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3.1
Chapter 3
Data and Signals
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Part 2
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3.2
3
-
3 DIGITAL SIGNALS
I n
addition
to
being
represented
by
an
analog
signal,
information
can
also
be
represented
by
a
digital
signal
.For
example,
a
1
can
be
encoded
as
a
positive
voltage
and
a
0
as
zero
voltage
.
A
digital
signal
can
have
more
than
two
levels
.
I n
this
case,
we
can
send
more
than
1
bit
for
each
level
.
Bit Rate
Bit Length
Digital Signal as a Composite Analog Signal
Application Layer
Topics discussed in this section:
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3.3
Figure 3.17 Two digi tal signals: one with two signal levels and the otherwith four signal levels
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3.4
A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are
needed per level? We calculate the number of bits from
the formula
Example 3.16
Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.
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3.5
A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are
needed per level? We calculate the number of bits by
using the formula. Each signal level is represented by
3.17 bits. H owever, this answer is not realistic. The
number of bits sent per level needs to be an integer as
well as a power of 2. For this example, 4 bits can
represent one level.
Example 3.17
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3.6
Assume we need to download text documents at the rate
of 100 pages per minute. What is the required bit rate of
the channel?
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in
each line. I f we assume that one character requi res 8
bits, the bit rate is
Example 3.18
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A digitized voice channel, as we wil l see in Chapter 4, ismade by digitizing a 4-kHz bandwidth analog voice
signal. We need to sample the signal at twice the highest
frequency (two samples per hertz). We assume that each
sample requi res 8 bits. What is the requi red bit rate?
Solution
The bit rate can be calculated as
Example 3.19
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What is the bit rate for high-defini tion TV (HDTV)?
Solution
HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high quality
video signals. The HDTV screen is normally a ratio of16 : 9. There are 1920 by 1080 pixels per screen, and the
screen is renewed 30 times per second. Twenty-four bits
represents one color pixel.
Example 3.20
The TV stations reduce this rate to 20 to 40 Mbps
through compression.
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Figure 3.18 The time and frequency domains of per iodic and nonper iodicdigital signals
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A digital signal is a composite analogsignal with an infinite bandwidth.
Note
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Figure 3.19 Baseband transmission
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Figure 3.20 Bandwidths of two low-pass channels
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Figure 3.21 Baseband transmission using a dedicated medium
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Baseband transmission of a digital
signal that preserves the shape of thedigital signal is possible only if we have
a low-pass channel with an infinite or
very wide bandwidth.
Note
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An example of a dedicated channel where the entirebandwidth of the medium is used as one single channel
is a LAN. Almost every wired LAN today uses a
dedicated channel for two stations communicating with
each other. In a bus topology LAN with multipoint
connections, only two stations can communicate with
each other at each moment in time (timesharing); the
other stations need to refrain f rom sending data. I n a
star topology LAN, the entire channel between each
station and the hub is used for communication between
these two enti ties.
Example 3.21
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Figure 3.22 Rough approximation of a digital signal using the f ir st harmonic(fundamental) for worst case
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Figure 3.23 Simulating a digital signal wi th f irst three harmonics
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In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is
proportional to the bit rate;
if we need to send bits faster, we need more bandwidth.
Note
In baseband transmission, the required
bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate;if we need to send bits faster, we need
more bandwidth.
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Table 3.2 Bandwidth requirements
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3.20
What is the requi red bandwidth of a low-pass channel ifwe need to send 1 Mbps by using baseband transmission?
Solution
The answer depends on the accuracy desired.a.The minimum bandwidth, is B = bit rate /2, or 500 kHz.
b.A better solution is to use the first and the third
harmonics with B = 3 500 kHz = 1.5 MHz.
c.Sti l l a better solution is to use the first, thi rd, and fi f th
harmonics with B = 5 500 kHz = 2.5 MHz.
Example 3.22
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3.21
We have a low-pass channel with bandwidth 100 kHz.What is themaximum bit rate of this
channel?
SolutionThe maximum bit rate can be achieved if we use the first
harmonic. The bit rate is 2 times the available bandwidth,
or 200 kbps.
Example 3.22
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3.22
Figure 3.24 Bandwidth of a bandpass channel
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3.23
If the available channel is a bandpass
channel, we cannot send the digital
signal directly to the channel;
we need to convert the digital signal to
an analog signal before transmission.
