Central Asian emigrants in the Indian subcontinentsshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/16722/9/09_chapter 4.pdfMaulana Jalaluddin Rumi, ... Shaikh Salim Chisti, deeply venerated

Chapter- 4

Central Asian emigrants in the Indian subcontinents

SUFIS

Due to onslaught of the Mongols, empire In Central Asia

Shattered into pieces and the stronghold turned into the world

of strife and conflicts in 12th and 13th centuries A.D. India

served as an asylum during this period for the persecuted and

restless migrants. The migrants who came from Central Asia to

India were great scholars, Sufis, traders, poets, preachers and

artisans, who took refuge in a safer climate. Delhi started from

the point where Baghdad and Bukhara had left.

The advent of Islam in India was followed by that of

Sufism, the name given to the mystical, humanistic, rational

and spiritual movement in the religion founded by the Prophet

Muhammad (S.A.V.).

Mysticism in Islam as in other religions, is less a doctrine

than a certain mode of thinking, feeling and acting. It is an ort

or way to find out and attain God.

Sufis came to India from Central Asia and Iran. There.

mother tongue was Persian. They also knew Arabic very well.

311

Sufism was originally a practical system of religious

beliefs and not a speculative system. It was a system of thought

or action based on the noble ideals of human nature, holding

that man is capable of self fulfillment and of ethical conduct.l

The Sufi Saints arrived in India along with the Muslim

rulers. They assimilated a good deal of Indian thought and

tradition. At the same time the inhabitants of this country who

were already under the influence of the Bhakti Movement,

found and affinity of ideas and emotions in the teachings of the

Sufi Saints.

They consisted of most educated men, emotional writers

and poets in Central Asia, Iran and Eastern world.

Prof. S. H. Askari writes.

"The most important were Abutalib Makki, Abu Yazid

Bustami, Shahabuddin Suharwardi, Abdul Qadir Jilani, Ibn-i

Arabi, Al-Ghazali and Ali Huijwiri etc; they had already set a

pattern to the Sufi thought. Of these the last, popularly called

Data Ganj Bakhsh of Ghazna, ... his book kashful-Mahjub or

Revelation of the Hidden, translated by Nicholson, is the

1 Prof. S. H. Askari, Maktub and Malfuz Literature As a source of Socio

political History, Khuda Baksh Library, Patna, 1981 AD. p. 1.

312

earliest compendium containing the essentials of Sufi

Principles and practices in Persian as al-Luma was the first of

its kind or the subject in Arabic language" .1

The court language of India during Sultanate period and

also during Mughals was Persian. The two language Persian

and Arabic played an important role in the sufi Literature.

Balkh in Mghanistan has been an important centre of the

Sufis. Sufism was deep-rooted in Balkh. A large number of

early Sufis like Abu Ishaq Ibrahim Balkhi, Abu Ali Shaqiq

Balkhi, Abdur Rahman Balkhi and Abu Abdullah Mohammad

ibn Fazl Balkh, all came from Balkh in Mghanistan. Amir

Khusrau Dehlawi originally belonged to Balkh. Maulana

Jalaluddin Rumi, a great Sufi poet was born at Balkhi.2

There are three kinds of writings to study the Sufi

Religious thought in India.

(i) The books written by the Sufi Shaikhs.

(ii) The malfuzat (Collections of the say1ngs of the

Shaikhs) and (iii) the maktubat (letters) written by the Shaiks.

1 Prof. S. H. Askari, P. 2.

2 Prof. S. A. H. Abidi, Sufism in India, Wishwa Prakashan, New Delhi, 1992

AD, P. 19-20.

313

A long list of the Sufis, such as Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti

(1143-1236), who was the founder of Chishti order in India,

came from Central Asia.

Kumras Amiri writes.

((S~oroo :~) ~ Jl.l:'l ~' ->:'' ~~~ 01-.9~ ) d2i·7·~ e;:~"

->ts: ~fiy-u 0'->=' ~~ ~'Y -.9 0t.....l.? ->j ~'~..:' '->~ ~->~ 0~)

--.s-.9~ '->~ ~ 0:~'~ ~c,'l:' ct.1...J....... L>=' 01-.9~ :,1 ~ . ..GJ,J:~

01j,.? ,, ->j ~ d2j.r.~ e;:~ (Siy7·2.; ~ 0:~'~ ~~~'~..:'

->~ ~'>.'' :,1 '-> --s~ ~ '->-.9 .J..<.t ..5.->Y. 0 t.....l.? ->j -.9 ..\..o 1 ~J'l:'

(Sy!~Uo ~_,k ~ -.9 01~ ~~ 1).;,7 -.9 ..GS~ ->j ~".i.e -.9 ~yT

) ~ -.9 ... ci.> Jl~~ -.9 ..4t ~j)-~ 0~ & J:-.ro ~ .~IJ_;;

~l6)__9n '~..:' -.9 J..<.t ~' ~~-> ~~ -.9 J:fi. ~l:gl 0 \.:ik ->j JL.... o 01

l."JIJ ~l:i <S?-1-.9.> 1.> d 2i.7·~ ti.......L..... -.9 J:Jfi --.s-.9~ <<~I,_}

Khawja Moinuddin Chishti completed his religious and

cultural duty in Ajmer and died.

Kumras Amiri writes. ~ .

-.9 ~~ '->LA0~:,t..... ~l:i -.9 ~w ~".i.e :,1 ~ ~ ~~~ ... "

'->lo~ u!J:I>.' 0GLJ........o ·~-.9~ 04-?- ) oJ:J ~I ~ .>J ·~~

:,1 ~ -.9 ~~>.'4 _}YA 0~ A ) ~ ct5: ~L.... o_p 4 -.9 ~

) -WI 0LJ........o ~)L.. .J_J.)~ .>w'l:' ~ 0:-al,.o J~l ~.>J wl)_j-a

'-""' , 'rvf ul.* '(.5"'-"->\J ":-'..~1 J u~.J ut~ (51.>,.,...:. ,..G..A ->..~ (.5"'-"->\J ":-'..~1 J u~.J 'iS->=-"1 .:.,JAJ.f. 1

.\\'\-\\A

314

c.s..>l5:Jl: j_,.;. ,)I ~IJS: ~ ,j~ T..>~ ~U:w .:,Lo,J Li ~ LJ:J.ll~ts ~

c.s..>k....!.l ,JI 0~ j;.IJ ,J LbJI-J.) .Lb-:,1-..9:1 ..>J .~I<G..J:.I~ c.s~<l:' ~ T .)j

: u.,...... u T ,) I c.s I <G ~ ,;: ,) w ~I ct.S: o J..<.t cG..J:. ,y (.5"'-"' )_g u ~,)d.:'

~ ~ d.:' JY. ~ LJ:I ~ ~ -..9l Jlo$ -..9 J4 ..>j

wJI) ..>~ LJ:~I~ <l?-l_,.;.<l:' ~~ LJ:~IJJ4.. ~~ ~ c.s..>~ LJ:bJL..,..

Sheikh Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (1187-1236 AD), who

was the khalifa and successor of Shaikh Moinuddin Chishti.

Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj Shakar (1175-1265 AD), was the

khalifa and successor of Shaikh Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.

Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325 A.D), was the

Khalifa and successor of Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj Shakar.

Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Delhi (d.1356-57 AD), the Khalifa

and successor of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya.

Shaih Bahauddin Zakaria, Founder of Suharwardi order

in Multan.

