” What I mean is we get dress in our BDUs[battle

dress uniforms] and attend ceremonies. They get pictures of us on tv and talk about us.

(#26, female, first lieutenant, Liberian, 32, Medical Officer, military)

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They use us to inspire when we are outside the barracks. People stop and talk to us. They

love us.

(#25, female, lieutenant junior grade, Liberian, 39, Logistics Officer, military)

That is all we are there for! They use us to get people to join the Army. We should not be

just “big picture.” Being in the military should be a good thing for us.

(#24, female, captain, Liberian, 42, Human Resources, military)

What Kind of Support Do Women Want?

Participants discussed how external actors, and more specifically, U.S. Africa Command could

support the success of women in their militaries. Participants talked a great deal about internal

initiatives and mechanisms already established to support women in the military. Participants

from both countries expressed a desire for advocacy and support from interested actors to

increase opportunities, inclusion, and accountability for women in the areas of training,

promotion, and equal opportunity

An AFL participant mentioned a previous attempt to establish a mechanism for advocacy as

follows,

They had a retired lieutenant colonel from the old AFL who used to meet with females,

but after she met with us, she would not write a report about what we said. She was not

reporting everything. The advocate should be an active duty person who understands

what we go through.

(#27, female, lieutenant colonel, Liberian, 39, Chief of Personnel, Military)

Other AFL women mentioned a monitoring group that was supposed to support women in the

military. One detailed the outcome of this effort in this way,

As part of our gender mainstreaming campaign, there was talk of a monitoring program

to review how often females were promoted. This was coordinated within the Ministry of

Gender. The idea was proposed and a meeting was held. There were women in the

security sector who mentioned that no women were in leadership positions in the AFL

and other issues such as this. The monitoring group was supposed to do something about

this. Until now, I have not heard anything more about this group.

(#26, female, first lieutenant, Liberian, 32, Medical Officer, military)

A Ugandan participant spoke positively about a directorate that monitors women’s affairs.

Having gender balance makes the UPDF better. We have a full directorate for women’s

Affairs, and a commander, a colonel, who keeps a database of the female militants. She

represents them at meetings and brings up issues effecting women.

(#5, male, major, Ugandan, 36, Civil Military Affairs, military)

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A few AFL and UPDF participants believe that even when available, advocacy initiatives for

women in the AFL do not trickle down to military personnel. One Liberian participant’s view

captures this opinion.

Help for women stops at the civilian level. When communication and opportunities come,

the Ministry of Defense sends civilians who pretend to be military personnel. So the slots

come, and the civilians fill them.

(#38, remale, first sergeant, Liberian, 26, Human Resources Specialist, military)

A Ugandan officer added,

Many programs come, but the military is the military, and the programs don’t trickle

down to women. We women have the same problems as other women.


In addition to discussions about past and current efforts to support women in the military,

participants offered specific examples of what U.S. Africa Command could do to help women in

their militaries. A Liberian commented,

AFRICOM [U.S. Africa Command] has helped us with many things, and we are grateful,

but they could help set up a monitoring group. We need accountability.

(#27, female, lieutenant colonel, Liberian, 39, Chief of Personnel, military)

One Ugandan officer stated her position as follows,

AFRICOM can bring big men on board. They need to ask questions to get Uganda to act.

Instead of talking with women, start with the men. Highlight the gaps between men and

women.

(#16, female, captain, Ugandan, 32, Legal Officer, military)

Another remarked,

They [AFRICOM] should have regional conferences where we can share our experiences

and lessons learned with our neighbors

(#12, male, captain, Ugandan, 34, Civil Military Affairs, military)

Regarding Africa Command support for training one participant opined,

AFRICOM can help us push for more training for women. We are trained at different

levels, and women are left out and it is true that if you have training then you can achieve

and advance.

(#14, female, captain, Ugandan, 37, Chief of Medical Services, military)

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Quotas?

In Uganda, participants mentioned the use and existence of quotas in their militaries to assist

women with promotions. One participant offered,

Before there was just a general policy, but in the last few years, there are gender quotas.

This is a deliberate attempt to bring the women up.


In addition to quotas, a female officer talked about alternate considerations for promoting

women.

Yes, and we should have other avenues for promotion to help women, like time in grade

options, to get around training requirements and also counting the years of service and

considering exemplary performance. These should be used to help women get ahead.