Note
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3.24
Figure 3.25 Modulation of a digital signal for transmission on a bandpasschannel
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3.25
An example of broadband transmission usingmodulation is the sending of computer data through a
telephone subscriber l ine, the line connecting a resident
to the central telephone off ice. These lines are designed
to carry voice with a limited bandwidth. The channel isconsidered a bandpass channel. We convert the digital
signal f rom the computer to an analog signal, and send
the analog signal. We can install two converters to
change the digital signal to analog and vice versa at the
receiving end. The converter, in this case, is called a
modemwhich we discuss in detail in Chapter 5.
Example 3.24
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3.26
A second example is the digital cel lular telephone. Forbetter reception, digital cellular phones convert the
analog voice signal to a digital signal (see Chapter 16).
Al though the bandwidth allocated to a company
providing digital cellular phone service is very wide, we
sti l l cannot send the digital signal without conversion.
The reason is that we only have a bandpass channel
available between caller and callee. We need to convertthe digitized voice to a composite analog signal before
sending.
Example 3.25
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3.27
3-4 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
Signalstravelthroughtransmissionmedia,whicharenotperfect.Theimperfectioncausessignalimpairment.This
meansthatthesignalatthebeginningofthemediumis
notthesameasthesignalattheendofthemedium.
Whatissentisnotwhatisreceived.Threecausesofimpairmentareattenuation,distortion,andnoise.
Attenuation
Distortion
Noise
Topics discussed in this section:
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3.28
Figure 3.26 Causes of impairment
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3.29
Figure 3.27 Attenuation
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3.30
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission mediumand i ts power is reduced to one-half . This means that P2is (1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power)
can be calculated as
Example 3.26
A loss of 3 dB (3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half
the power.
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3.31
A signal travels through an amplif ier, and its power isincreased 10 times. This means that P2= 10P1. I n this
case, the amplif ication (gain of power) can be calculated
as
Example 3.27
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3.32
One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure thechanges in the strength of a signal is that decibel
numbers can be added (or subtracted) when we are
measur ing several points (cascading) instead of just two.
I n F igure 3.27 a signal travels from point 1 to point 4. I nthis case, the decibel value can be calculated as
Example 3.28
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3.33
Figure 3.28 Decibels for Example 3.28
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3.34
Sometimes the decibel is used to measure signal powerin mil l iwatts. In this case, it is referred to asdBmand is
calculated as dBm= 10 log10 Pm, where Pmis the power
in mi l l iwatts. Calculate the power of a signal wi th dBm=
30.
Solution
We can calculate the power in the signal as
Example 3.29
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3.35
The loss in a cable is usually def ined in decibels per
ki lometer (dB/km). I f the signal at the beginning of a
cable with0.3 dB/km has a power of 2 mW, what is the
power of the signal at 5 km?
SolutionThe loss in the cable in decibels is 5 (0.3) =1.5 dB.
We can calculate the power as
Example 3.30
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3.36
Figure 3.29 Distortion
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3.37
Figure 3.30 Noise
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3.38
The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of thenoise is 1W; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB?
Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdBcan be calculated as
follows:
Example 3.31
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3.39
The values of SNR and SNRdBfor a noiseless channelare
Example 3.32
We can never achieve this ratio in real li fe; i t is an ideal.
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3.40
Figure 3.31 Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR
3
5 DATA RATE LIMITS
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3.41
3-5 DATA RATE LIMITS
Averyimportantconsiderationindatacommunications
ishowfastwecansenddata,inbitspersecond,overachannel.Dataratedependsonthreefactors:
1.Thebandwidthavailable
2.Thelevelofthesignalsweuse
3.Thequali tyofthechannel(thelevelofnoise)
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
Using Both Limits
Topics discussed in this section:
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3.42
Increasing the levels of a signal mayreduce the reliability of the system.
Note
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3.43
Does theNyquist theorembit rate agree with theintui tive bit rate descr ibed in baseband transmission?
Solution
They match when we have only two levels. We said, in
baseband transmission, the bit rate is 2 times the
bandwidth if we use only the first harmonic in the worst
case. However, the Nyquist formula is more general thanwhat we der ived intuitively; it can be applied to baseband
transmission and modulation. Also, it can be applied
when we have two or more levels of signals.
Example 3.33
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3.44
Consider a noiseless channel wi th a bandwidth of 3000Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as
Example 3.34
E l 3 35
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3.45
Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting asignal wi th four signal levels (for each level, we send 2
bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as
Example 3.35
E l 3 36
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3.46
We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel witha bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we
need?
