McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved. 5-1 Chapter 5 Motivation
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McG-OrgBeh(Newstrom) Chap 055-*
5-*
MOTIVATIONAL DRIVES
Case Model
Hyatt Hotel hired people in various post, provided trainings to learn hotel operations, gave benefits and incentives. However, in a year or two, some employees desire faster promotions into management positions, seeing that the long road ahead to their goal, they search for a new employer who can readily provide higher positions.
Cause of Dissatisfaction?
Slow individual progression rates
5-*
Motivational Approach Applied:
Allowed employees opportunities to create new ventures as entrepreneurs in related fields (ex. Party catering, rental shops). Resulted to 60% retention of managers which increased Hyatt’s revenues
Results of Motivation:
Provided valuable experience to the work force as entrepreneurs
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
- the general desire or willingness of someone to do something.
Motivation results from the interaction of both conscious and unconscious factors
intensity of desire or need,
incentive o reward value of the goal, and
expectations of the individual.
These factors are the reasons one has for behaving a certain way.
Example
An example is a student that spends extra time studying for a test because he or she wants a better grade in the class.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
When employers address all four factors, employees are successfully motivated, resulting to organizational success
Four major indicators if an employee is motivated at work:
They are engaged – degree of enthusiasm, initiative, effort given to performance,
They are committed – degree to which employees bond with organization and exhibit acts of “organizational citizenship” (Corporate Culture)
They are satisfied – a reflection of the fulfillment of the psychological contract when they were applying for work
They do not leave the company -retention (Low Turnover) – Very few loss of valued employees due to dissatisfaction
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
• Motivation Drives (Drivers)
strong desire for something as a product of the cultural environment in which they live
But if you're managing or leading a team, it's essential to know what motivates (drive) your people, how they respond to feedback and praise, and what tasks fit them well.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Achievement Motivation
Affiliation Motivation
Power Motivation
5-*
Characteristics:
Standards of excellence are clear, with opportunity to set goals and perform successfully against those standards.
Are usually competitive and work well independently.
Is reinforced and maintained by providing challenging work that stretches capabilities, along with concrete standards for success and clear, unambiguous feedback.
Specific and descriptive feedback will provide people with a tool to satisfy and/or develop their achievement motive because it allows them to set their own goals and give themselves feedback about the degree to which the goals were accomplished.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
MOTIVATIONAL DRIVES
Affiliation Motivation
Are often friendly and work best when they feel appreciated and their work environment gives them the opportunity to interact with others.
Motivation is reinforced and maintained by providing work where cooperation with co-workers is required, some time for personal interaction is encouraged, and team building efforts are valued.
Positive feedback that's not specific will satisfy and/or develop peoples' affiliation motive because it lets them know they're liked and accepted, but will not develop the achievement or power motive.
Characteristics:
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Achievement
Expectations can result in self-fulfilling prophecies. If a student expects to get an A on a term paper, she’ll work hard, and her work will be more likely to earn her an A.
Employee tend to have more motivation to achieve if they feel they have control over some aspects of their work.
Affiliation
work better when they are complimented for their favorable attitude & cooperation
Surround themselves with friends and likeable people
Satisfied with being with friends
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
MOTIVATIONAL DRIVES
Power Motivation
Usually have an interest in moving up in the organization and are often fluent in their communication style.
This motivation is reinforced and maintained by allowing personal control over work pace and methods, as well as opportunities to influence – especially if they can deal directly with people higher in the organization.
Encourage peoples' involvement in problem solving and decision making, resulting to satisfying and/or developing their power motive because it gives them influence over their work and other people.:
Impact the working environment. Are able to persuade and/or influence others. Likes to control.
Characteristics:
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Managerial Application of Drives Case Sample
One of your team members recently created a report that was so thorough and well-written that the board of directors asked you to make sure that she was praised for her efforts.
So, at your monthly staff meeting, you stood up in front of the group, and congratulated her on her achievement, and for the good impression she made for the team.
