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FIGURE 10.1 Basic structure of some polymer molecules: (a) ethylene molecule; (b) polyethylene, a linear chain of many ethylene molecules; (c) molecular structure of various polymers. These molecules are examples of the basic building blocks for plastics.
FIGURE 10.3 Schematic illustration of polymer chains. (a) Linear structure; thermoplastics such as acrylics, nylons, polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride have linear structures. (b) Branched structure, such as polyethylene. (c) Cross-linked structure; many rubbers and elastomers have this structure. Vulcanization of rubber produces this structure. (d) Network structure, which is basically highly cross-linked; examples include thermosetting plastics such as epoxies and phenolics.
FIGURE 10.4 Behavior of polymers as a function of temperature and (a) degree of crystallinity and (b) cross-linking. The combined elastic and viscous behavior of polymers is known as viscoelasticity.
FIGURE 10.5 Amorphous and crystalline regions in a polymer. Note that the crystalline region (crystallite) has an orderly arrangement of molecules. The higher the crystallinity, the harder, stiffer, and less ductile is the polymer.
FIGURE 10.6 Specific volume of polymers as a function of temperature. Amorphous polymers, such as acrylic and polycarbonate, have a glass-transition temperature, Tg, but do not have a specific melting point, Tm. Partly crystalline polymers, such as polyethylene and nylons, contract sharply at their melting points during cooling.
FIGURE 10.7 Various deformation modes for polymers.: (a) elastic; (b) viscous; (c) viscoelastic (Maxwell model); and (d) viscoelastic (Voigt or Kelvin model). In all cases, an instantaneously applied load occurs at time to, resulting in the strain paths shown.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Str
ain
Time
t0 t1
Increasing viscosityS
tra
in
Time
t0 t1
Recoveredstrain
Str
ain
Time
t0 t1
Str
ain
Time
t0 t1
Recovered strain
FIGURE 10.8 General terminology describing the behavior of three types of plastics. PTFE is polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon, a trade name). Source: After R.L.E. Brown.
FIGURE 10.9 Effect of temperature on the stress-strain curve for cellulose acetate, a thermoplastic. Note the large drop in strength and increase in ductility with a relatively small increase in temperature. Source: After T.S. Carswell and H.K. Nason.
00 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70225°C
25°
50°
65°
80°
0°10
8
6
4
2
5 10 15 20 25 30
Str
ess (
psi x 1
03)
MP
aStrain (%)
FIGURE 10.10 Effect of temperature on the impact strength of various plastics. Note that small changes in temperature can have a significant effect on impact strength. Source: P.C. Powell.
FIGURE 10.13 (a) Load-elongation curve for polycarbonate, a thermoplastic. Source: After R.P. Kambour and R.E. Robertson. (b) High-density polyethylene tension-test specimen, showing uniform elongation (the long, narrow region in the specimen).
(a) (b)
0 25 50 75 100 125
mm
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
(psi x
10
3)
100
80
60
40
20
0
Str
ess (
MP
a)
0 1 2 3 4 5
Elongation (in.)
Molecules arebeing oriented
FIGURE 10.14 Typical load-elongation curve for elastomers. The area within the clockwise loop, indicating loading and unloading paths, is the hysteresis loss. Hysteresis gives rubbers the capacity to dissipate energy, damp vibration, and absorb shock loading, as in automobile tires and v i b r a t ion dampener s fo r machinery.
FIGURE 10.15 Schematic illustration of types of reinforcing plastics. (a) Matrix with particles; (b) matrix with short or long fibers or flakes; (c) continuous fibers; and (d) and (e) laminate or sandwich composite structures using a foam or honeycomb core (see also Fig. 7.48 on making of honeycombs).
FIGURE 10.16 Specific tensile strength (ratio of tensile strength-to-density) and specific tensile modulus (ratio of modulus of elasticity-to-density) for various fibers used in reinforced plastics. Note the wide range of specific strength and stiffness available.