(#6, female, lieutenant colonel, Ugandan, 42, Medial Logistics, military)

Lastly, one participant conveyed the general sentiment about the use of quotas in Uganda and in

Liberia.

Women should not be treated like separate units. They want to be integrated with men.

They don’t want to be viewed as women. They want to compete equally with men. They

want equal opportunities.

(#10, Female, sergeant, Ugandan, 34, Personnel & Administration, military)

Benefits, Stigma, and Sacrifice

Participants described what they gained from service in the military. Most talked about growth,

personal accomplishment, increased respect, and financial gain.

Personal Benefit/Fulfillment

Ugandan service members described their gains as follows:

For me, the military is something I have grown into. It is like another family. It is

fulfilling. I feel satisfaction when I come to work and put on my uniform. When I am

serving I see happy people on the street and I can see what I am doing for the country.


Being in the military I feel like I have made some achievements.

(#7, female, captain, Ugandan, 45, Protocol, military)

I can say that since being in the military I am comfortable and I am earning money.

(#10, female, sergeant, Ugandan, 34, Certified Public Accountant, Military)

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Liberian participants offered commentary on gains associated with military service. One noted,

Joining the military helped me because I became somebody. I have a career.

Before joining, some of us were not making a living but now some of us are building

houses. We are involved in businesses, and we can pay school fees for our children.

Some of us are respected. People honor us in our towns. We are invited as speakers. I

am a role model and not everyone can be that.


Another AFL member reiterated the economic gains associated with being in the military.

Since joining I feel comfortable. I can earn a living.

(#10, female, sergeant, Ugandan, 34 Personnel, military)

Women described qualities and character attributes they believe women bring to the military. A

few addressed women’s moral behavior in the following ways.

Women are less corrupt, and we increase morale.

(#14, female, captain, Ugandan, 37, Medical Services, military)

If you have a box of pens the man will take the whole box. But the woman will think of

others and take 1 pen from the box.

(#27, female, lieutenant colonel, Liberian, 39, Personnel, military)

A male participant chimed in,

Apart from offering gender balance, Women are administratively better than men and

less corrupt.

(#12, male, captain, Ugandan, 34, Intelligence, military)

Other participants mentioned women’s skills and attributes in these ways.

Our women can shoot weapons. On the range, women get 40 out of 40 good shots. Some

men were getting 5 out of 40.

(#27, female, lieutenant colonel, Liberian, 39, Personnel, military)

In Somalia for example, they prefer women to treat women, so we should be there.

(#18, female, captain, Ugandan, 38, Nurse, military)

Women support the spouses of AFL men. We helped keep families together. We

encourage the wives. We inform them and how to clean uniforms and how to support

their military families. We are like mothers and sisters.

(#25, female, lieutenant junior grade, Liberian, 39, Logistics, military)

We spoke with African men (civilian and military) about women’s value in the military. Men

maintained women are important members in the military. In Liberia, men acknowledged

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women’s ability to accurately shoot weapons. Others talked positively about the way women

encourage others, and their ability to nurture others. Male service members mentioned that

women motive men in the military. The source of the motivation is women’s’ performance.

Men are motivated to run faster than women, shoot better than women, and outperform them

because losing to a woman brings shame.

Nearly all noted the general importance of having gender balance in the military. A Ugandan

male’s comments are indicative of most male interviewees’ points of view concerning why

women should be included in the military and their place in the service.

The military is a family and it must be gender balanced. There is a role to be played by

different sexes. It is said by philosophers, every successful man must be supported by a

woman.

(#5, male, major, Ugandan, 36, Civil Military, military)

Stigma

Participants acknowledged that not everyone views including women in the military positively.

Many talked about stigma and civilian stereotypes attached to women’s roles while others noted

perceptual and service-related issues that negatively impact women’s relationships.

The following comments are indicative of major points made during discussions on the topic of

civilian stereotypes about women in the military.

Some think we are cooks and wives


The perceptions used to be bad but now things have changed for women. They used to

say we are harsh.

(#10, female, sergeant, Ugandan, 34, Personnel, military)

Before like 1985 or so there was only one woman. Women in the military were seen as

social outcasts and the culture didn’t support women being in the military but it has

changed a bit.

(#21, female, lieutenant, Ugandan, 32, Intelligence, military)

During one discussion group, participants talked about shyness or behaving in a restrained

manner. Both characteristics are often attributed to girls and young women. Participants

exchanged an array of opinions on this topic.