However, instead of smiling and appreciating the attention, she looked embarrassed. She lowered her head, and as soon as she could, she left and went to her office.
What did you do wrong?
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
• Types of Needs
Primary needs (Basic physical needs): food, water, sex, sleep, air, etc
• Secondary needs – planning is required to address these needs
- Are strongly conditioned by experience
- Vary in type and intensity among people
- Are subject to change across time within any individual
- Cannot usually be isolated, but rather, work in combination & influence one another
- Are often hidden from conscious recognition
- Are vague feelings as opposed to specific physical needs
- Influence behavior
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
HUMAN NEEDS
Recognizing the Secondary Human Needs other than the basic physical and universal needs of man, theories were formed, researches were made, to prove their validity.
The prominent and widely used theories are:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Model
Alderfer’s E-R-G Model
5-*
Lower Needs
Higher Needs
Skills used to the fullest, using talent to maximum, combination of values and purpose
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
What should managers do?
Recognize that needs may differ among employees
Offer satisfaction for the particular needs currently unmet
Realize that giving more of the same reward (especially lower needs) may have a diminishing impact on motivation
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Not really satisfying enough to motivate and change behaviors
Job Content– factors related on how to do the job, job centered
Job Context – factors surrounding the job
External
Internal
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
I like to think of these factors as being on a balance scale. If we increase salary and remove it as a hygiene factor, it will increase satisfaction.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
• Herzberg’s Two-Factor Model
Employees are motivated primarily by what they do for themselves. When they take responsibility or gain recognition through their own behavior, they are strongly motivated
Widely criticized
Applies mainly for managers, professionals, upper level white-collar employees (executives)
Appears to reduce importance of pay, status, relation to others as motivational drivers
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
5-*
Comparison of the three models
Maslow and Alderfer focus on internal needs of employees, Hersberg focused on both the job content and context that could be provided for need satisfaction of employees
Aldelfer suggested that if you fail to satisfy the growth need, it will be converted gain to existence needs
All 3 models indicates that before managers tries to administer reward, discover first which need or needs dominate a particular employee at a time
Employees may already satisfied their lower needs, so now they are motivated mainly by higher order of needs
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
5-*
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Organizational behavior modification (OB MOD)
OB MOD is the application in organization of the principles of behavior modification from the work of B.F. Skinner.
Skinner invented the Operant Conditioning chamber, also known as the Skinner Box. He was a firm believer of the idea that human free will was actually an illusion and any human action was the result of the consequences of that same action. If the consequences were bad, there was a high chance that the action would not be repeated; however if the consequences were good, the actions that led to it would be reinforced. He called this the principle of reinforcement
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
• Punishment
• Extinction
Provides perspectives on the dynamics by which employee can be motivated
To Modify Behavior
5-*
What is Law of Effect (Reinforcement Theory)?
In the workplace, there are levels of acceptable behavior. As a manager, it is important to use appropriate techniques that reinforce acceptable behavior and deter inappropriate behavior. This lesson describes how reinforcement theory is used to influence employee behavior through consequences.
Managers should be able to identify powerful consequences (as perceived by employees) and be able to control and administer these that employees should be able to see the connection between the behavior
OB Mod relies heavily on the law of effect, which states that a person tends to repeat behavior that is accompanied by favorable consequences (reinforcement) and tends not to repeat behavior that is accompanied by unfavorable consequences.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Through conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence.
Example 1: Parents rewarding a child’s excellent grades with candy or some other prize.
Example 2: A schoolteacher awards points to those students who are the most calm and well-behaved. Students eventually realize that when they voluntarily become quieter and better behaved, that they earn more points.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Issues
Difficult to measure because needs and motivation vary from individual to individual
Just knowing the needs does not directly suggest to managers what they should do with the information (no actions given)
What will reinforce employees’ high performance?