Shaikh Hamiduddin Sufi (d. 1273 AD), the Khalifa of

Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti.

u<=> .WYf ul-* 'c..s""".J\j '7'JI J u4.J ,ju~ <5I.;_,.!. .~ .;J c..s""".J\j '-:-'JI J u4.J ·<.S~I ..;;;..>-"~ 1

·""-" v

315

Mir Syed Ali Hamadani, the founder of Kubrawiyga order

in Kashmir.

Qazi Hamiduddin Nagauri, the khalifa of Shaikh

Shahabuddin Suharwardi, the founder of Suharwardi order.

Makhdum Jahaniyan was a celebrated Suharwardi saint.

Shaikh Sharfuddin Yahya Munairi, the disciple of Shaikh

Najibuddin Firdusi, the founder of Firdusi order.

Syed Mohammad Gesu Daraz, the khalifa of Shaikh

Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Delhi.

Shaikh Abdul Quddus Gangohi and their hundreds of

khalifas and disciples.

The Anis-ul-Arwah is the collection of the conversation of

Shaikh U sman Harooni, written by Shaikh Moinuddin Chishti

Ajmeri.

Dalil-ul-Arifin is the Malfuz of Shaikh Moinuddin Chishti,

written by Shaikh Qutbuddin Bhakhtiyar Kaki.

Fawaidus Salikin IS the conversation of Shaikh

Qutbuddin Bhakhtiyar Kaki, written by Shaikh Fariduddin

Gunj Shakar.

316

Rahatul Qulub is the collection of the conversation of

Shaikh Fariduddin Gunj Shakar, written by Shaikh

Nizamuddin Auliya.

The Asrarul Auliya, the sayings of Shaikh Fariduddin

Gunj Shakar, written by Shaikh Maulana Badr Ishaq.

The Afzalull Fawaid, the Malfuz of Shaikh Nizamuddin

Auliya, compiled by Amir Khusrau. Shaikh Nizamuqdin Auliya

and Chirgh-i-Delhi were the eminent personalities of the I

_Chishti Order. Fawaid ul Fuad and the Khairul Majalis are the

reliable and authentic malfuzat.

The Kashful Mahjub and the Fawaid -ul- fuad are the

best source of information for the religious thought of the

Indian Medival Sufis, these, writings are of great historical

values. 1

Khairul Majalis is the sayings of Shaikh Nasiruddin

Chiragh-i-Delhi , compiled by Hamid Qalandar, the disciple of

Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya.

1 Dr. Mohd. Noor Nabi, Indo-Persian Sources for the Study of Sufism, Indo

Iranica, 1982, 35 No.3-4. P. 81.

317

Each and every Shaikhs of every order has a book full of

the teachings of Islamic thoughts.

Sufism is one of the most important branches of

philosophy and religion. India has been the cradle of Sufis and

Sannyasis from very ancient time. India has always been a

fertile soil for the Sufis and preachers. It has attracted a large

number of Sufis and preachers in different period of the

history.

The Sufis had to travel a long way from Central Asia and

Iran before coming over to India. The whole of India hummed

with Sufistic activities during 13th and 14th Century. The Sufi

monasteries developed as an institution. These Sufis were

highly educated and religious minded people. These Sufis

considered the propagation of Islam their sacred duty.

According to the Sufis the word is derived from Arabic

root 'Safa' (purity). The Sufi is one who keeps his heart pure

with God.l

They claim to have inherited their doctrines directly from

the teachings of the holy prophets.

1 R. A Nicholson, A Literary History ofthe Arabs, P. 228. London, 1956 AD.

318

Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani was one of great saints of the

13th century A.D. In the end of the 12th century A.D. and the

beginning of the 13th century A.D. two Sufi orders came into

being in Iran. One of them was called Soharvardiya and the

other kobraviya. The Soharvardiya order further got divided

into two sub-orders; one of them was called soharvardis of Iran

and the other Soharvardis of Multan. The spiritual guide of

both the orders was Shaikh Shahabuddin Mohammad

Soharvardi (d 632 A.H.). The spiritua~ head of the kobraviya

order was Najmuddin Kubra.

Mter Najmuddin Kubra, his teachings were carried by his

disciple Mir Sayyed Ali Hamedani, the author of Zakhirat-ul

Mulook and Several other treaties on the various subject. 1

Mir Sayed Ali Hamadani kept himself detached from a

princely life and lived on the earnings that he had obtained by

making the arched head gear, called Taqia He traveled

Bukhara, Badakhshan, Turkistan, Khottalan, Syria,

Swarandip, Khata, Balkh and different other places in

Transoxiana.

1 Dr. Karim Najafi Barzegar, Intellectual movements during Timuri and

Safavid period, (1500-1700 A.D) Indian Bibliographies Bureau Delhi,

2005, P. 37-38.

319

Due to these traveling he could make many disciples.

Mir Syed Ali Hamadani in 1362 A.D, migrated to Kashmir

with his seven hundred disciples. Among them were craftsmen,

poets and doctors. 1

Mir Syed Ali Hamadani was among those Sufi Saints who

played an important role in transferring Persian language,

culture and Islamic theology to India, which created a great

impact on socio-cultural life of India.

Malik Mohammad quotes Khawja Moinduddin Chishti.

That,

"Tasawwuf or Sufism means scrupulously maintained

moral character and religious discipline, which one must

necessarily cultivate and observe towards all the creatures of

God in the interest of peace and happiness of mankind".2

At first there was a great divergence between orthodox

Islam and mysticism but at a result of the efforts of Al-hujweri,

Al-ghazali, Hazrat Abdul Qadir Gilani and Shahabuddin

Seharwardi, a workable synthesis had been found between

1 Ali Asghar Hekmat, Az Ramadan ta Kashmir, Armaghan magazine, No.3,

1330, pp. 37-43.

2 Malik Mohammad, P. 161.

320

Sufism and orthodoxy. A distinctive Sufi theology was evolved,

which developed its own terminology, characteristic of practices

and instructions which the Sufis in India fully accepted. 1

The spread of Sufism in India was completed by the

middle of 14th century A.D. it came into the contact with the

Bhakti movement. The leaders of the Bhakti movement

attracted towards the Islamic monotheism.

In the Mughal period the greatest Chishti saint was

Shaikh Salim Chisti, deeply venerated by Akbar. Mter the

death of Salim Chishti in 1572 A.D the Chishti movement

decayed.

Sufism 1n India is the continuation of the system

emanated from the khanqahs and madrasas of Samarqand and

Bukhara. When the Sufis preached the doctrine of Islam in

India, it received ready response on account of two things.

First, the belief in one supreme God proved simple. Second, the

masses were fed up with the existing social and religious

condition. The social equality offered by Islam attracted the

masses.

1 W.D. Begg, the holy biography of Hazrat Khawaja Moinudding Chishti of

Ajmer, Ajmer, P. 13.

321

With the new faith they got a new life. The converts

brought their manners and customs with them. This led the

Hindu customs and manners into the Muslim ways of life. 1

Sufi met with Sadhus and had religious conversations.

The contact with them made the Sufis aware of the religious

values of the Hinduism.

Ishwari Prasad writes.

"Most famous order was the Chishtiya, which included

such men as Sheikh Moinuddin Chishti and Shaikh Nasiruddin

Chiragh-e-Delhi - and Shaikh Salim Chishti Fathehpur Sikri.

These saints exercised a profound influence on the state and

the society of this time and their teachings were appreciated by

the Hindus and the Muslims alike. The Qadri and the

Naqshbandi which tried to spread the light of the faith among

the people in whose midst they lived". 2

The immigrant Sufis and their followers brought over and

continued the best sufi traditions from outside into India,

spiritual fervor and devotion and piety, born of long contact

1 Mohd. Yahya Tamizi, Sufi Movements in eastern India, Idarah-i

Adabiyate Delhi, 1992, P. 143.