Nextel312 1630 135 2700 High610 2770 328 3960 High
Spectra900 2270 64 970 High1000 2670 90 970 High
Note: These properties vary significantly, depending on the material and methodof preparation. Strain to failure for these fibers is typically in the range of 1.5% to5.5%.
TABLE 10.4 Typical properties of reinforcing fibers.
Glass High strength, low sti!ness, high density; E (calcium aluminoborosilicate) andS (magnesiaaluminosilicate) types are commonly used; lowest cost.
Graphite Available typically as high modulus or high strength; less dense than glass; lowcost.
Boron High strength and sti!ness; has tungsten filament at its center (coaxial); highestdensity; highest cost.
Aramids (Kevlar) Highest strength-to-weight ratio of all fibers; high cost.Other Nylon, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, boron carbide, boron
nitride, tantalum carbide, steel, tungsten, and molybdenum; see Chapters 3, 8,9, and 10.
MATRIXThermosets Epoxy and polyester, with the former most commonly used; others are pheno-
lics, fluorocarbons, polyethersulfone, silicon, and polyimides.Thermoplastics Polyetheretherketone; tougher than thermosets, but lower resistance to temper-
ature.Metals Aluminum, aluminumlithium alloy, magnesium, and titanium; fibers used are
graphite, aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, and boron.Ceramics Silicon carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, and mullite; fibers used are
various ceramics.
TABLE 10.4 Types and General Characteristics of Reinforced Plastics and Metal-Matrix and Ceramic-Matrix Composites
FIGURE 10.1 The melt spinning process for producing polymer fibers. The fibers are used in a variety of applications, including fabrics and as reinforcements for composite materials.
FIGURE 10.18 (a) Cross-section of a tennis racket, showing graphite and aramid (Kevlar) reinforcing fibers. Source: After J. Dvorak and F. Garrett. (b) Cross-section of boron-fiber-reinforced composite material.
FIGURE 10.19 Effect of the percentage of reinforcing fibers and fiber length on the mechanical properties of reinforced nylon. Note the significant improvement with increasing percentage of fiber reinforcement. Source: Courtesy of Wilson Fiberfill International.
FIGURE 10.20 (a) Fracture surface of glass-fiber-reinforced epoxy composite. The fibers are 10 µm (400 µin.) in diameter and have random orientation. (b) Fracture surface of a graphite-fiber-reinforced epoxy composite. The fibers are 9-11 µm in diameter. Note that the fibers are in bundles and are all aligned in the same direction. Source: Courtesy of L.J. Broutman.
(a) (b)
FIGURE 10.21 Tensile strength of glass-reinforced polyester as a function of fiber content and fiber direction in the matrix. Source: After R.M. Ogorkiewicz.
Plastics ProcessesProcess CharacteristicsExtrusion Long, uniform, solid or hollow, simple or complex cross-sections; wide range
of dimensional tolerances; high production rates; low tooling cost.Injection molding Complex shapes of various sizes and with fine detail; good dimensional
accuracy; high production rates; high tooling cost.Structural foam
moldingLarge parts with high stiffness-to-weight ratio; low production rates; lessexpensive tooling than in injection molding.
Blow molding Hollow thin-walled parts of various sizes; high production rates and lowcost for making beverage and food containers.
Rotational molding Large hollow shapes of relatively simple design; low production rates; lowtooling cost.
Thermoforming Shallow or deep cavities; medium production rates; low tooling costs.Compression molding Parts similar to impression-die forging; medium production rates; relatively
inexpensive tooling.Transfer molding More complex parts than in compression molding, and higher production
rates; some scrap loss; medium tooling cost.Casting Simple or intricate shapes, made with flexible molds; low production rates.Processing of
reinforced plasticsLong cycle times; dimensional tolerances and tooling costs depend on thespecific process.
TABLE 10.6 Characteristics of processing plastics and reinforced plastics.