Yes, some women are perceived to be shy but nervousness may be taken as shyness.

(#14, female, captain, Ugandan, 37, Medical Services, military)

At my age, I want to know who could say that I am shy (she laughs).

#18, Female, captain, Ugandan, 38, Nurse, military)

UNCLASSIFIED

21

Yes, it can exist but knowledge and exposure conquer shyness. I don’t think there is a

shyness problem in the military. Men just use shyness as an excuse to step on women!

(#20, female, captain, Ugandan, 35, Inspectorate, military)

Sacrifices

Participants discussed positive and negative experiences related to women’s military experience.

Women participants described how military service impacts their ability to marry and maintain

relationships.

It’s hard to get married. The best thing is to marry someone already in the military. He

will understand you.

(#8, female, captain, Ugandan, 45, Medical Logistics, military)

Yes, if you get assigned to patrol in the bush, a civilian man will never let you do it. A

military man will be okay and he can come visit you, but the civilian will not travel to the

bush.

(#14, Female, captain, Ugandan, 37, Chief of Medical Services, military)

I wanted to be in the military since childhood, but the man I was with wanted me to leave

everything for him. He said the choice is yours. I had to break things off with him.

(#23, female, captain, Liberian, 39, Communication Officer, military)

A few mentioned how military service impacts their children.

Women in an operation assignment may be in the bush for 6 months. They don’t see their

children but women working at a headquarters or command are okay.

(#14, female, captain, Ugandan, 37, Chief of Medical Services, military)

Another commented,

I basically left my son at birth and went into the military. My son is actually closer to his

father than me. Being away from the kids can get so frustrating. You look at how the kids

are growing up, and there isn’t much you can do. In Liberia it is tough for us because in

our culture women are expected to cook, do laundry, and care for your children, even

when you work.

(#26, female, first lieutenant Liberian,32, Medical Officer, military)

UNCLASSIFIED

22

Women Peace and Security:

Participants were aware of efforts to include women in their militaries, yet they did not always

talk explicitly about UNSCR 1325, WPS, and the ideals associated with these efforts.

One participant said,

I was never involved with WPS issues before, but I heard about it on the news.


Another commenting on her experience with WPS issues noted,

When we had a monitoring group, we talked about helping women, but we are just saying

the words. After 2 or 3 months we cannot see anything new happening.


Participants had varied interpretations of interventions consistent with WPS ideals and words

were disconnected from their experiences or ineffective.

Women’s empowerment is just a scheme. Others are profiting from it but really they

aren’t empowering anybody! It is just a word used in Liberia, and our ears are getting

tired of it!

(#24, female, captain, Liberian, 46, Human Resources, military)

A Ugandan participant talking about the often-used term empowerment offered,

Empowerment means supporting backing and equipping women with the skills. Anyway,

it is not my term; it is a global term so I do not dispute its use.

(#11, female, LCPN, Ugandan, 28, Director of Women’s Affairs, military)

UNCLASSIFIED

23

Conclusions

This snapshot from the perspective of everyday women in militaries in Uganda and Liberia

describes, in qualitative terms, the challenges and opportunities women face while serving in the

military. The findings validate some of what we suspect or know about women’s opportunities

for career growth and address some of these concepts in more detail. Concluding points follow:

Participants have diverse and primarily pragmatic motives for joining the military. The

women in this study become frustrated because they are not advancing in their respective

careers. Many aspire to work and advance in a merit-based system despite the reality that

corruption is prevalent and widespread in both countries.

Training and opportunity were common points of frustration for these participants.

Gender disparities in the civilian education system are larger issues that fuel excluding

women and limit their abilities to adequately compete in Liberia and Uganda. The ways

the military overlooks women likely mirror what happens in the civilian sector. Subtle

and systemic mechanisms for exclusions mentioned in this study offer details about how

to confront these attitudes and behaviors.

WPS ideals often highlight women’s inclusion and empowerment. Participants in this

study expressed they are capable and gave examples of their agency and personal power.

When asked what they wanted, they opted for assistance brokering accountability and

opportunities to advance. These participants are not experiencing a crisis of confidence

but rather a crisis of opportunity to compete. Efforts to support these women can easily

dovetail on their momentum.