2 Ishwari Prasad, Muslim Rule in India, P. 14.

322

and their experience of religious and mystic life. They forged

the link between the Irani, the Khurasani, the Turki and the

Indian Sufis.l

Sufism as a moral and spiritual way of life and as a

current of thought with universal appeal, found India an

exceptionally congenial ground for its growth and spread.

The contact between the Sufis and Sadhus in this country

has produced great impacts on Indian society. The khanqahs

played a significant role.

Yahya Tamizi Quotes K.A. Nizami,

"In a Khanqah there are more advantages for nov1ce.s

(murids) who come to take Sufi teachings from their murshid

(master). It is a training centre, for the mystics, a house for the

poor, a shelter for travelers, a place for free mixing with each

other for all including Muslims and non-Muslims and the rank

and file of the society. It is a common platform for all men.

Common penitence and sufferings drew out the noblest

1 Dr. J. N. Sarkar, A study of Sufism- 1st background and its syncretic

significance in Medieval India, Indo-Iranica, Voli 38, No- 1,2, 1985, P ..

323

qualities of their souls and made them understand what

Carlyle describes the divine significance of life" .1

Yahya Tamizi further writes about the strict rules 1n

khanqahs,

"Strict discipline was maintained in the khanqahs and

elaborate rules were laid down for the guidance of the inmates

how to address the murshid (spiritual guide), how to sit and

wear dresses in khanqah, how and when go to sleep, how to

talk with companion, and how to deal with visitors and guest.

The Shaikh sternly dealt with those inmates, who were found

guilty of the slightest irregularity". 2

The early personalities of Chishti order were learned

people. This order got success in India because they new how to

adept itself into the conditions and customs. A spiritual value

of music was found which they introduced. A blending of

Iranian, Central Asia and Indian music started. Qawwali with

the spiritual music started getting acceptance.

1 K. A. Nizami, studies in Medieval Indian History and culture, Allahabad,

1966, PP. 83-84. Moh. Yahya Tamizi, Sufi movement in eastern India, PP.

149-50.

2 Yahya Tamizi, P. 150.

324

They kept themselves away from the kings and did not

mingled themselves in the state affairs. Liberal in their

outlook, never condemned the people of other religions rather

interacted with them and attracted them with their moral and

spiritual qualities. About the nature of Chishti Sufis and

specially khawja Moinuddin Chishti,

Malik Mohammad writes,

"Among the Chishti Sufis, Khawja Moinuddin was the

greatest lover of humanity and had profound sympathy for all

men. He could not see any one in pain. He told his disciples to

help the helpless, to fulfill the needs of the needy and feed the

hungry. The khawja's simple and ascetic life was an inspiration

to both Hindus and Muslims. Humanity was categorized to

lower and higher birth. Justice was not done to the lower

classes they were regarded as inferior by birth ...... khawja

treated all human beings alike. Even to this day, both Hindus

and Muslim throng his shrine in Ajmer. He was popularly

known as Khawja Gharib Nawaz".l

Each and every order of these Sufis had its Khanqahs,

which had great impact on Indian society. Regarding the


325

condition of Hindu society in 12th century and the role of

Khanqahs, Yahya Tamizi writes,

"When Khanqahs were established in India, Hindu society

was pass1ng through one of the most critical phases of its

history. The caste-system had eaten into the very vitals of

Indian society and had rendered it invertebrate and rickety. In

the khanq ah the unassuming ways of the mystics, their broad

human sympathies, the classless atmosphere of the khanqahs

attracted the despised section of the Hindu society to their fold.

Since men belonging to different religions and speaking

different languages assembled in the khanqah ..... a common

lingua franca evolved there. The birth place of Urdu language

was, in fact the khanqah of the medieval Sufis. Besides, the

rise of the Bhakti movement in the 14th and the 15th centuries

may be traced back to the influence of the khanqahs" .1

Sufis loved all human beings because they were God's

creatures. These values brought by the Sufis made them

popular on India soil.

Dargahs and khanqahs were the centres of contacts with

different communities. Through the activities of Sufis saints in

1 Yahya Tamizi, P. 152; K. A. Nizami, P. 91-96.

326

these centres, the teachings of communal harmony was spread.

These centres were not only established in big towns but also in

the villages. These Sufis, from 12th century onwards, by their

tolerance and friendly spirit maintained communal harmony.

The Sufis absorbed the best of Islam and Hinduism and

developed a new sort of Sufi thought more Indian than foreign

in character. Sultans of Delhi saltanet and Mughals hold Sufis

in high esteem.

Sufism thrived and became wide - spread. Sufis friendly

and tolerant behavior retained the favour of both the

communities, Hindus and Muslims. They influenced the

peoples thought and sent the message of peace, love and

understanding. The legacy of Sufis in maintaining communal

harmony and infusing a spirit of solidarity in a country like

India, has a great role in making the secular fabric of this

nation.

Sufis came with religious and cultural tolerance, liberal

thinking and free way of life in India.

Sufis helped to shorten distance between the two

communities and created the atmosphere of communal

harmony.

327

Dr. Tara Chand writes,

"The Hindus offered sweets at Muslim shrines, consulted

the Quran as an oracle, kept its copies to ward off evil influence

and celebrated Muslim feast, and the Muslims responded with

similar acts-All these were the charismatic influence of the

teachings of the Sufis" .1

The khanqahs of these Sufis also played an important role

in maintaining communal harmony in India. The khanqahs of

these Sufis were open for each and every members of the

society, irrespective of their religious, cultural and background.

The jogis were seen specially in the Jamaat khanas and

Khanqahs of Baba Farid Gunj Shakar, Hazrat Nizamuddin

Aulia and N asiruddin Chiragh Delhi . Their presence in the

khanqahs added to prestige of the Sufis among the Hindus.2

Urs is the death anniversary of a departed pir. Urs is hold

in khanqahs on the fixed date. Disciples and murids of the pir

or the members ·of that particular order with the common

masses attend this ceremony in the khanqah or near the tomb

1 Dr. Tara Chand, Impact of Islam on Indian culture, Allahabad, 1946, P.

137.

2 Dr. Mansoor Alam, Contributions of Sufis to religious tolerance and

cultural synthesis, Indo-Iranica, vol.48, No.-1-4, 1995

328

of the pir. These ceremonies are celebrated in khanqahs, a sort

of fair is held and stall holders sells their goods, which has

developed as cultural institutions. Sufis and their thought has

given birth to a very wide range of mystic symbolism.

The Sufis contribution to same in India is overwhelming.

Amir Khusrau's music shows his love for his saint. The

qawwali performance is also called sama. Qawwal presents

mystical poetry is Persian, Urdu and Hindi.

"Dr Yusuf Hussain writes,

"In about all parts of the country the Sufis had

established their hospices (khanqahs) where spiritual

congregations were held under the presidency of the mystic

preceptor (pir), who prescribed the mystic discipline for his

followers. Music was generally patronized in the khanqah of

the Chishti and Suharwardi orders and the Qawwals song

Persian songs, sometimes Hindi songs were also sung.

References to such musical congregations where Qawwali was

recited are found in the Akhbarul Akhyar, Badauni, ...... Haft

Aqlim and the other works on medieval Indian history". 1

1 Dr. Yusuf Hussain Khan, Islamic Culture, Vol. XXX, No. 3, 1956, P. 262;

Mohd. Y ahya Tamizi, P. 153.