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:
Example 3.36
Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to eitherincrease the number of levels or reduce the bit rate. I f we
have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. I f we have 64
levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.
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E l 3 39
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3.49
The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels.
Assume that SNRdB= 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2
MHz. The theoretical channel capacity can be calculated
as
Example 3.39
E l 3 40
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3.50
For practical purposes, when the SNR is very high, wecan assume that SNR + 1 is almost the same as SNR. I n
these cases, the theoretical channel capacity can be
simpli f ied to
Example 3.40
For example, we can calculate the theoretical capacity of
the previous example as
E l 3 41
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3.51
We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR
for this channel is 63. What are the appropr iate bit rate
and signal level?
Solution
F irst, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper
limit.
Example 3.41
E l 3 41 ( ti d)
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3.52
The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper l imit.
For better performance we choose something lower, 4
Mbps, for example. Then we use the Nyquist formula to
f ind the number of signal levels.
Example 3.41 (continued)
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3.53
The Shannon capacity gives us the
upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells ushow many signal levels we need.
Note
3
-
6 PERFORMANCE
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3.54
3 6 PERFORMANCE
Oneimportantissueinnetworkingistheperformanceof
thenetworkhowgoodisi t?Wediscussquali tyofservice,anoverallmeasurementofnetworkperformance,
in greaterdetailin Chapter24. In thissection, we
introducetermsthatweneedforfuturechapters.
Bandwidth
Throughput
Latency (Delay)
Bandwidth-Delay Product
Topics discussed in this section:
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3.55
In network ing , we use the term
bandwidth in two con texts .
The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers tothe range of frequencies in acomposite signal or the range of
frequencies that a channel can pass.
The second, bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the speed of bit
transmission in a channel or link.
Note
Example 3 42
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3.56
The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice ordata. The bandwidth of thi s l ine for data transmission
can be up to 56,000 bps using a sophisticated modem to
change the digital signal to analog.
Example 3.42
Example 3 43
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3.57
I f the telephone company improves the quality of the lineand increases the bandwidth to 8 kHz, we can send
112,000 bps by using the same technology as mentioned
in Example 3.42.
Example 3.43
Example 3 44
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3.58
A network wi th bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only anaverage of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the
throughput of this network?
Solution
We can calculate the throughput as
Example 3.44
The throughput is almost one-f i f th of the bandwidth in
this case.
Example 3 45
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3.59
What is the propagation time if the distance between thetwo points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed
to be 2.4 108 m/s in cable.
SolutionWe can calculate the propagation time as
Example 3.45
The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic
Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct cable between the
source and the destination.
Example 3 46
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3.60
What are the propagation time and the transmissiontime for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-mail ) if the
bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the
distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000
km and that l ight travels at 2.4 108 m/s.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission time
as shown on the next sl ide:
Example 3.46
Example 3 46 (continued)
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3.61
Note that in this case, because the message is short and
the bandwidth is high, the dominant factor is the
propagation time, not the transmission time. Thetransmission time can be ignored.
Example 3.46 (continued)
Example 3 47
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3.62
What are the propagation time and the transmissiontime for a 5-M byte message (an image) if the bandwidth
of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance
between the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and
that light travels at 2.4 108m/s.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission
times as shown on the next sl ide.
Example 3.47
Example 3 47 (continued)
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3.63
Note that in this case, because the message is very long
and the bandwidth is not very high, the dominant factor
is the transmission time, not the propagation time. Thepropagation time can be ignored.
Example 3.47 (continued)
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Figure 3.32 F il li ng the link with bits for case 1
Example 3 48
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3.65
We can think about the link between two points as apipe. The cross section of the pipe represents the
bandwidth, and the length of the pipe represents the
delay. We can say the volume of the pipe def ines the
bandwidth-delay product, as shown in F igure 3.33.
Example 3.48
Fi 3 33
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Figure 3.33 F il li ng the link with bits in case 2
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The bandwidth-delay product defines
the number of bits that can fill the link.
Note
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3.68
Figure 3.33 Concept of bandwidth-delay product
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Tw=1 msec, 1/Tw =1kHz, Tp=2 msec, 1/Tp=5kH z
Envelope zeros @ mul tiple integers of 2/Tw, peaks @ multiple integers of 1/Tw
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periodic
discrete spectral components
Peri od = 5 msec (peaks)
Width = 2.5 msec (zeros except at zero Hz)
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