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
Alternative Consequences
Extinction- is the withholding of significant positive consequences that were previously provided for a desirable behavior. Such desirable behavior needs to be reinforced to encourage the person to repeat the action in the future. If no reinforcement by the manager, the employee’s behavior tends to diminish (become extinguished) through lack of reinforcement.
(Reinforcement and Punishment to sustain behaviors)
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
Alternative Consequences
If the sales representative does particularly well in one region (behavior), she is rewarded by not being asked to work in more challenging regions where sales have been difficult to achieve (negative reinforcement). The sales representative will continue to work hard in the region she is currently assigned so that she is not forced to work in the less favorable one.
When a sales representative meets a sales quota (a desired behavior), she is rewarded with a pay bonus (positive reinforcement), making it more likely for the sales representative to want to repeat that same behavior that resulted in the positive reinforcement.
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
5-*
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
Alternative Consequences
Punishment is used by managers to decrease the probability of an inappropriate behavior being repeated by employees.
Examples of punishments include demotions, threats, suspensions, and the loss of employee perks. Punishment essentially applies negative consequences for undesirable behavior.
Punishment
Remember, punishment, though extremely popular, should only be used if positive and negative reinforcement cannot be used or have failed previously.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
Alternative Consequences
If you stroke a cat's fur in a manner that the cat finds unpleasant, the cat may attempt to bite you. Therefore, the presentation of the cat's bite will act as a positive punisher and decrease the likelihood that you will stroke the cat in that same manner in the future.
Positive Punishment
5-*
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
Alternative Consequences
When a child "talks back" to his/her mother, the child may lose the privilege of watching her favorite television program. Therefore, the loss of viewing privileges will act as a negative punisher and decrease the likelihood of the child talking back in the future.
Negative Punishment
5-*
Shaping
The method requires that the participant perform actions that are at first rewarded, then gradually changed to encourage the manifestation of a specific, pre-selected action. Thus, shaping is a very useful tool for training people to perform a difficult task .
Example:
Training for sports
Training animals /pets
5-*
Frequency with which the selected consequences accompanies a desired behavior
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs.
Generally, this schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning in order to create a strong association between the behavior and the response. Once the response if firmly attached, reinforcement is usually switched to a partial reinforcement schedule.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
• Partial reinforcement
– In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part of the time. Learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to extinction .
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer.
In the Real World: A weekly paycheck is a good example of a fixed-interval schedule. The employee receives reinforcement every seven days, which may result in a higher response rate as payday approaches.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
where a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.
Your Employer Checking Your Work: Does your boss drop by your office a few times throughout the day to check your progress? This is an example of a variable-interval schedule. These check-ins occur at unpredictable times, so you never know when they might happen.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Examples
Production Line Work: Workers at a per-piece basis factory are paid for every 15 piecess they make. This results in a high production rate and workers tend to take few breaks. It can, however, lead to burnout and lower-quality work
Collecting Tokens in a Video Game: In many video games, you have to collection so many tokens, object, or points in order to receive some type of reward.
a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
is a schedule of reinforcement where a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding.
Example
Slot machines: Players have no way of knowing how many times they have to play before they will win. All they know is that eventually a play will win. This is why slot machines are so effective and players are often reluctant to quit. There is always the possibility that the next coin they put in will be the winning one.
Sales bonuses: Call centers often offer random bonuses to employees. Workers never know how many calls they need to make in order to receive the bonus, but they know that they increase their chances the more calls or sales they make.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Developed by Latham and Locke, Goal-Setting Theory says that when:
1. challenging goals are set for an employee,
2. the proper tools are provided to accomplish those goals and positive feedback is given,
the employee feels satisfaction with the performance and the reward.
This makes the employee want to strive to accomplish an even more challenging goal.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Motivational goals needed to have the following five dimensions: Clarity, Challenge, Commitment, Feedback, and Complexity.
Goals need to be clear and measurable such as: My goal is to reduce maintenance downtime by 15 percent.
Goals must be challenging, with achievement as the final payoff.