UNCLASSIFIED

24

Recommendations

Uganda and Liberia have approached the challenge of inclusion in their respective militaries.

Each has a varied context and history that define and shape its problems and solutions. More

baseline research can further focus efforts to support WPS objectives in more countries. Baseline

research could consider broad contextual data to include the approximate number of women in

each military, their roles (historic and current), and identifying key women leaders in the

military, where applicable.

The study notes important values and provides descriptive information about two countries. The

summaries should be shared with the U.S. Embassy and the host nation militaries. U.S. Africa

Command assessments can be developed to include NAP benchmarks and objectives that

demonstrate progress informed by similar data.

This study demonstrates the need to assess whether efforts and messages align with target

audiences. This study includes the perspective of women who serve; most have never had the

opportunity to talk about their needs or to consider WPS issues. Future assessments and

engagement should continue to seek new and diverse perspectives on what women need to

succeed in their militaries. The source of feedback on WPS needs to consistently move beyond

women or others selected to attend conferences and workshops and those who are considered

experts, to include everyday women from a range of ranks and occupations.

Finally, primary researchers engaging women in African militaries should be cognizant of their

frustration and expectations. Many women want support and some are skeptical about the value

of talking about women issues and research. Many women want action.

UNCLASSIFIED

25

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Appendix I: Researchers

Dr. Selam Alemayo was a team lead for the Sociocultural Research Advisory Team (SCRAT) at

CJTF-HOA, in Djibouti City, Djibouti. She brought regional experience to CJTF-HOA

operational decisions and planning processes by supporting relationship building with partner

nation militaries, formal and informal leaders, and mitigating misunderstandings between various

groups.

Prior to joining CJTF-HOA, Dr. Alemayo conducted qualitative field research in Ethiopia on the

Diaspora community living in the United States and worked as a research assistant for The

Institute for The African Child at Ohio University. She speaks Amharic (Ethiopia’s official

language) and Tigrigna (a language spoken in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea’s official

language), and has a working knowledge of Somali.

Dr. Alemayo is an Ethiopian American and holds a Doctor of Philosophy in Cultural Studies in

Education focused on African sociocultural contexts, conflict resolution, understanding

traditional leadership, grassroots educational development, transnational development, diaspora

studies, and gender studies. She holds a Master of Arts in International Affairs (African Studies)

and a Bachelor of Arts in Cultural Anthropology, with a research focus on Anthropological

qualitative research on border conflict and health issues. She also holds a graduate-level Women

Studies Certificate, analyzing gender-related issues, such as sexual gender-based violence,

African women in the military, African feminism, and Western Feminism.

Dr. Liza E. A. Briggs is a social scientist at U.S. Africa Command J2 based in Stuttgart,

Germany. Her research, training, and field experiences in Africa span 20 years. Dr. Briggs lived

and worked in Gabon, Central Africa, and has had substantive on the ground work experience in

more than 20 countries on the African continent.

Prior to joining U.S. Africa Command J2, Dr. Briggs managed and conducted media and

communication field research in Africa as a senior research manager at ICF Macro based in

Calverton, Maryland. As the academic operations coordinator at the Africa Center for Strategic

Studies (ACSS) based at the National Defense University (NDU) in Washington, D.C., Dr.

Briggs managed planning, staffing, and assessing strategic engagements between U.S. and

African militaries.

Dr. Briggs holds a Bachelor of Science degree in Psychology from James Madison University, a

Master of Arts degree in Education from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, and

a Doctor of Philosophy in International Education Policy Studies from the University of

Maryland—College Park. She has extensive methods training in applied anthropology. Her

current research focuses on applying postdevelopment theory in military settings, security

engagement in Africa, and women in African militaries. She is a native English speaker and is

proficient in French.

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Appendix II: Methodology

The choice of sources and the methods are consistent with an interest in capturing data that

reveal deeper understandings and narrative information to allow the reader to interpret

participants’ meanings rather than to validate facts about the topic. This approach is consistent

with tenants from applied qualitative descriptive approaches. The researchers collected data for

this qualitative study from a variety of sources to include a review of relevant literature,

informational interviews, and semi structured interviews.

Literature Review

The study includes a review of relevant publications, drawn from open source materials such

as journal articles, news reports, policy documents, conference and workshop highlights, and

past research. The review of the literature indicates there are few published studies focusing

on qualitative comments drawn from African military personnel perspectives. Most published

studies and data on this topic privilege the point of view of stakeholders who hold relative

positions of authority in their respective organizations (i.e. Field grade officers, Ministry level

personnel, select conference attendees, guest speakers).

