Ch. 2: Behavioral Learning Theory Two Theoretical Models: Classical Conditioning –Environmental stimulus or ≠ Response –Involuntary Behavior: Limited.

Ch. 2: Behavioral Learning Theory

• Two Theoretical Models:

• Classical Conditioning– Environmental stimulus or ≠ Response– Involuntary Behavior: Limited to 2 categories of

responses

• Operant Conditioning– A(ntecedent/s) + B(ehavior/s) + C(onsequence/s)– “Operants” or Voluntary Behavior

Ch. 2: Classical Conditioning

• Theory:

• Behavior change (new responses) results from the co-occurrence to of 2 stimuli at approximately the same time– Contiguity Principle: Pairings– Learning new behaviors– Involuntary behavior: Reflexive; Affective

Ch. 2: Classical Conditioning

• The Model: US UR::CS CR

• US UR: Environment elicits response

• CS/US UR: Pairing stimuli response

• CS CR: Removal of US results in neutral stimulus paired with conditioned response

Ch. 2: Classical Conditioning

• 2 Principles that explain expanded learning:

• Generalization– Responding to stimuli SIMILAR to that

involved in learning a new response, not involved in the initial learning

• Extinction– Repeated absence of association w/ an US

resulting in decrease & eventual disappearance of a CR

Ch. 2: Operant Conditioning

• Basic Principle:

• A response followed by a reinforcing stimulus (a reinforcer) is more likely to occur again, under similar circumstances

• 2 Necessary Conditions:

• Learners must make a response

• Reinforces must be “contingent”

Ch. 2: Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcement– Any consequence following a behavior that

increases likelihood that behavior will recur or increase in frequency

• PunishmentAny consequence following a behavior that

decreases likelihood that behavior will recur, decreases in frequency or suppresses behavior

Ch. 2: Reinforcement in the Classroom

• Primary vs Secondary Reinforcers

• Positive vs Negative Reinforcement

• Timing in Reinforcement

• Motivation in Reinforcement

Ch. 2: Reinforcement in the Classroom Basic needs

• Physiological: food; water; warmth; oxygen– Sustains life; necessary for life

• Physical contacts: Affection, etc– Reflects biological needs

• Secondary Reinforcers in the classroom: – Learned behaviors that must be “crafted”

Ch. 2: Reinforcement in the Classroom

• Primary vs Secondary Reinforcers– Primary: Satisfies basic needs– Secondary: Reinforcing through association

over time (w/o directly satisfying needs)

Ch. 2: Reinforcement in the Classroom

• Positive vs Negative Reinforcement– Probability of behavior increasing as result of

reinforcement, period

• Positive: Stimulus presented AFTER behavior

• Negative: Stimulus removed as RESULT of behavior

Principles of behavior modification

From m s w

What is behavior modification?

There are many different methods and philosophies of dealing with “inappropriate,” “abnormal,” or “undesirable”

behavior. Behavior modification is one of these. It is different from other methods and philosophies in that it

focuses only on observable, describable, and measurable behaviors, as opposed,

behaviorist principles

• based on behaviorist principles, operates on the following tenets:

• 1) Behavior is controlled by antecedents, events which occur before a behavior is exhibited, and

• 2) By consequences, that is, events which occur after a behavior is exhibited.

• 3) These antecedents and consequences can be changed in order to increase or decrease the chance that a given behavior will continue to be exhibited.

• 4) Behavior, appropriate as well as inappropriate, is learned.

What are the aims of behavior modification?

• Behavior modification techniques aim to manipulate the antecedents and consequences of behavior so that the

• likelihood of appropriate behavior is increased and inappropriate behavior is decreased.

• Proactive behavior modification, interventions which avoid the utilization of aversive consequences, also

• involves teaching new and more appropriate skills (positive programming). The reason for this is the belief that

• all behavior is learned. If you are trying to reduce an inappropriate behavior, an appropriate behavior must be

• taught as an alternative.