Employees must feel like part of the goal-setting process to be committed to a clearly relevant goal.
There must be a program that involves feedback, recognition and progress reports.
The task must be complex but not overwhelming, with sufficient time and resources available.
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
GOAL SETTING
Self-Efficacy: Refers to an individual’s belief that he/she is capable of performing a task successfully (capabilities & competence). It has a direct relationship with a person’s confidence and thus with goal setting.
Hence, it is a primary role of managers to build employees’ Self-Efficacy.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
How much one wants a reward- Strong Desire
One’s estimate of the probability that efforts will result in successful performance – High Appraisal
One’s estimate that performance will result in receiving the reward – Promotion to Higher Position
Valence
Expectancy
Instrumentality
5-*
• Primary outcomes – Result directly achieved from an action
Ex. Employee secures more training and eventually was rewarded with a promotion and the pay that goes with it. (Primary)
• Secondary outcomes – Follow from the primary outcome
Ex. After promotion (Primary) status and recognition that goes with it from associates is the secondary reward.
Employee’s motivation depends on whether he/she wants the reward being offer for doing a good job and whether he/she believes that more effort will lead to that reward.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
• Equity theory
Employees tend to judge fairness by fair balance between an employee’s inputs (Hard work, skill level, tolerance, enthusiasm, contributions) and an employee’s output (salary, benefits, recognition , rewards) , and also by comparing this ratio with the ratios of other employees
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Balance
employees become de-motivated, both in relation to their job and their employer, if they feel as though their inputs are greater than the outputs.
What I put into my job: time, effort, ability, loyalty, tolerance, flexibility, integrity, commitment, reliability, heart and soul, personal sacrifice, etc.
What I get from my job: pay, bonus, perks, benefits, security, recognition, interest, development, reputation, praise, responsibility, enjoyment, etc.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Usefulness of Motivational Models
Understanding how needs create tensions, that stimulate effort to perform, and how effective performance brings the satisfaction of rewards, is useful assessment for managers in developing programs to improve employees’ productivity
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Questions
5-*
MOTIVATIONAL DRIVES
Case Model
Hyatt Hotel hired people in various post, provided trainings to learn hotel operations, gave benefits and incentives. However, in a year or two, some employees desire faster promotions into management positions, seeing that the long road ahead to their goal, they search for a new employer who can readily provide higher positions.
Cause of Dissatisfaction?
Slow individual progression rates
5-*
Motivational Approach Applied:
Allowed employees opportunities to create new ventures as entrepreneurs in related fields (ex. Party catering, rental shops). Resulted to 60% retention of managers which increased Hyatt’s revenues
Results of Motivation:
Provided valuable experience to the work force as entrepreneurs
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
- the general desire or willingness of someone to do something.
Motivation results from the interaction of both conscious and unconscious factors
intensity of desire or need,
incentive o reward value of the goal, and
expectations of the individual.
These factors are the reasons one has for behaving a certain way.
Example
An example is a student that spends extra time studying for a test because he or she wants a better grade in the class.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
When employers address all four factors, employees are successfully motivated, resulting to organizational success
Four major indicators if an employee is motivated at work:
They are engaged – degree of enthusiasm, initiative, effort given to performance,
They are committed – degree to which employees bond with organization and exhibit acts of “organizational citizenship” (Corporate Culture)
They are satisfied – a reflection of the fulfillment of the psychological contract when they were applying for work
They do not leave the company -retention (Low Turnover) – Very few loss of valued employees due to dissatisfaction
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
• Motivation Drives (Drivers)
strong desire for something as a product of the cultural environment in which they live
But if you're managing or leading a team, it's essential to know what motivates (drive) your people, how they respond to feedback and praise, and what tasks fit them well.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Achievement Motivation
Affiliation Motivation
Power Motivation
5-*
Characteristics:
Standards of excellence are clear, with opportunity to set goals and perform successfully against those standards.
Are usually competitive and work well independently.
