Ch12 Portable Final

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Chapter 12: Chapter 12: Personality Theory and Personality Theory and AssessmentAssessment

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Chapter 12 OverviewChapter 12 Overview

Psychoanalytic TheoriesPsychoanalytic Theories Humanistic TheoriesHumanistic Theories Trait TheoriesTrait Theories Social-Cognitive TheoriesSocial-Cognitive Theories Nature, Nurture, and PersonalityNature, Nurture, and Personality Personality AssessmentPersonality Assessment


Psychoanalytic Theories

Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis is Freud’s theory of is Freud’s theory of personality and his therapy for treating personality and his therapy for treating psychological disorders; focuses on psychological disorders; focuses on unconscious processesunconscious processes

PersonalityPersonality is a person’s is a person’s characteristic pattern of behaving, characteristic pattern of behaving, thinking, and feelingthinking, and feeling


The Levels of Consciousness

The The consciousconscious– All thoughts, feelings, memories of which we All thoughts, feelings, memories of which we

are aware at a given momentare aware at a given moment The The preconsciouspreconscious

– Thoughts, feelings, memories that we are not Thoughts, feelings, memories that we are not consciously aware of but can easily bring to consciously aware of but can easily bring to mindmind

The The unconsciousunconscious– The primary motivating force of human The primary motivating force of human

behaviorbehavior– Contains repressed memories and instincts, Contains repressed memories and instincts,

wishes, and desires that have never been wishes, and desires that have never been consciousconscious


The Structure of Personality

IdId– Contains life and death instinctsContains life and death instincts– Operates according to the Operates according to the pleasure principlepleasure principle

EgoEgo– The logical, rational part of personalityThe logical, rational part of personality– Operates according to the Operates according to the reality principlereality principle

SuperegoSuperego– The moral system of the personalityThe moral system of the personality– Consists of the Consists of the conscienceconscience and the and the ego idealego ideal


Figure 12.1 Freud’s Conception of Personality


Defense MechanismsDefense Mechanisms

The ego uses The ego uses defense mechanismsdefense mechanisms to to maintain self-esteem and protect itself from maintain self-esteem and protect itself from anxiety created by conflict between the id anxiety created by conflict between the id and superegoand superego– The id’s demands for pleasure often conflict The id’s demands for pleasure often conflict

with the superego’s desires for moral perfectionwith the superego’s desires for moral perfection e.g., ego protects itself from unacceptable e.g., ego protects itself from unacceptable

thoughts and memories through thoughts and memories through repressionrepression– Removing painful thoughts, memories, desires Removing painful thoughts, memories, desires

from consciousness and keeping them in the from consciousness and keeping them in the unconsciousunconscious


The Psychosexual Stages of The Psychosexual Stages of DevelopmentDevelopment

According to Freud, the sex instinct is According to Freud, the sex instinct is the most important factor influencing the most important factor influencing personalitypersonality

It is present at birth, and then develops It is present at birth, and then develops through a series of through a series of psychosexual psychosexual stagesstages– Each stage involves an Each stage involves an erogenous zoneerogenous zone

and a conflictand a conflict– If the conflict is not resolved, the child If the conflict is not resolved, the child

develops a develops a fixationfixation, and a portion of the , and a portion of the libidolibido remains invested at that stage remains invested at that stage


Evaluating Freud’s ContributionEvaluating Freud’s Contribution

Oral stageOral stage:: Birth to 1 year Birth to 1 year– Conflict: WeaningConflict: Weaning– Fixation can lead to dependency and Fixation can lead to dependency and

passivity or sarcasm and hostilitypassivity or sarcasm and hostility Anal stageAnal stage:: 1 to 3 years 1 to 3 years

– Conflict: Toilet trainingConflict: Toilet training– Fixation can lead to excessive cleanliness Fixation can lead to excessive cleanliness

and stinginess or messiness and and stinginess or messiness and rebelliousnessrebelliousness


Evaluating Freud’s Contribution Evaluating Freud’s Contribution cont…cont…

Phallic stagePhallic stage:: 3 to 5 or 6 years 3 to 5 or 6 years– Conflict: Conflict: Oedipus complexOedipus complex– Fixation can lead to flirtatiousness and Fixation can lead to flirtatiousness and

promiscuity or excessive pride and promiscuity or excessive pride and chastitychastity

LatencyLatency:: 5 or 6 years to puberty 5 or 6 years to puberty– Period of sexual calmPeriod of sexual calm

Genital stageGenital stage:: Puberty on Puberty on– Revival of sexual interestsRevival of sexual interests