329

Mughals and Rajputs generated an atmosphere of mutual

understanding among Hindus and Muslims. Akhbar introduced

the system of cooking food in a big deg. Hindus were appointed

in the management of dargah. 1


"Siyar-al-Arifin gives details which contain interesting

information about the dargah's role in the cultural integration

of the two major communities, Hindus and Muslims in India.

Visitors to the dargah in Ajmer included both Muslims and

Hindus who approached it, as they still do today, with different

spiritual, psychological and economic problems, and returned

in peace and filled with hope on account of their faith in the

barakat (blessings) of the dargah". 2

There has been a culture of paying visit to these tombs of

great Sufis, not only by the masses but also by the kings and

the Sultans. Muhammad bin Tuglaq and Akbar's name can be

taken in this regard. Muhammad bin Tuglaq visited the tomb

of Hazrat Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer and latter on Akbar, not

only visited the tomb of Hazrat Moinuddin Chishti but laid


2 Ibid, P. 210.

330

foundation of a new city, Fatehpur Sikri in the memory of

Shaikh Salim Chishti. Akbar was so attached to Shaikh Salim

Chishti that he not only erected new buildings in Fatehpur

Sikri but transferred his capital from Agra.

These love and affection of the kings and Sultans towards

the Sufi saints also raised the popularity of dargahs among the

common masses.

These Sufi saints were consc1ous of Divine love. These

Sufis were the real pioneers of national integration. Sufis

helped in the development of different Indian languages like

Hindi, Gujarati, Bengali and other regional languages.

These Sufis spread Islam by appeal and the doctrine like

peace, equality and brotherhood.

In the khanqahs of Sufi saints like Shaikh Farid of

Ajodhan, Sayed Muhammad Gesu Daraz of Gulbarga, Shaikh

Ahmad Kha ttir of Ahmadabad, Rishi N uruddin of Kashmir and

others, views were exchanged between the Sufis and the Yogis

in a good atmosphere_!


331

These Sufis contributed in their own way to the social and

cultural life of India.

Sufis and their thought, essentially a product of Islam,

which originated in Arab, made its contribution in developing

philosophical thoughts during medieval period, reached the

zenith of its glory in Iran and Central Asia, made the

significant contribution is harmonizing the Indian society

culturally.

332

PREACHERS

The arrival of the people in India took place in three distinct

movements, First as a traders and preachers, second, with the

expanding wave of the U mayyads through Syr Darya up to

Indus and finally like the Greeks, the Shakas and the Huns,

the Central Asians, Iranians and Afghans, through their

organized immigration movement.

These arrival had a tremendous effect upon the sociO

cultural life of India. The muslim conquerors, 12th century

onwards overrun the country from Punjab to Assam and from

Kashmir to the Vindhyas.

The Muslims started settling gradually on the Malabar

coast. They started acquiring lands and practicing their

religion. Gradually with their missionary efferts they spread

over the whole of the western coast of India.

The preachers and all these people who were practicing

Islam appeared with a simple formula of faith and democratic

formula of social organization.

Dr. Tarachand writes,

333

"The Musalmans made their advent in South India on the

western coast as early as the eighth century if not earlier and

in the 1 Qth century on the eastern coast and they soon spread

over the whole coast and in a comparatively short time

acquired great influence both in politics and society. On the one

hand their leaders became ministers, admirals ambassadors

and farmers of revenue and on the other they made many

converts, propagated their religious ideas established mosques

. and erected tombs which became centres of their saints and

missionaries" .1

Mter the invasion of Ghanznavids, with several scholars,

artisans, poets, painters etc. Sufi preachers also came into

India in huge numbers. These preachers with their way of life

appealed the Indian mind.


"The mystical ideas of Islam and the Sufi way of life were

so appealing to the Indian mind that even the Hindu

Brahmans were not unaffected by their influence. It has been

observed that in the 15th and 16th centuries, some Brahmans

had taken to such heterodox ways of wearing a beard, walking

1 Dr. Tarachand, Influence oflslam on Indian culture, P. 34.

334

with a big stick, reading the Persian language and reciting the

Mathnawi. Muslim saints were in general, highly respected by

the non-Muslim and the Hindus often treated them with a deep

sense of trust and veneration. Same of the Muslim Sufi had

acquainted themselves with Hindu religious thought and

mystical ideas and attracted large numbers of Hindus to their

khanqahs" .1

Sufi preachers with their pious mission of the true faith

came to India from Arabia, Syria, Iran, Samarqand and

Bukhara. Sheikh Ismail came ·from Bukhara, who was a

theologian with his polished manners settled at Lahore in 1005

A.D. Syed Nisar Shah (964-1039 A.D.), settled in Trichinopoly

after vast traveling through Arabia, Iran and North India.2

Sheikh Hussain Zanjani came to India from Azarbaijan,

settled at Lahore and preached Islam.


Among the preachers of Islam in India the Sufi training

was more ascetic was closer to the masses of the people than

the theologian, who was generally a fanatic· and lacked


2 T. B. Aranold, Preaching's oflslam, 1896, P. 153.

335

spiritual sensitiveness. In city, town and village the Sufi

formed himself into a pivot of an inner circle of Muslim

disciples and an outer circle of non-Muslims mainly low-caste

Hindus, whom he attracted by his spirituality and humanity.

In the 12th century Kashmir was predominantly a Hindu

society. In 16th century, Islam replaced Hinduism as the mass

religion of the valley. The famous Mughal historian Abul Fazal

and the Emperor J ahangir were struck by the popularity of the

indigenous Sufis called Rishis. 1

In spite of the presence of the Muslim preachers the

Muslims were in minority in Kashmir. And their life pattern

was not different from that of Hindus. The Muslim community

had virtually adopted a Hindu way of life, to the extent of

worshiping idols.2

The situation changed after the arrival of Mir Syed Ali

Hamedani in 1384 with his hundreds of followers. They

belonged to Kubravi order. They approached to the Sultan and

the masses as well.

1 Mohammad Asharaf Wani, Islam in Kashmir, Oriental Publishing house,

Srinagar, 2005, Introduction.

2 Mohammad Asharaf Wani, Islam in Kashmir, Oriental Publishing house,

Srinagar, 2005, Introduction, P. 58.

336

Muhammad Ashraf W ani writes,

"Syed Ali is not only the first Muslim missionary to have

converted a good number of people to Islam but he is also a

pioneer Muslim preacher the other way round too. He is the

first to have launched a movement of total Islamization of the

life pattern of the people as unlike the other preacher he was

not satisfied with mere ritualistic convention. This is evident

not only from his persuasive teachings, leading to the change of

life style of the then reigning Sultan of Kashmir, but also from

his monumental work, Dhakhirat-al-Muluk, in which he

presents Islam as a comprehensive Zabta-i-hayat (code of life)

and persuades the Muslims to follow Islam in every walks of

1"£ " 1 1 e .

Mir Syed Ali Hamadani, laid a strong foundation for such

mission. Mter him, his disciples and his son Mir Muhammad

Hamadani with his followers continued his mission.

These preachers initially tried to preach the contemporary

Sultans and his nobles, with this in mind that the masses

generally follow their kings.

Muhammad Ashraf Wani writes,

1 Muhammad AshrafWani, P- 62.

337

"With the whole-hearted support of the nobility the Sultan

enforced the Shariah and banned dancing of women, gambling

and playing of musical instruments. The foundation of Islam

was made stronger by the creation of a network of Islamic

institution. Key among these were madarsas, legal schools,

Fa twa organizations, mosques and Khanqahs" .1

The reign of Sultan Zainul Abedin can be considered as a

reign of religious liberty for each community. Sultan patronized

both Islamic as well as Hindu culture. During his reign, due to

popularity and stability, preachers, scholars, poets, artisans

migrated from Iran and central Asia. He wanted to see

Kashmir like Samarqand and Bukhara.