After fieldwork and during the draft report preparation, the report author reviewed literature,

including recently published papers as well as readings covering topics and issues that arose

during the data collection phase of the study, for example, recent articles on alleged conduct of

UPDF personnel supporting AMISOM.

Informational Interviews

Prior to and during the fieldwork phase of the study, the researchers conducted approximately

13 informal discussions with U.S. military and civilian personnel, U.S. Embassy personnel, a

South African academic, a Liberian Senior military officer, and a civilian employee. All but 2

informational interviews were conducted in person. Each interview lasted between 40 minutes

to 2 hours in duration.

Interviewee lists were developed through referrals from members of the WPS working group

and grew through referrals from interviewees. These informal meetings provided context and

background for the study and subsequent themes. For example, after completing a few

informational interviews there was enough data to compare civilian stereotypes with military

women’s’ view of stereotypes about them. This study highlights the point of view of women

in African militaries but contextual data help triangulate participants’ perspectives.

Semi structured Interviews

Researchers interviewed 68 participants in two counties. Interviews were 1.5 hours to 2 hour

long in duration and included approximately 7-9 people per session.

U.S. embassy personnel contacted host nation representatives, shared the study objectives and

screening criteria for the study. Embassy personnel arranged the location and time for the

interviews and assisted with logistics (lodging, approvals) related to the Researchers’ visits.

The researchers requested interviews based on the following preferences:

1. Three groups of women (7 per group for a total of 21 women, if possible). We prefer

UNCLASSIFIED

30

similar ranks in each group. If possible one group can be comprised of enlisted, one

with officers and one with civilians or males. Males that have contributions are

welcome. Researchers seek military representatives recruited from diverse districts and

from a variety of military job specialties and roles (Nurses, teachers, logisticians,

motorized infantry, AMISOM or other peacekeeping participants).

2. We would also like to meet with maybe 3-4 personnel separately for a more in depth

discussion of the research questions. We want to hear personal stories and anecdotes

and the groups will be too large for that type of interaction.

3. U.S. personnel with insights about working with African military and women in the

military would be good as well.

Internal Review Board

Prior to interviewing participants, the study methods were reviewed and vetted by a U.S.

Africa Command Knowledge Development (KD) Board comprised of representatives from

each U.S. Africa Command directorate. The study was also approved by an internal review

process to determine the soundness of the study and to scrutinize and vet the measures to

protect human subjects, per DOD regulation and guidelines.

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Appendix III: Participant Demographics