Evaluating Freud’s Contribution cont…

Freud is credited with making important Freud is credited with making important contributions to psychologycontributions to psychology– Recognizing the importance of childhood Recognizing the importance of childhood

experiences in shaping personalityexperiences in shaping personality– Identifying the role of defense mechanismsIdentifying the role of defense mechanisms– Calling attention to the unconsciousCalling attention to the unconscious

But critics argue that But critics argue that – People do not typically repress painful People do not typically repress painful

memoriesmemories– Dreams do not have symbolic meaningDreams do not have symbolic meaning– Freud’s ideas are difficult to test scientificallyFreud’s ideas are difficult to test scientifically


The Neo-Freudians

Several theorists built on the strengths Several theorists built on the strengths of Freud’s theory, and tried to avoid its of Freud’s theory, and tried to avoid its weaknessesweaknesses

They are called the They are called the neo-Freudiansneo-Freudians– Carl Jung (1875-1961)Carl Jung (1875-1961)– Alfred Adler (1870-1937)Alfred Adler (1870-1937)– Karen Horney (1885-1952)Karen Horney (1885-1952)


The Neo-Freudians cont…

Jung’s theory, the personality has , the personality has three partsthree parts

EgoEgo Personal unconsciousPersonal unconscious Collective unconsciousCollective unconscious Jung rejected Freud’s ideas Jung rejected Freud’s ideas

– that the sexual instinct is the most important that the sexual instinct is the most important determinant of personality determinant of personality

– that personality is mostly formed in that personality is mostly formed in childhoodchildhood


Figure 12.2 Jung’s Conception of Personality



Adler’s theoryAdler’s theory The predominant force of the The predominant force of the

personality is not sexual in naturepersonality is not sexual in nature The drive to overcome feelings of The drive to overcome feelings of

inferiority motivates most human inferiority motivates most human behaviorbehavior

When feelings of inferiority prevent When feelings of inferiority prevent personal development, they constitute personal development, they constitute an an inferiority complexinferiority complex



Karen Horney Karen Horney believed that Freud believed that Freud overemphasized the role of sexual overemphasized the role of sexual instinctinstinct

Rejected his psychosexual stages – Rejected his psychosexual stages – ideas such as the Oedipus complex and ideas such as the Oedipus complex and penis envypenis envy

Women’s psychological difficulties arise Women’s psychological difficulties arise from failure to live up to idealized from failure to live up to idealized versions of themselvesversions of themselves

Women and men must overcome Women and men must overcome irrational beliefs about the need for irrational beliefs about the need for perfectionperfection

Modern cognitive-behavioral therapyModern cognitive-behavioral therapy


Humanistic Theories

In In humanistic psychology, humanistic psychology, people people are assumed to have a natural are assumed to have a natural tendency toward growth and the tendency toward growth and the realization of their fullest potentialrealization of their fullest potential

These theories are more optimistic These theories are more optimistic about human nature than Freud’s about human nature than Freud’s theorytheory

But, like Freud’s theory, humanistic But, like Freud’s theory, humanistic theories are difficult to test theories are difficult to test scientificallyscientifically


Maslow and Self-Actualizations

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) proposed Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) proposed a a hierarchy of needshierarchy of needs that motivates that motivates human behaviorhuman behavior

The highest need is The highest need is self-actualizationself-actualization Self actualizersSelf actualizers

– Accurately perceive reality and quickly spot Accurately perceive reality and quickly spot dishonestydishonesty

– Tend not to depend on external authority, Tend not to depend on external authority, but are internally driven, autonomous, and but are internally driven, autonomous, and independentindependent

– Frequently have Frequently have peak experiencespeak experiences


Rogers and Conditions of Worth

According to Carl Rogers (1902-1987), According to Carl Rogers (1902-1987), our parents set up our parents set up conditions of worthconditions of worth– Conditions on which their positive regard Conditions on which their positive regard

dependsdepends These conditions force us to live These conditions force us to live

according to someone else’s valuesaccording to someone else’s values A goal of A goal of person-centered therapyperson-centered therapy is to is to

enable people to live by their own valuesenable people to live by their own values– NOT live by the values of others to gain NOT live by the values of others to gain

positive regardpositive regard– Unconditional positive regardUnconditional positive regard


Trait TheoriesTrait Theories

Attempts to explain personality Attempts to explain personality and differences among people in and differences among people in terms of personal characteristics terms of personal characteristics that are stable across situationsthat are stable across situations


Early Trait Theories

Allport (1897-1967) proposed two Allport (1897-1967) proposed two kinds of traitskinds of traits– Cardinal traitsCardinal traits– Central traitsCentral traits