The Sultan who succeeded Zinul Abe din maintained the

latters policy of non interference in religious affairs and like

him treated their subjects on equal footing. 2

Muslim preacher did their work in Kashmir and got

success without the involvement of the state. These preachers

were Sayed Sharfuddin, Sayed Hussain Simnani, Sayed Ali

Hamadani and Shaikh Nuruddin.

1 Ibid, P. 64.

2 Ibid, P. 130.

338

During the rule of Hindu rulers prostitution centres were

rampant and no religious festivals and parties were complete

without drink and dance. But due to these preachers, the

Sultans on the other hand, prostitution centre did not exist at

all; the Sultans were of good moral characters. 1

In order to inspire the Muslims to live a simple life, Sayed

Ali quotes the austere life style of various prophets including

prophet Muhammad and the first four caliphs.2 He himself

earned his livelihood by making caps, 3 although the rulers

vainly offered him fabulous gifts. 4

These were the characters of the Muslim preachers who

preached not only the theoretical aspect of Islam but also the

practical aspect. They demonstrated their life style with

simplicity.

The followers of Mir Sayed Ali Hamadani carried forward

his mission with great zeal. The Sufi preachers concern for

social justice appealed to the neglected people in the society.

1 Ibid, P. 148.

2 Dhakhiral-al-Maluk.

3 Khulasat-al-Manaqib, P. 542.

4 Haidar Malik, History of Kashmir, P. 43.

339

Mir Sayed Ali Hamadani and his followers interred

Kashmir not only as preacher but with the zeal to replace the

local culture. A large number of professional of different field

accompanied him. They introduced the spinney wheel, rearing

of silk worm, shawl making, carpet weaving, paper making,

book binding, calligraphy and manufacturing of silken cloths.

The locals attracted not only towards Islam as a religion

who gives justice to al and prohibits the evil doings but towards

a culture brought by Iranians and Central Asians. They

attracted towards this new and developed culture.

They also introduced timing and ornamentation of tinned

ware, glazed title making, a superior kind of wood work and

grafting.

Ashraf W ani gives detail in his book,

"They brought knowledge of a new system of medicine,

hospitals, Advanced mathemetics, astrological knowledge, new

Persian meters, new dishes, new sweats new dresses (qamiz,

Shalwar, Sadri, aba, qaba, choga etc.) and last but not lest, new

340

poetic genres ghazal, qasida, mars1ya, rubai, mathnavi, naat

and manqabat" .1

Mter Zainul Abedin, who is said to be the predecessor of

Akbar, patronized cultural activities and encouraged scholars,

craft men, poets, physician during his tenure, a Central Asian,

Mirza Haidar Dughlat ruled Kashmir (1540-1550) also

contributed in patronizing Central Asian and Iranian culture.

Persian became the court language Sufism, Persian poetry

and grammar became popular. The Iranian and Central Asian

dress became the part of new culture. They started burying

their deads. These preachers did not make 'Parda" mandatory

for muslim women.

The language of the Iranian and Central Asian preachers

was Persian. The books they brought to impart religious or

secular education were in Persian language. Persian became

the court language in India. Both Hindus and Muslim started

learning Persian.

Malik Mohammad writes about the diffusion of Islam in

India and its impact on Indian society,

1 AshrafWani, PP. 201-2.

341

"The diffusion of Islam in India had once awakened the

Hindu masses to a number of facts, never before so vividly

known to them. Islam's arguments against image worship and

polytheism, its strong condemnation of cast discrimination and

its ideas that all are equal before the Divine Grace and non can

be deprived of loving and worshipping God, which was of great

attraction to the low castes and outecast population have all

contributed to the spiritual development of Indian society and

culture. 1


342

TRADERS

India, Iran and Central Asia have been having trade contacts

s1nce time immemorial. These contacts facilitated the

formation of socio-cultural bonds. These traders came to India

via sea route and by the Central Asian land route.

These traders reached Malabar coast of India and

conducted trade. They also reached Kalyan (near Mumbai) on

the Konkan coast. These traders met each other with other

mercantile group. These people were Arabs, Iranians,

Zoroastrians and Central Asians. Their language was Persian

and Arabic. Generally these trade vessels traveled in convoy to

avoid the numerous pirates of the western coast of India.

The Malabar coast became a commercially active port like

Calicut. It became the outpost of Iranian and Arab merchants.

Shahrukh's ambassador (1441-42), Abdul Razaq saw

merchants from Bengal, Malabar, Bijapur, Vijaynagar and

Gujarat came to Hormuz. People from Hormuz and Khurasan

resided at vijaynagar.

Dr. Ruby Maloni quotes from the account of Abdul

Razzaq,

343

"Many Persians were employed in the Deccan".

She further quotes, Nikitin, the Russian visitor,

"The rulers and the nobles in the land of India are all

khorassanians" .1

These merchants were settled at Cambay in Gujarat and

Built mosques in Central Asia and Iranian style.

The main overland route was the long established silk

routs. With trade by sea route the overland route, which was a

significant trade rout, have been also in use.

Apart from the fact that these were permanent

settlements of traders in Northern India, Gujarat, Malabar and

at konkan port, there was also continuous movement of people

between India, Iran and Central Asia, for trade purposes.

Central Asian horses were in considerable demand in India and

this trade was mainly in the hands of Central Asians.

1 Dr. Ruby Maloni, Indo-Iran Trade Relations: An Overview. (Article

produced in the deparment of History University of Mumbai,) Indo-Iran

Relation, culture House, N. New, 2002, P. 224.

344

The caste system in India attracted the notice of the early

immigrants. Equality and brotherhood have been the principle

of Islamic society.

A large number of immigrants from Central Asian regions

settled in this country, and made India their home.

The Brahmans, who were the pioneer of the caste system,

had been exempted from all sorts of taxes in the previous

regime, lost there privileged position. The lower caste people

not only supported the immigrants but got the opportunity to

alleviate their material position and some of them embraced

Islam as it gave them higher social status. Yusuf Hussain

writes,

"During the course of a century the Muslim population,

consisting of the converts, and the immigrants, spread all over

northern India. The converts naturally, retained many of their

former traditions. The immigrants who settled in small

towns ... They were no longer stranger. The early resentment of

the Hindus no longer existed. These immigrants came to regard

345

India as their home. The foundation of Indo-Muslim society

were now laid". 1

Inter-marriages with Hindu women began. The practice in

India of the Arab, Turks, Persians and Mghans of marrying

Hindu women continued. Marriages took place in all classes of

society. Through these marriages the Indian and immigrants

culture penetrated into these families.

During the Mughal perod the trade and industry

flourished. The Mughal conquest of Northern India brought

radical changes in socio-cultural life in India. Technological

advancement also influenced the economic life of the people. In

the wake of the Mughal conquest of India a large number of

immigrants and many celebrities came to India from Central

Asia and Iran and settled in India. Many foreigners including

merchants contributed in the state administration and the

economic setup of the Mughals.2

The nature of India's trade inland and foreign, has

practically been the same in the ancient and medieval ages.

1 YasufHusain, Glimpses of Medieval Indian Culture, Asia Publishing

House, New Delhi, 1957, P. 121.

2 Shirin Moosvi, Production, consumption and population in Akbar's time,

New Delhi, 1993, P. 99.