Is reinforced and maintained by providing challenging work that stretches capabilities, along with concrete standards for success and clear, unambiguous feedback.
Specific and descriptive feedback will provide people with a tool to satisfy and/or develop their achievement motive because it allows them to set their own goals and give themselves feedback about the degree to which the goals were accomplished.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
MOTIVATIONAL DRIVES
Affiliation Motivation
Are often friendly and work best when they feel appreciated and their work environment gives them the opportunity to interact with others.
Motivation is reinforced and maintained by providing work where cooperation with co-workers is required, some time for personal interaction is encouraged, and team building efforts are valued.
Positive feedback that's not specific will satisfy and/or develop peoples' affiliation motive because it lets them know they're liked and accepted, but will not develop the achievement or power motive.
Characteristics:
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Achievement
Expectations can result in self-fulfilling prophecies. If a student expects to get an A on a term paper, she’ll work hard, and her work will be more likely to earn her an A.
Employee tend to have more motivation to achieve if they feel they have control over some aspects of their work.
Affiliation
work better when they are complimented for their favorable attitude & cooperation
Surround themselves with friends and likeable people
Satisfied with being with friends
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
MOTIVATIONAL DRIVES
Power Motivation
Usually have an interest in moving up in the organization and are often fluent in their communication style.
This motivation is reinforced and maintained by allowing personal control over work pace and methods, as well as opportunities to influence – especially if they can deal directly with people higher in the organization.
Encourage peoples' involvement in problem solving and decision making, resulting to satisfying and/or developing their power motive because it gives them influence over their work and other people.:
Impact the working environment. Are able to persuade and/or influence others. Likes to control.
Characteristics:
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Managerial Application of Drives Case Sample
One of your team members recently created a report that was so thorough and well-written that the board of directors asked you to make sure that she was praised for her efforts.
So, at your monthly staff meeting, you stood up in front of the group, and congratulated her on her achievement, and for the good impression she made for the team.
However, instead of smiling and appreciating the attention, she looked embarrassed. She lowered her head, and as soon as she could, she left and went to her office.
What did you do wrong?
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
• Types of Needs
Primary needs (Basic physical needs): food, water, sex, sleep, air, etc
• Secondary needs – planning is required to address these needs
- Are strongly conditioned by experience
- Vary in type and intensity among people
- Are subject to change across time within any individual
- Cannot usually be isolated, but rather, work in combination & influence one another
- Are often hidden from conscious recognition
- Are vague feelings as opposed to specific physical needs
- Influence behavior
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
HUMAN NEEDS
Recognizing the Secondary Human Needs other than the basic physical and universal needs of man, theories were formed, researches were made, to prove their validity.
The prominent and widely used theories are:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Model
Alderfer’s E-R-G Model
5-*
Lower Needs
Higher Needs
Skills used to the fullest, using talent to maximum, combination of values and purpose
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
What should managers do?
Recognize that needs may differ among employees
Offer satisfaction for the particular needs currently unmet
Realize that giving more of the same reward (especially lower needs) may have a diminishing impact on motivation
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Not really satisfying enough to motivate and change behaviors
Job Content– factors related on how to do the job, job centered
Job Context – factors surrounding the job
External
Internal
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
I like to think of these factors as being on a balance scale. If we increase salary and remove it as a hygiene factor, it will increase satisfaction.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
• Herzberg’s Two-Factor Model
Employees are motivated primarily by what they do for themselves. When they take responsibility or gain recognition through their own behavior, they are strongly motivated
Widely criticized
Applies mainly for managers, professionals, upper level white-collar employees (executives)
Appears to reduce importance of pay, status, relation to others as motivational drivers
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
5-*
Comparison of the three models
Maslow and Alderfer focus on internal needs of employees, Hersberg focused on both the job content and context that could be provided for need satisfaction of employees
Aldelfer suggested that if you fail to satisfy the growth need, it will be converted gain to existence needs
All 3 models indicates that before managers tries to administer reward, discover first which need or needs dominate a particular employee at a time
Employees may already satisfied their lower needs, so now they are motivated mainly by higher order of needs
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
5-*
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Organizational behavior modification (OB MOD)
OB MOD is the application in organization of the principles of behavior modification from the work of B.F. Skinner.