1 Female N/A AMERICAN UNKNOWN US AFRICOM CIVILIAN

2 Male Lt Col AMERICAN UNKNOWN US AFRICOM MILITARY

3 Female Col AMERICAN UNKNOWN AMERICANRAF MILITARY

4 Female N/A SOUTH AFRICAN UNKNOWN ACADEMIC CIVILIAN

5 Male Maj UGANDAN 36 CIVIL MILITARY AFFAIRS MILITARY

6 Female Lt Col UGANDAN 42 MEDICAL MILITARY

7 Female Capt UGANDAN 45 PROTOCOL MILITARY

8 Female Lt UGANDAN 24 PERSONNEL & ADMINISTRATION MILITARY

9 Female 2nd Lt UGANDAN 25 PERSONNEL & ADMINISTRATION MILITARY

10 Female SGT UGANDAN 34 PERSONNEL & ADMINISTRATION MILITARY

11 Female Lt CPL UGANDAN 28 DIRECTOR OF WOMENS AFFAIRS MILITARY

12 Male Capt UGANDAN 34 MILITARY INTELLIGENCE MILITARY

13 Female Capt UGANDAN 35 PENSION MILITARY

14 Female Capt UGANDAN 37 MEDICAL SERVICES MILITARY

15 Female Capt UGANDAN 35 LOGISTICS AND ENGINEERING MILITARY

16 Female Capt UGANDAN 32 LEGAL MILITARY

17 Female SGT UGANDAN 37 MEDICAL SERVICES MILITARY

18 Female CCapt UGANDAN 38 LAND FORCES NURSE MILITARY

19 Female Lt UGANDAN 28 LEGAL (AIR FORCE) MILITARY

20 Female Capt UGANDAN 35 INSPECTORATE MILITARY

21 Female Lt UGANDAN 32 MIILITARY INTELLIGENCE MILITARY

22 Male Col AMERICAN UNKNOWN USEMBASSY UGANDA MILITARY

23 Female Capt LIBERIAN 39 COMMUNICATION MILITARY

24 Female Capt LIBERIAN 46 HUMAN RESOURCES MILITARY

25 Female Ltjg? LIBERIAN 39 LOGISTICS MILITARY

26 Female Lt LIBERIAN 32 MEDICAL MILITARY

27 Female Lt Col LIBERIAN 39 PERSONNEL MILITARY

28 Female N/A LIBERIAN UNKNOWN MINISTRY OF DEFENSE CIVILIAN

29 Male Brig Gen LIBERIAN UNKNOWN SENIOR MILITARY OFFICIAL MILITARY

30 Male Col AMERICAN UNKNOWN USEMBASSY MONROVIA MILITARY

31 Female N/A AMERICAN UNKNOWN USEMBASSY MONROVIA CIVILIAN

UNCLASSIFIED

32

32 Female N/A AMERICAN UNKNOWN USEMBASSY MONROVIA CIVILIAN

33 Female Maj AMERICAN UNKNOWN USEMBASSY MONROVIA MILITARY

34 Female CPL LIBERIAN 30 COMMUNICATION MILITARY

35 Female SGT LIBERIAN 42 MEDIC MILITARY

36 Female CPL LIBERIAN 36 TRANSPORTATION MILITARY

37 Female CPL LIBERIAN 30 SUPPLY MILITARY

38 Female 1SG LIBERIAN 36 HUMAN RESOURCES SPECIALIST MILITARY

39 Female SSgt LIBERIAN 31 TRANSPORTATION MILITARY

40 Female 1SG LIBERIAN 33 COMMUNICATIONS SPECIALIST MILITARY

41 Female SSgt LIBERIAN 35 MEDIC/MIDWIFE MILITARY

42 Female CPL LIBERIAN 40 COMMUNICATIONS SPECIALIST/INFORMATION TECH MILITARY

43 Female PFC LIBERIAN 38 TRANSPORTATION MILITARY

44 Female CPL LIBERIAN 31 TRANSPORTATION MILITARY


46 Female PFC LIBERIAN 35 SUPPLY MILITARY




50 Male SGT LIBERIAN 38 CHAPLAIN MILITARY

51 Male SGT LIBERIAN 38 PUBLIC AFFAIRS MILITARY

52 Male PFC LIBERIAN 28 LEGAL MILITARY

53 Male CPL LIBERIAN 46 PUBLIC AFFAIRS MILITARY

54 Male PFC LIBERIAN 30 SIGNAL MILITARY

55 Male CPL LIBERIAN 34 HUMAN RESOURCES MILITARY

56 Female PVT LIBERIAN 27 TRANSPORTATION MILITARY


58 Female PVT LIBERIAN 31 MECHANIC MILITARY

59 Female PVT LIBERIAN 27 SUPPLY MILITARY


61 Female PVT LIBERIAN 26 MEDIC MILITARY


63 Female PVT LIBERIAN 24 TRAINING—DRILL SARGEANT MILITARY

64 Female PVT LIBERIAN 29 MUSICIAN MILITARY



67 Female PVT LIBERIAN 27 MEDICAL MILITARY


UNCLASSIFIED

33

PINK highlighted entries denote participants who offered context but are not referenced in the study using direct quotes because they

were not interviewed per the tenants of informed consent.


70 Female PVT LIBERIAN 25 COAST GUARD MILITARY

71 Female PVT LIBERIAN 27 COAST GUARD MILITARY

72 Female PVT LIBERIAN 28 ENGINEER MILITARY

73 Female PVT LIBERIAN 28 SUPLPY MILITARY

74 Male PVT LIBERIAN UNKNOWN UNKNOWN MILITARY






80 Female N/A AMERICAN UNKNOWN U.S. AFRICA COMMAND SENIOR OFFICIAL CIVILIAN

81 Female N/A AMERICAN UNKNOWN U.S. AFRICA COMMAND (RETIRED MILITARY) CIVILIAN

Challenges and Opportunities in our Militaries: African Military Women’s Perspectives

Documents