346

During the medieval period the whole of Northern and Western

India had commercial relations with Central Asia and other

regions as well. I

Babur was well aware of the importance of the

communication system and foreign trade particularly to ensure

the regular flow of reinforcement from Kabul. Square towers

were erected, chaukis were established, which helped in the

development of trade and communication system.2

Travel for men and merchandize became easier and safer

during .Akbar's reign. The new roads and bridges were

constructed, military posts were stablished, which gave

security and stimulated the flow oftrade.3

Transactions with foreign countries were done on

exchange basis.

The banking system is very old in India. But local banking

received a jolt with the advent of Muslims in India. They

brought their own theory based on the Islamic law, which

1 Ibid, P. 99.

2 Babur, Tuzuk-i-Baburi, Eng trans, A.S. Beveridge, London, 1921, pp. 629-30.

3 Abul Fazal, Ain-i-Akbari, Eng.trans, Blochman, Calcutta, 1868, Vol. I, p. 257.

347

considered the selling of one's goods or property on interest a

great sin.

Indian imports from Central Asia and Iran were horses

furs, silk and silk stuff and clothes, plants, fruits, herb, gold,

silver, olive oil, rose water, glass etc.

India also exported different articles, not only to Central

Asia and Iran but also to different Asian and European

countries, like cloths, elephants, tusk and orns, pearls, spices,

cotton, musk, woods, sugar, grain, Indigo etc.l

During Mughals travellers used to form caravans. The

caravan was both the oldest and the most popular method of

travelling in large groups. It provided security and made an

important contribution to social and commercial life.

These traders not only travelled from one place to another

but used to stay for a long time at one place. This resulted in

mutual exchange of culture and thought, which affected the

socio-cultural life of India at a great extent in every walk of life.

1 K. M. Ashraf, life and conditions of the people of Hindustan, New Delhi,

1970, P. 143.

348

KINGS

Kings and Sultans of medieval period were originally the

people of Central Asia and being the slave of one king or the

other established kingdom in Delhi. They not only tried to

improve their relation with Central Asia but also made India

their homeland.

These rulers were foreigners and belonged to a different

religion. But majority of them were tolerant and did not

interfere in the socio-religious matter. For the simple reason

that they could not have consolidate their rule in a country like

India, after antagonizing the Indians. They tried to kept

themselves away from the orthodox Ulema and identified with

the locals and the native saints. Religious tolerance was the

policy of the Sultans of Delhi. 1

Sultan Iltutmish and her daughter Raziya ignored the

dictates of Ulema. They nerver allowed the interference of

Ulemas in the political affairs, she abolished J aziya and gave

full support to her Hindu subjects.

1 Dr. Ajeet Javed "little known dimensions of Muslim Rule" in Heritage of

harmony, P. 81.

349

Sultan Alauddin Khilji, Sultan Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and

Muhammad bin Tughlaq also persuaded the policy of religious

tolarence. Alauddin Khilji was of idea that the policy of

government is one thing and the rule and the decree of the

Sharia another. The Sultanate is not bound by Sharia. He built

several new temples and repaired the old ones. Ghiyasuddin

and Muhammad bin Tuglaq had great respect for Jain monks.


"The rulers were Muslims but the state was not

theocratic. It was not ruled according to the Shariat but with

the clear-cut motive of retaining power and expanding the

empire" .1

Deccan was far ahead in religious liberalism. Alauddin

Hasan, Shahabuddin Ahmad I, who was the disciple of the Sufi

saint Gesue deraz were the bleaver of universal brotherhood

and had high regard for Hindu saints.

The rulers of Bijapur and the Nizam Shahis of Ahmad

Nagar hold libral attitudes towards their Hindu Subjects.


350

Religious tolerance was at its peak in Kashmir during

Sultan Zainul Abedin. He new many languages, like sanskrit,

Persian, Tibetan and Kashmiri. He band cow-slaughter in

Kashmir. Built new temples and visited Hindu Sharines of

Amarnath and Sharda Devi temples.!

Babur, Humayun and Akbar also persuaded the policy of

religious tolerance and gave respect to the saints. Babur hardly

could rule for five years but is such short of time could

formulate the policy of the future empire in India. A man with

high aesthetic sense could find out the best things in India and

did not hesitate in criticizing India and Indians in certain

areas.

Humayun did not find much time to contribute to socio

cultural life as he had to struggle for survival. Both Babur and

Humayun were not orthodox. Babur had advised Humayun

that religious bigotry should be wiped out and abstains from

sacrifice of cows. Humayun followed the foot step of his father.

Tried his level best to contribute to socio-cultural life. He had

to flee from the country due to the betrayal of his brothers and

came back to the power with the help of Iranian king and died.


351

Akbar the great with his vision and many resources at his

disposal could materialize the dream of his grand father Babur.

Akbar respected all the religions and the saints of

different religion like his ancestors.


"All religions flourished during Akbar's reign, as he being

the sovereign paid respect to all alike. He gave generous

endowment to temples and himself raised temples in Kashmir.

On the order of the emperor a small temple was built within

the fort of Fatehpur Sikri. Abul Fazal too had a high opinion of

Hinduism and held the Kashmiri Brahman in high esteem" .1

These kings practiced their own religion but gave respect

to the leaders of different religions. They not only prayed in

their mosques but also visited temples and other places of

worships. These approaches of the kings towards different

religion and their policy of religious tolerance made them

popular and acceptable in the eyes of the people of different

religion.


352

Some of the sultans of Delhi Saltanat and Mughal

emperors did inter-religious marriages, which helped in

Indianizing these rulers, secularizing the Indian state and

harmonizing the Indian society. Ghiyasudding Tuglaq, Sultan

Firoz Shah, Sikandar Lodi, Mohammad Quli of Golkonda,

Muzaffar Shah, Sultan Sikandar and Sultan Ali Shah of

Kashmir, Emperor Jahangir, Shahjahan, Ahmad Shah and

Bahadur Shah Zafar were born of Hindu mothers. They thus

were as much Mulsim as Hindu. Both mother and father

shaped their ideas, ideals and out-look. They not only respected

but also adopted the traditions, customs and ways of life of both

the communities despite the ire of the orthodox of both the

religions. 1

Hindu festivals like Shivratri, Baisakhi, Diwali, Dussehra

and Ramnavmi became official festivals during Mughals. For

the special ceremony of these festivals, Mughal administration

used to pay from its treasury.

Babur, Humayun and Akbar always treated Indians as

their subjects. They had link in Central Asia. They had their

relatives and friends in Central Asia. They had legacy of

Central Asia with them. But they made India their home. Their


353

heart used to beat for India and Indians. Each and every policy

of Mughal kings were for the benefit of their subject. Akbar

was the most secular and popluar king of India. He had

imbibed in himself all that was good in Zainul Abedin,

Mohammad bin Tuglaq and Sher Shah. 1

Akbar recruited the best of talents irrespective of their

race, religion and caste in the administration of the country.

Man Singh, Raja Todarmal and Birbal were very important

personalities in the eyes of Akbar. Man Singh was the army

Chief and Raja Todarmal was the finance minister during

Akbar's reign. They not only carried out their responsibility but

all the nine jewels of Akbar helped him in making this country

secular and prosperous.

Akbar was against the custom of Sati. He took strong

exception to a woman being forcibly made sati.

Medieval Indian history is full of cultural activities. Kings

of medieval history have played important role in the socio

cultural life of India.


354

TRAVELERS

The commercial and maritime contact, paved the way not only

for the Central Asia, Iranian and Arab Sufis and traders, who

established important colonies, but attracted large number of

travelers from different corners of the world. These travelers

also like Sufis, preachers and traders contributed in socio

culturallife of India.