Skinner invented the Operant Conditioning chamber, also known as the Skinner Box. He was a firm believer of the idea that human free will was actually an illusion and any human action was the result of the consequences of that same action. If the consequences were bad, there was a high chance that the action would not be repeated; however if the consequences were good, the actions that led to it would be reinforced. He called this the principle of reinforcement
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
• Punishment
• Extinction
Provides perspectives on the dynamics by which employee can be motivated
To Modify Behavior
5-*
What is Law of Effect (Reinforcement Theory)?
In the workplace, there are levels of acceptable behavior. As a manager, it is important to use appropriate techniques that reinforce acceptable behavior and deter inappropriate behavior. This lesson describes how reinforcement theory is used to influence employee behavior through consequences.
Managers should be able to identify powerful consequences (as perceived by employees) and be able to control and administer these that employees should be able to see the connection between the behavior
OB Mod relies heavily on the law of effect, which states that a person tends to repeat behavior that is accompanied by favorable consequences (reinforcement) and tends not to repeat behavior that is accompanied by unfavorable consequences.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Through conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence.
Example 1: Parents rewarding a child’s excellent grades with candy or some other prize.
Example 2: A schoolteacher awards points to those students who are the most calm and well-behaved. Students eventually realize that when they voluntarily become quieter and better behaved, that they earn more points.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Issues
Difficult to measure because needs and motivation vary from individual to individual
Just knowing the needs does not directly suggest to managers what they should do with the information (no actions given)
What will reinforce employees’ high performance?
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
Alternative Consequences
Extinction- is the withholding of significant positive consequences that were previously provided for a desirable behavior. Such desirable behavior needs to be reinforced to encourage the person to repeat the action in the future. If no reinforcement by the manager, the employee’s behavior tends to diminish (become extinguished) through lack of reinforcement.
(Reinforcement and Punishment to sustain behaviors)
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
Alternative Consequences
If the sales representative does particularly well in one region (behavior), she is rewarded by not being asked to work in more challenging regions where sales have been difficult to achieve (negative reinforcement). The sales representative will continue to work hard in the region she is currently assigned so that she is not forced to work in the less favorable one.
When a sales representative meets a sales quota (a desired behavior), she is rewarded with a pay bonus (positive reinforcement), making it more likely for the sales representative to want to repeat that same behavior that resulted in the positive reinforcement.
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
5-*
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
Alternative Consequences
Punishment is used by managers to decrease the probability of an inappropriate behavior being repeated by employees.
Examples of punishments include demotions, threats, suspensions, and the loss of employee perks. Punishment essentially applies negative consequences for undesirable behavior.
Punishment
Remember, punishment, though extremely popular, should only be used if positive and negative reinforcement cannot be used or have failed previously.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
Alternative Consequences
If you stroke a cat's fur in a manner that the cat finds unpleasant, the cat may attempt to bite you. Therefore, the presentation of the cat's bite will act as a positive punisher and decrease the likelihood that you will stroke the cat in that same manner in the future.
Positive Punishment
5-*
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
Alternative Consequences
When a child "talks back" to his/her mother, the child may lose the privilege of watching her favorite television program. Therefore, the loss of viewing privileges will act as a negative punisher and decrease the likelihood of the child talking back in the future.
Negative Punishment
5-*
Shaping
The method requires that the participant perform actions that are at first rewarded, then gradually changed to encourage the manifestation of a specific, pre-selected action. Thus, shaping is a very useful tool for training people to perform a difficult task .
Example:
Training for sports
Training animals /pets
5-*
Frequency with which the selected consequences accompanies a desired behavior
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs.