FIGURE 10.25 (a) Schematic illustration of production of thin film and plastic bags from a tube produced by an extruder, and then blown by air. (b) A blown-film operation. Source: Courtesy of Windmoeller & Hoelscher Corp.
FIGURE 10.26 Extrusion of plastic tubes. (a) Extrusion using a spider die (see also Fig.6.59) and pressurized air; (b) coextrusion of tube for producing a bottle.
FIGURE 10.27 Injection molding with (a) a plunger and (b) a reciprocating rotating screw. Telephone receivers, plumbing fittings, tool handles, and housings are examples of parts made by injection molding.
FIGURE 10.28 Illustration of mold features for injection molding. (a) Two-plate mold, with important features identified; (b) injection molding of four parts, showing details and the volume of material involved. Source: Courtesy of Tooling Molds West, Inc.
FIGURE 10.30 Products made by insert injection molding. Metallic components are embedded in these parts during molding. Source: (a) Courtesy of Plainfield Molding, Inc., and (b) Courtesy of Rayco Mold and Mfg. LLC.
FIGURE 10.32 Schematic illustrations of (a) the blow-molding process for making plastic beverage bottles and (b) a three-station injection-blow-molding machine.
FIGURE 10.33 The rotational molding (rotomolding or rotocasting) process. Trash cans, buckets, carousel horses and plastic footballs can be made by this process.
FIGURE 10.35 Various thermoforming processes for thermoplastic sheet. These processes are commonly used in making advertising signs, cookie and candy trays, panels for shower stalls, and packaging.
FIGURE 10.35 Types of compression molding, a process similar to forging: (a) positive, (b) semipositive, and (c) flash. The flash in part (c) is trimmed off. (d) Die design for making a compression-molded part with undercuts. Such designs also are used in other molding and shaping operations.
FIGURE 10.36 Sequence of operations in transfer molding of thermosetting plastics. This process is particularly suitable for making intricate parts with varying wall thicknesses.
FIGURE 10.39 Reinforced-plastic components for a Honda motorcycle. The parts shown are front and rear forks, a rear swing arm, a wheel, and brake disks.
FIGURE 10.40 (a) Manufacturing process for polymer-matrix composite. Source: After T.-W. Chou, R.L. McCullough, and R.B. Pipes. (b) Boron-epoxy prepreg tape. Source: Textron Systems.
(a) (b)
Continuousstrands
Spools
Surfacetreatment
Resin
Backing paper
Continuousstrands
ChopperResinpaste
Resinpaste
Compactionbelt
Carrierfilm
Carrierfilm
FIGURE 10.41 Manufacturing process for producing reinforced-plastic sheets. The sheet is still viscous at this stage and can later be shaped into various products. Source: After T.-W. Chou, R. L. McCullough, and R. B. Pipes.
FIGURE 10.43 Manual methods of processing reinforced plastics: (a) hand lay-up and (b) spray-up. These methods are also called open-mold processing. (c) A boat hull made by these processes. Source: Courtesy of Genmar Holdings, Inc.
FIGURE 10.44 (a) Schematic illustration of the filament-winding process. (b) Fiberglass being wound over aluminum liners for slide-raft inflation vessels for the Boeing 767 aircraft. Source: Advanced Technical Products Group, Inc., Lincoln Composites.
FIGURE 10.45 (a) Schematic illustration of the pultrusion process. (b) Examples of parts made by pultrusion. Source: Courtesy of Strongwell Corporation.
FIGURE 10.46 The computational steps involved in producing a stereolithography file. (a) Three-dimensional description of the part. (b) The part is divided into slices. (Only 1 in 10 is shown.) (c) Support material is planned. (d) A set of tool directions is determined for manufacturing each slice. Shown is the extruder path at section A-A from (c), for a fused-deposition modeling operation.
FIGURE 10.47 Schematic illustration of the stereolithography process. Source: Courtesy of 3D Systems.