Among the most eminent personalities who visited India

and settled in Lakhnawti was Qazi Ruknuddin Samarqandi,

who wrote kitabul Maani fil Idrakat Alamul Insani, based on a

Sanskrit work Amrita-Kunda.1

There is evidence; concerning the attachment of Sufi

Saints to the traders and their establishment of colonies lead

us conclude that Muslims from the distant lands of Central

Asia, Iran and Arabia had visited India prior to the advent of

Muslim army.

Sulayman a trader visited India in 851 A.D and wrote

about the cremation of the dead and widow burning. He also

praised about Hindu proficiency in astronomy, philosophy and

medicine.

1 Journal of Pakistan Historical Society, January, 1953, P. 52.

355

Others like Zayd Hasan al-Sayrafi, Al-Masudi, al-Baghadi

etc. Who visited India, explored this land and came to

conclusion according to their field of interest.

By this time the Central Asians and Iraninas had already

established in north-West India.

Al-Biruni was the first travellor, who traveled Punjab,

and Sindh and stayed at Lahar, Multan and Peshawar. During

his travels he studied Sanskirit. He also engaged himself in

collecting information about science, religious theories and

Indian customs.


"The first Muslim thinker who paid significant attention

to Indian culture was also the most thorough and profound of

all. Abu Raihan al-Biruni (AD 973-1050), one of the great

luminaries of mediaval Islamic sc1ence, was born in

Khawarazm ..... he was brought to Ghazana and later

accompanied Mahmood Ghaznavi on some of his military

expedition to India. He studied with Indian sages and made

great efforts to collect Indian books. In this way he acquired

there a first hand knowledge of Indian civilization and

subsequently rote his outstanding account of India under the

356

title; Tahqiq rna lil Hind m1n maqula maqbula fial aql

mardh ula" .1

He traveled extensively in western India and studied

Indian sciences and philosophy thoughts in the local language.

Then he started writing of 'India'.


"No civilized nation by that time, or even centuries after,

produced on the socio-religious life of an alien people such a

work, which is matchless by virtue of the extent of its scope,

the diversity of its subject, comparative method adopted in it,

and above all, the deep and unbiased insight of the author:

'India', indeed shall always remain wonder of the world of

learning". 2

Biruni was of the op1n1on, that the philosophers,

Brahmans and Indian sages are the true representatives of the

Hindu religion. His book, 'India' deals with Hindu rituals,

festivals fundamentals of the Hindu law and social practices.

Malik Mohammad has rightly pointed out:



357

"Al-Biruni's ma1n contribution lies in his unprejudiced

study of Hindu religion, which did not appear to him to be mere

idol-worship, as it did to most Muslims during the first 500

years of Muslim rule in India between Mahmood of Ghazna

and Akbar. He regarded the essence of Hindu religion as a form

of monotheism and the Hindu idol-worship as merely the

manifestation of the dark and ignorant passions of the crowd.

He was the first to introduce the study of the Bhagavad Gita to

the Muslim world, the first Muslim to study the Puranas and to

translate Patanjali and Samkhya into a Muslim language".!

One of the most prominent representative of indo-Muslim

culture was the great poet, literature and mystic of the time

Amir Khusrau (1253-1325 A.D.). He came from a family of

Turkish immigrants, settled in Patiali.

He was man of versatile talents, became a courtier and for

nearly half a century saw the rise and fall of dynasties. He was

the disciple of Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia. He was well worsed

in Persian and Hindavi.

Yusuf Husain writes,


358

"Khusrau commences by likening India to the Garden of

Eden, where Adam resided before his fall. He speaks about the

fertility and fruitfulness of its soils. To gladden the heart of

man there are flowers here all the year round, while in Persia

and Turkey they last only for two or three months Indian

flowers have a sweet scent, while the flowers of Persia and

Turkey have no fragrance on account of the cold climate.

Greece has been famous for its philosophy, but India is equally

famous. Logic, astrology, physics, mathematics and astronomy,

all are cultivated here. They worship, no doubt stones, plants

and the sun but they recognize that these things are creation of

God and adore them simple because their fore fathers did so". 1

He is assertive in showing his pride in his Indian origin.

Amir Khusrau further gives some arguments to prove the

India's superiority.

He says, India's climate is not cold like that of Khurasan,

People die of cold, not of heat, in a warm climate requirements

of clothes are few and living in cheap.

He further says, India is evergreen while spring comes to

Khurasan only for a few weeks. Khurasanis cannot grow

1 Yusuf Husain, P. 122.

359

bananas but Khurasani fruits can be grown in India. India has

a rare fruit, banana and a rare leaf Pan.


"There in genuine absorption of Indian environmental

beauty in the creative activity of Khusrau. He praises Delhi for

its mosques, its ravishing Hindu beauties, its splendour and

scholarship, in which it surpassed Bukhara and Khwarizm and

even Baghdad ....... He takes pleasure in writing sensually of

India's fauna and flora in contradiction to the tradition of Indo

Persian poetry. In his poetic diction, he blends Hindu words

musically and harmoniously." 1

Ma Haun, a Chinese traveler who came to Bengal in 1405

A.D. and gave details about the contemporary dress of the

people.

"They wear white cloth turbans and long loose robs with a

round collar which they put on over their head, they wear

painted leather shoes, the king and his officers all dress like

Muhammadans." 2


2 Chalbani, (J.R.A.S.), 1895, the Economic Condition of India in the 16th

century, P. 88.

360

Travelers who visited India during 15th and 16th century

did not hesitate to compare Indian cities to London, Paris or

Constantinople, the greatest cities which were known to them.

Besides Delhi, the important cities in northern India were

Srinagar, Agra and Lahor, Mirza Haider, a companion of

Humayaun has left a detailed description of the city of

Srinagar.

"In the town there are many lofty buildings Most of these

are at least five stories high and each story contains

apartments, halls, galleries and towers. The beauty of their

exterior defies description and all who behold them for the first

time, bite the finger of astonishment with the teeth of

admiration" .1

Abdul Razzaq visited India in 1442 AD and traveled in

south India. He has explained about the commercial activities

at Calicut. He saw the vessels full of pepper and different other

goods.

He also has given a detail description about the city of

Vijaynagar.

1 YusufHussain, P. 138.

361

The account of these travelers, who either have settled

here or just visited this country, has given a full detail of a

particular period. They have minutely observed and focused on

each and every aspect of socio-cultural life of this country.

Some times if we do not have contemporary written history, we

base on those travelogues written by those travellers. Apart

from these travellers, there are so many European travellers

who visited this country from early to the later medieval

period, whose travelogues also help in formulating the socio

cultural life of medieval India.

362

CHAPTER-5

Indian traders and travellers in Central Asia and their impressions about Central

Asia

The activities of Indian traders in Central Asia from 16th

century onwards is a well-known fact. An English traveler

Anthony Jenkinson who visited Bukhara, 1n 16th century

mentioned about Indian traders in Central Asia. 1

Both Soviet and Iranian authors like K.A. Antonova and

S. Gopal and D. Kaushik have seen commercial contacts

between the two regions.

Traders of India had played an important role in the

commercial activities of Central Asia. These writers do not talk

much about the volume and the numbers of Indian traders in

Central Asia rather their activities.

Indian commercial firms, which was mostly family based

had large capital resources and did not confirm to the

stereotype of the Asian peddler. 2

1 Anthony Jenkinson, Early Voyage and travels to Russia and Persia,

Landon, 1886.