Cattell’s(1950) theoryCattell’s(1950) theory– Surface traitsSurface traits are the observable are the observable

qualities of personalityqualities of personality– Source traitsSource traits underlie surface underlie surface

traits, and cause certain surface traits, and cause certain surface traits to cluster togethertraits to cluster together

– Cattell identified 23 source traitsCattell identified 23 source traits


Figure 12.3 The 16PF Personality Profile


Early Trait Theories cont…

Eysenck (1916-1997) : Three Eysenck (1916-1997) : Three Personality FactorsPersonality Factors– Psychoticism an individual’s link to

reality– Extraversion a dimension ranging

from outgoing to shy outgoing to shy – Neuroticism a dimension of

emotional stability, from stable to anxious and irritable

Rooted in neurological functioningRooted in neurological functioning Supported by modern brain-imaging Supported by modern brain-imaging

studiesstudies


The Five-Factor Model

A trait theory that attempts to explain A trait theory that attempts to explain personality using five broad personality using five broad dimensions, each of which is dimensions, each of which is composed of a constellation of composed of a constellation of personality traitspersonality traits– OpennessOpenness– ConscientiousnessConscientiousness– ExtraversionExtraversion– AgreeablenessAgreeableness– NeuroticismNeuroticism


The Five-Factor Model cont…

OpennessOpenness– Open to new experiences, curious, and Open to new experiences, curious, and

broad minded versus having narrow broad minded versus having narrow interests and preferring the familiarinterests and preferring the familiar

ConscientiousnessConscientiousness– Reliable, orderly, and industrious versus Reliable, orderly, and industrious versus

undependable and lazyundependable and lazy ExtraversionExtraversion

– Outgoing with a preference to be around Outgoing with a preference to be around other people versus shy with a preference other people versus shy with a preference to be aloneto be alone


The Five-Factor Model cont…

AgreeablenessAgreeableness– Easygoing and friendly versus unfriendly Easygoing and friendly versus unfriendly

and coldand cold NeuroticismNeuroticism

– Pessimistic and irritable versus optimistic Pessimistic and irritable versus optimistic and able to take things in strideand able to take things in stride


Social-Cognitive TheoriesSocial-Cognitive Theories

The view that personality can be The view that personality can be defined as a collection of learned defined as a collection of learned behaviors acquired through social behaviors acquired through social interactionsinteractions


The Situation versus Trait The Situation versus Trait DebateDebate

An ongoing discussion among theorists An ongoing discussion among theorists about the relative influence of traits and about the relative influence of traits and situations on personalitysituations on personality

Walter Mischel (1968) proposed that Walter Mischel (1968) proposed that situations dictate personality more than situations dictate personality more than traitstraits

Research suggests that traits are generally Research suggests that traits are generally stable over time and across situationsstable over time and across situations– Although situations can modify personality Although situations can modify personality

traitstraits


Bandura’s Reciprocal Bandura’s Reciprocal DeterminismDeterminism

Bandura proposed that internal, Bandura proposed that internal, environmental, and behavioral variables environmental, and behavioral variables interact to influence personalityinteract to influence personality

An important cognitive factor in An important cognitive factor in Bandura’s theory is Bandura’s theory is self-efficacyself-efficacy– A person’s perception of his or her ability to A person’s perception of his or her ability to

perform competently whatever is attemptedperform competently whatever is attempted


Figure 12.4 Bandura’s Reciprocal Figure 12.4 Bandura’s Reciprocal DeterminismDeterminism


Rotter’s Locus of Control

Julian Rotter proposed a personality Julian Rotter proposed a personality factor called factor called locus of controllocus of control

People with an People with an internal locus of internal locus of control control see themselves as primarily in see themselves as primarily in control of their behavior and its control of their behavior and its consequencesconsequences

People with an People with an external locus of external locus of control control perceive that what happens to erceive that what happens to them is in the hands of fate, luck, or them is in the hands of fate, luck, or chancechance


Nature, Nurture, and Personality

Although all psychologists agree Although all psychologists agree that our genes play at least some that our genes play at least some roles in personality, most also roles in personality, most also acknowledge that environmental acknowledge that environmental factors influence how our traits factors influence how our traits change over timechange over time


Twin and Adoption Studies

Identical twins are similar on several Identical twins are similar on several personality dimensionspersonality dimensions– Whether raised together or apartWhether raised together or apart

Adoption studies indicate that shared Adoption studies indicate that shared family environment has little influence family environment has little influence on personality developmenton personality development

These findings show that heredity These findings show that heredity strongly influences personalitystrongly influences personality


Figure 12.5 Estimated Influence of Heredity and Environment on the Big Five Personality Dimensions