Generally, this schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning in order to create a strong association between the behavior and the response. Once the response if firmly attached, reinforcement is usually switched to a partial reinforcement schedule.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
• Partial reinforcement
– In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part of the time. Learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to extinction .
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer.
In the Real World: A weekly paycheck is a good example of a fixed-interval schedule. The employee receives reinforcement every seven days, which may result in a higher response rate as payday approaches.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
where a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.
Your Employer Checking Your Work: Does your boss drop by your office a few times throughout the day to check your progress? This is an example of a variable-interval schedule. These check-ins occur at unpredictable times, so you never know when they might happen.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
Examples
Production Line Work: Workers at a per-piece basis factory are paid for every 15 piecess they make. This results in a high production rate and workers tend to take few breaks. It can, however, lead to burnout and lower-quality work
Collecting Tokens in a Video Game: In many video games, you have to collection so many tokens, object, or points in order to receive some type of reward.
a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses.
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
5-*
is a schedule of reinforcement where a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding.
Example
Slot machines: Players have no way of knowing how many times they have to play before they will win. All they know is that eventually a play will win. This is why slot machines are so effective and players are often reluctant to quit. There is always the possibility that the next coin they put in will be the winning one.
Sales bonuses: Call centers often offer random bonuses to employees. Workers never know how many calls they need to make in order to receive the bonus, but they know that they increase their chances the more calls or sales they make.
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McGraw-Hill/Irwin
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Developed by Latham and Locke, Goal-Setting Theory says that when:
1. challenging goals are set for an employee,
2. the proper tools are provided to accomplish those goals and positive feedback is given,
the employee feels satisfaction with the performance and the reward.
This makes the employee want to strive to accomplish an even more challenging goal.
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Motivational goals needed to have the following five dimensions: Clarity, Challenge, Commitment, Feedback, and Complexity.
Goals need to be clear and measurable such as: My goal is to reduce maintenance downtime by 15 percent.
Goals must be challenging, with achievement as the final payoff.
Employees must feel like part of the goal-setting process to be committed to a clearly relevant goal.
There must be a program that involves feedback, recognition and progress reports.
The task must be complex but not overwhelming, with sufficient time and resources available.
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
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GOAL SETTING
Self-Efficacy: Refers to an individual’s belief that he/she is capable of performing a task successfully (capabilities & competence). It has a direct relationship with a person’s confidence and thus with goal setting.
Hence, it is a primary role of managers to build employees’ Self-Efficacy.
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How much one wants a reward- Strong Desire
One’s estimate of the probability that efforts will result in successful performance – High Appraisal
One’s estimate that performance will result in receiving the reward – Promotion to Higher Position
Valence
Expectancy
Instrumentality
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• Primary outcomes – Result directly achieved from an action
Ex. Employee secures more training and eventually was rewarded with a promotion and the pay that goes with it. (Primary)
• Secondary outcomes – Follow from the primary outcome
Ex. After promotion (Primary) status and recognition that goes with it from associates is the secondary reward.
Employee’s motivation depends on whether he/she wants the reward being offer for doing a good job and whether he/she believes that more effort will lead to that reward.
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• Equity theory
Employees tend to judge fairness by fair balance between an employee’s inputs (Hard work, skill level, tolerance, enthusiasm, contributions) and an employee’s output (salary, benefits, recognition , rewards) , and also by comparing this ratio with the ratios of other employees
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Balance
employees become de-motivated, both in relation to their job and their employer, if they feel as though their inputs are greater than the outputs.
What I put into my job: time, effort, ability, loyalty, tolerance, flexibility, integrity, commitment, reliability, heart and soul, personal sacrifice, etc.
What I get from my job: pay, bonus, perks, benefits, security, recognition, interest, development, reputation, praise, responsibility, enjoyment, etc.
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Usefulness of Motivational Models
Understanding how needs create tensions, that stimulate effort to perform, and how effective performance brings the satisfaction of rewards, is useful assessment for managers in developing programs to improve employees’ productivity
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Questions
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