When should behavior modification techniques be implemented?

Before introducing an intervention, several things must take place. First, it must be established that there is,

• condition, language difficulties, or cultural differences, must be investigated. Additionally, inputfrom other staff

• and from parents is necessary in establishing which behavior is problematic. Second, a functional analysis needs

• to be completed in order to establish which antecedents and consequences are supporting the behavior (or which

• antecedents and consequences are needed in the case of promoting behavior). Third, it must be determined

• whether the target behavior is of priority to justify intervention. For example, while pencil tapping may be an

• annoying behavior, it probably does not warrant implementation of a token economy. In deciding whether a

• behavior necessitates intervention, you will need to look at its frequency (how often it occurs as compared to

• peers), the intensity at which the behavior is exhibited, and the rate at which the student is able to learn new

• behaviors.• After these steps have been taken and it is agreed that a problem which warrants

intervention does exist,• behavior modification can be implemented.

What are examples of behavior modification interventions?

Examples of behavior modification which can be used to increase behavior are: praise and approval, modeling,

positive programming, shaping, token economy, self-monitoring, and shaping. Methods which can be used to

decrease behavior are: extinction, reinforcing incompatible behavior, relaxation, self-monitoring, and shaping

Principles of Behavior Modification

Breaking old habits and starting new ones is hard at any age, but becomes especially harder as the years pass. Habits are conditioned behaviors that have evolved over time. The principles of behavior modification use this conditioning process to develop new habits and eliminate old ones. Positive and negative reinforcements are the tools used throughout this process.

• Identification– Behavior modification principles are based on a

branch of psychology known as behavioral theory. Behavior--whether good of bad--is viewed as a conditioned habit. The process of behavior change is a matter of reconditioning old and new behaviors. B.F. Skinner--an American psychologist--is credited with first developing this practice in the mid 1900s. His theory of operant conditioning formed the basis for the principles behind the behavior modification approach. This approach is useful for promoting behavior change in children, and has been used to treat individuals with anxiety disorders and obsessive compulsive disorder.

• New Behaviors– Part of behavioral conditioning involves the

circumstances leading up to a behavior. These circumstances set the stage for the behavior to take place. The cueing principle makes use of these pre-conditions as a way to develop new behaviors. Once the desired behavior is carried out, positive reinforcement, or a reward is given. The use of reward works to shape a person's motivations toward the desired behavior. For larger tasks, or goals, the principle of successive approximation can be used to reward a person as he progresses through each successive step toward a goal.

• Old Behaviors– When developing a new behavior, or habit,

eliminating undesirable behaviors becomes part of the change process. Behavior modification makes use of negative reinforcement techniques to phase out undesirable behaviors. The extinction principle works by gradually removing whatever positive reinforcements are attached to an undesirable behavior. Another technique--called the satiation principle--encourages the individual to indulge in the undesired behavior until she loses interest. A more direct form of negative reinforcement is based on the punishment principle where the undesired behavior is paired with an unfavorable stimulus.

• Emotional Responses– The process used in modifying an emotional behavior

is made up of similar techniques that involve positive and negative reinforcement. The avoidance principle introduces a negative reinforcement prior to an undesirable behavior, like an angry outburst. The fear reduction principle is used to eliminate an undesirable fear response by desensitizing a person to the feared event, or object. This is done by gradually exposing the person to the situation in steps, until he no longer experiences feelings of fear.

• Maintenance– An important part of developing a new behavior is

maintaining a new routine until it becomes a regular part of a person's lifestyle. The substitution principle uses positive reinforcements to maintain a new behavior by substituting a more powerful reward in the place of the reward being used. This is done by presenting the new reward directly after the old reward is given. In order to further strengthen a new behavior, the principle of decreasing reinforcement uses fewer positive reinforcements spaced out in longer intervals. This encourages a person to work harder and longer for the same reward.