Personality and Culture

Advocates of the five-factor model Advocates of the five-factor model assert that the factors are universalassert that the factors are universal

But other theorists argue that cultures But other theorists argue that cultures differ in differ in individualism/collectivismindividualism/collectivism, a , a dimension of personalitydimension of personality– In In individualist culturesindividualist cultures more emphasis is more emphasis is

placed on independence and individual placed on independence and individual achievementachievement

– In In collectivist culturescollectivist cultures, people emphasize , people emphasize social connectedness and tend to define social connectedness and tend to define themselves in terms of group membershipthemselves in terms of group membership


Personality Assessment

Personality assessment is Personality assessment is commonly used in business and commonly used in business and industry to aid in hiring decisionsindustry to aid in hiring decisions

Clinical psychologists, Clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, and counselors use psychiatrists, and counselors use various ways of measuring various ways of measuring personality in the diagnosis of personality in the diagnosis of patients and in the assessment of patients and in the assessment of progress in therapyprogress in therapy


Observation, Interviews, and Rating Scales

Assessment methods includeAssessment methods include– Behavioral assessmentBehavioral assessment

In which behavior is observed and In which behavior is observed and recordedrecorded

– Structured interviewsStructured interviews In which an interview follows a In which an interview follows a

prescribed procedureprescribed procedure Rating scalesRating scales provide a standardized provide a standardized

format for recording behaviors or format for recording behaviors or interview responsesinterview responses


Personality Inventories

An An inventory inventory is a paper and pencil is a paper and pencil test with questions about a person’s test with questions about a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviorsthoughts, feelings, and behaviors

Scored according to a standard Scored according to a standard procedureprocedure

Used to measure several dimensions Used to measure several dimensions of personalityof personality


Personality Inventories cont…

The The Minnesota Multiphasic Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory Personality Inventory ((MMPI-2) MMPI-2) is is the most widely used personality the most widely used personality inventoryinventory

Used to screen for and diagnose Used to screen for and diagnose psychiatric problems and disorderspsychiatric problems and disorders

Includes 550 items that differentiate Includes 550 items that differentiate specific groups of psychiatric patients specific groups of psychiatric patients from people considered to be normalfrom people considered to be normal– Also includes validity scales, such as a Also includes validity scales, such as a

social desirabilitysocial desirability scale scale


Personality Inventories cont…

California Personality Inventory (CPI)California Personality Inventory (CPI)– Developed to assess personality in normal Developed to assess personality in normal

individualsindividuals– Is useful for predicting school achievement, Is useful for predicting school achievement,

leadership and executive success, and leadership and executive success, and effectiveness of police and military personneleffectiveness of police and military personnel

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)– Based on Jung’s theory of personalityBased on Jung’s theory of personality– Measures normal individual differences on Measures normal individual differences on

four personality dimensionsfour personality dimensions


Projective Tests

A A projective test projective test is a personality test is a personality test consisting of inkblots, drawings of consisting of inkblots, drawings of ambiguous human situations, or ambiguous human situations, or incomplete sentences for which there incomplete sentences for which there are no correct or incorrect responsesare no correct or incorrect responses

People respond by People respond by projectingprojecting their their inner thoughts, feelings, fears, or inner thoughts, feelings, fears, or conflicts onto the test materialsconflicts onto the test materials


Projective Tests cont…

In the In the Rorschach Inkblot Method Rorschach Inkblot Method the the test taker is asked to describe 10 inkblotstest taker is asked to describe 10 inkblots

According to Rorschach, responses can According to Rorschach, responses can be used to diagnose disordersbe used to diagnose disorders

Critics argue that results are too Critics argue that results are too dependent on the judgment of the dependent on the judgment of the examinerexaminer

In response, Exner (1993) developed the In response, Exner (1993) developed the Comprehensive SystemComprehensive System for scoring for scoring


Figure 12.6 An Inkblot Similar to One Used for the Rorschach Inkblot Method


Projective Tests cont…

The The Thematic Apperception Test Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) (TAT) was developed by Henry Murraywas developed by Henry Murray

Test taker describes a series of drawings of Test taker describes a series of drawings of ambiguous human situationsambiguous human situations

Descriptions are thought to reveal inner Descriptions are thought to reveal inner feelings, conflicts, and motivesfeelings, conflicts, and motives

Critics argue that It relies too heavily on interpretation of the

examiner Responses may reflect temporary states and

may not indicate more permanent aspects of personality

Ch12 Portable Final

Technology

personality theory

strengths of freuds

structure of personality

freuds contribution

freuds contribution

years conflict

year conflict

symbolic meaning freuds