UV light source
Liquid surface
Vat
c
b
a
Platform
UV curable liquid
Formed part
(a) (b)
Filament supply
Plastic modelcreated inminutes
Thermoplasticor wax filament
Heated FDM headmoves in x–y plane
Tablemoves in
z-direction
z
y
x
Fixturelessfoundation
FIGURE 10.48 (a) Schematic illustration of the fused-deposition modeling process. (b) The FDM Vantage X rapid prototyping machine. Source: Courtesy of Stratasys, Inc.
FIGURE 10.49 (a) A part with a protruding section that requires support material. (b) Common support structures used in rapid-prototyping machines. Source: After P.F. Jacobs.
FIGURE 10.51 Schematic illustration of the three-dimensional-printing process. Source: After E. Sachs and M. Cima.
1. Spread powder 2. Print layer 3. Piston movement
4. Intermediate stage 5. Last layer printed 6. Finished part
Powder Binder
(a) (b)
FIGURE 10.52 (a) Examples of parts produced through three-dimensional printing. Full color parts also are possible, and the colors can be blended throughout the volume. Source: Courtesy ZCorp, Inc.
Particles are loosely sinteredBinder is burned off
(a)
Infiltrated bylower-melting-point metal
(c)(b)
Infiltrating metal, permeates into P/M part
Microstructure detail
Unfused
FIGURE 10.53 The three-dimensional printing process: (a) part build; (b) sintering, and (c) infiltration steps to produce metal parts. Source: Courtesy of the ProMetal Division of Ex One Corporation.
FIGURE 10.54 Manufacturing steps for investment casting that uses rapid-prototyped wax parts as patterns. This approach uses a flask for the investment, but a shell method can also be used. Source: 3D Systems, Inc.
FIGURE 10.55 Production of tooling for injection molding by the sprayed-metal tooling process. (a) A pattern and base plate are prepared through a rapid-prototyping operation; (b) a zinc-aluminum alloy is sprayed onto the pattern (See Section 4.5.1); (c) the coated base plate and pattern assembly is placed in a flask and back-filled with aluminum-impregnated epoxy; (d) after curing, the base plate is removed from the finished mold; and (e) a second mold half suitable for injection molding is prepared.
FIGURE 10.57 Examples of design modifications to eliminate or minimize distortion of plastic parts. (a) Suggested design changes to minimize distortion. Source: After F. Strasser. (b) Die design (exaggerated) for extrusion of square sections. Without this design modification, product cross-sections would not have the desired shape because of the recovery of the material, known as die swell. (c) Design change in a rib to minimize pull-in caused by shrinkage during cooling. (d) Stiffening of the bottom of thin plastic containers by doming, similar to the process used to make the bottoms of aluminum beverage cans and similar containers.
Costs and Production VolumesTypical Production Volume,
Equipment Production Tooling Number of PartsProcess Capital Cost Rate Cost 10 102 103 104 105 106 107
Machining Med Med LowCompression molding High Med HighTransfer molding High Med HighInjection molding High High HighExtrusion Med High Low *Rotational molding Low Low LowBlow molding Med Med MedThermoforming Low Low LowCasting Low Very low LowForging High Low MedFoam molding High Med Med*Continuous process.Source: After R. L. E. Brown, Design and Manufacture of Plastic Parts. Copyright c!1980 by John Wiley& Sons, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
TABLE 10.9 Comparative costs and production volumes for processing of plastics.
FIGURE 10.58 (a) An aligner for orthodontic use, manufactured using a combination of rapid tooling and thermoforming; (b) comparison of conventional orthodontic braces to the use of transparent aligners. Source: Courtesy Align Technologies, Inc.
(a)
(b) (c)
FIGURE 10.59 Manufacturing sequence for Invisalign orthodontic aligners. (a) Creation of a polymer impression of the patient's teeth; (b) computer modeling to produce CAD representations of desired tooth profiles; (c) production of incremental models of desired tooth movement. An aligner is produced by thermoforming a transparent plastic sheet against this model. Source: Courtesy Align Technologies, Inc.