MotivationMotivationIndividualIndividual

Behavior andBehavior andPerformancePerformance

Model of Individual Behavior

RoleRolePerceptionsPerceptions

SituationalSituationalContingenciesContingencies

AbilityAbility

O.B. Mod Application ModelIdentify

Behaviors for Change

MeasureBaseline frequency of response

AnalyzeFunctional consequences

Intervene

EvaluateFor performance improvement

See Learning Module A

Modifying On-the-Job Behavior

Step 1

Identify targetbehavior

Step 2

Perform an A B C

functional analysis

Step 3

Arrange antecedents

Provide supportive andappropriatelyscheduledconsequences

Step 4

Evaluate results

A Social Learning Model for Self- Management

Person (Psychological Self)

• Symbolic coding • Rehearsal• Self-talk

Behavior• Behavior changes needed for self- improvement

Situational Cues• Reminders & attention

focusers • Self-observation data• Avoidance of negative cues• Seeking of positive cues• Personal goal-setting• Self contracts

Consequences

• Self-reinforcement/ self-punishment • Building activities into the task that are naturally rewarding

• Reinforcement from relevant others

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A Social Learning Model of Self-Management

Figure 3-3

Figure 3-3

ABC’s to Behavior Management

• Antecedent

• Behavior

• Consequences

Defining Behavior• Describe behavior objectively and

precisely (not: “he irritates me”)

• Can you observe the behavior when it begins and when it stops– can you count the number of occurrences

each day– can you measure the duration of the

behavior

• Can you observe what happens just before and just after it occurs

Behavior Management Techniques

• Positive Reinforcement

• Negative Reinforcement

• Extinction

• Response Cost Punishment

• Proximity Control

• Decontamination

Positive Reinforcement

• The positive reinforcement must be rewarding to the student

• The reinforcers must be contingent on the behavior you want to increase

• The reinforcers should be delivered immediately

• Provide appropriate units of rewards for the expected unit of behavior

Negative Reinforcement

• Definition: reinforcing a behavior by removing or preventing something unpleasant - allows the individual to escape or avoid a negative consequence

• Not recommended as a prominent part of classroom management– negative reinforcement relies on the presence or threat of negative

consequences

– deliberate negative reinforcement sets the stage for coercion/intimidation

Extinction

• To eliminate a behavior - you eliminate its reinforcement, the behavior no longer produces the desired effect (positive or negative)

• Disadvantages: slow process and when extinction procedures are first implemented, the behavior will likely become worse before better

Response Cost• The behavior “costs” something by

withholding or withdrawing a positive reinforcer contingent on a specific misbehavior

• Example: students receive 10 tokens at the beginning of class, every time a problem behavior occurs, the teacher gets 1 token back. The tokens can be exchanged at the end of the day or class for free time.

Decontamination

• Preventive action by inspecting classroom for two types of objects– Distractors: entice students to engage in off-

task behaviors (e.g. toys, slide projectors, hazards: exposed wires, broken windows

– Potential Weapons: letter openers, knives, broom handle, hammer and yard stick

Proximity Control

• Visual - visually monitor student activity from any position in the classroom

• Physical - teacher positions her/himself close to each student to inhibit antecedent

Focusing on the “Self”

• Self –core of one’s conscious existence

• Self-concept –a person’s self-perception as a physical,

social, spiritual being.

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Focusing on the “Self”

• Cognitions –a person’s knowledge, opinions, or beliefs.

• Self-esteem –Belief about one’s own self worth based on an

overall self-evaluation.

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An OB Model for Studying Individual Differences

Figure 5-1

Self Management• Behavioral Definition: help the student

choose a behavior to monitor

• Teach the student to record behavior– Event recording– Permanent Product recording

• Teach the student how to plot the data

• Teach the student how to apply self-reinforcement

• Use contracts to provide structure

Time Management Techniques

• Self-Management– Time analysis– Goal setting– Prioritization– Delegation– Action