2 Dale, Indian Merchants, p. 112-26.

363

Trade between India, Iran and Central Asia consisted

mostly of small quantities of luxury or semi-luxury goods. It

also included bulk goods, agricultural products, cotton and silk

textiles and horses and trade in Indian slave sent to Turan. 1

It mobilized huge caravans of thousands of camels, horses

and mules, which demanded a level of organization much

beyond that of simple pedlars.

The trading contacts between India, Iran and Central

Asia benefited from the late 16th century onwards from the

stabilization of Mughal rule in India, safavid rule in Iran and

U zbek rule in Turan. 2

India exported many types of goods, both food and non

food crops as well as cotton textiles, which were the single

largest item in India's export trade.3

India's major import from Central Asia was horses.

1 Levi, The Indian Diaspora, p. 60-70.

2 Journal of the Economic and Social History of the orient, 37, 3(August

1994), p. 202-25.

3 Levi, the Indian Diaspora, pp. 71-80.

364

Trade between India, Iran and Central Asia adversely

effected due to Russia which put an end to the active

commercial role of Indian traders in the region.

Khoqand developed its trade with Russia to which it

exported growing quantities of cotton and from where it

received important amount of manufactured goods. Parts of

this Russian imports came to India via Kashghar in xinjiang.

A new trade route opend on which Khoqandian merchant

played a major role. Indian merchants and traders were also

attracted. The new importance of Khoqand also led to growing

settlement of Indian traders and money lenders there. 1

The cluster of Multani traders in the port of Astrakhan

who were settled in 17th century on the Caspian Sea, which was

one of the important terminus of the major trade route from

India to Russia.

Originally, 1n the 13th century, Multani referred to a

community of merchant -bankers, resident in Delhi, who were

said to originate from the city ofMultan.2

1 Levi, the Indian Dispora, pp. 21-25.

2 Zia-Ul-Din Barani, Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, (ed.Syed Ahmad Khan),

Calcutta, 1862, pp. 305-7.

365

Mter a gap they reappeared in 16th century as a blanket

term to all India traders in Iran and Central Asia.

Indians mostly played the role of middle man between

Iran, India and Central Asia. They were facilitators of trade

than actual traders. They were at the same time merchant and

financiers in Central Asia. There in no doubt that the origins of

Indian merchant lie in the participation of Indian merchants in

the carvan trade between India and Central Asia. They intered

in Central Asia as sellers rather than as buyers. In Central

Asia, during those time there were few goods produced which

had significant market in India. Apart from horses in the trade

of which Indian merchants played a subsidiary role, silk was

the only product from Central Asia for which there was a

demand in India. On the other hand, Indian goods that found a

ready made market in Iran and Central Asia, such as grain,

indigo, spices and cotton textiles.

Iranian and Central Asian merchants came to India and

sometimes they settled. Iranians preferred destination was

Deccan in 17th century .1

1 A. Burton, the Bukharans: A Dynastic, Diplomatic and Commercial

History, 1550-1702, New York, 1997, pp. 445.

366

They mostly traveled by sea to reach their destination

Indian merchants were in the habit from very beginning to

cross the mountain passes and the desert to reach Iran and

Central Asia.

In 16th century Indians, including Hindu merchants, built

their colonies in Iran and Central Asia.

Iran and Central Asia was not part of India but it was

considered by Indians businessmen as regions of the civilized

world. One contributing factor to this perception of Central

Asia as part of the civilized world had probably to do with

Sufism. Many north Indian Hindu merchants were m urids of

Sufis, and the Sufi orders were a powerful cultural link

between northern India and Central Asia.

Some of these merchants new Persian Language and the

Persian Culture. The politics of Safavid Iran and Central Asian

Ozbeks had so many things common with Mughal India. The

conditions were favorable for the Indian business community in

Iran and Central Asia.

The Lohanis, Indo-Mgans or Mus lim M ultanis had a

relationship with Shikarpuris, as recounted in numerous travel

accounts of the period. They were semi- nomadic merchants

367

who traveled regularly between India and Central Asia, but

whether they were really part of the overall Indian activities

remains a moot point.

Accounting was a crucial field of expertise of Indian

traders. They had developed sophisticated systems of double

entry book keeping. The Iranian merchant had also special

notation system for accounting known as Siyaq, and were fairly

advanced in their accountings. 1

There Multanis functioned mainly on the basis of trust

and caste-based nature of the Indian family firms which

dominated the trade.

The was no structural change in Indo-Central Asian trade

since 1550 onwards. It is also true that Indian merchants

benefited from the protection of the various Central Asian

rulers.

16th century onwards Indian traders were largely the

agents of a trade system linking mughal India with the Safavid

Empire and the U zbek Khanates of Central Asia. A system

which operated within a largely Islamicized world but in which

1 Scott C. Levi, India and Central Asia, p. 139.

368

non-Muslim traders, Hindu, Jewish or Christian Played an

important role.

But to focus much on trade relation between the two

region there are little detailed material available.

Scott C. Levi writes,

"There is no doubt that Indian merchant communities

were important sites for the accumulation and development of

various form of specific skills and knowledge, but lack of extant

written document makes the study of the aspect extremely

problem tic" .1

The accounts of foreign travelers and writers throw much

light on the commercial activities between the two region India

and Iran.

Besides the sea route there was also land route of trade

between the two regions. This was the age long route v1a

Khayber pass, Kabul and Qandhra. Quzder have been the

meeting place of Indian, Iranian and Khurasani traders.

India exported spices pearls, cotton clothes, gold and

elephant tusks, cloves, ginger, indigo, iron etc.

1 Scoll C. Levi, India and Central Asia, p. 139.

369

Iran exported horses, dates, salt, sulphur, woolen carpet

etc. to India.

Indian traders played a very important role in business

with Iran. Since early medieval period Indian traders

established their colony in different places in Iran. Barbosa

estimated India's trade with Aden larger and richer then any ...

where else in the world. During the reign of Shah Abbas I,

Indian traders had established them selves in Isfahan and

Bander Abbas.!

Ibn Batulah tells that Ormuz was the Centre from where

Indian goods were carried to the Fars and Khurasan.

Iranian traders had trade contacts with India. They were

1n contact with Deccan even before the Arab and Turkish

Contact Iranian Settlements were there on the western coast of

India.

Indian traders had lasting competitive advantages visa-a

Vls potential competitors like Central Asian Muslims,

Armenians or Jews.

1 Dr. J. N. Sarkar, p. 54.

370

The conquest of Timur, who defeated the Turks in 1402

included Iran and a large part of northern India created a

single political authority from Black sea to the border of China

and the Gangetic plain in India, promoted condition in which

over land trade flourished. Samarqand became an enter port

for the whole of Central Asia and Iran looked to its market

where traders flocked from distant countries including India. 1

Heart, which had served as an enter port of overland

trade between Golden Horde, Khwarizm and India since the

14th century.

Prof. Surendra Gopal writes,

"The political unification of such a vast landmass by

Timur had accelerated the growth of flourishing overland trade

with Sultaniya and Heart and Samarqand Served as nodal

points. The Indian did avail of this opportunity". 2

The Afghan powindahs were a classic example of

mediatory trade in Central Asia. They have been doing this

trade since their caravan route coincided with their pastoral

1 Indo-Iran Relation, Prof. Surendra Gopal, Trade contact between India

and Iran, Iran culture House, New Delhi, p. 278.

2 Prof. Surendra Gopla, Trade contact between India and Iran, p. 279.

371

migrations. As no-sedentary merchants, they were a link

between major urban areas. Overland trade had been since

ancient period through Kabul and kandhar during Sultanate

period (1206-1526 A.D.) Multan was a major entrepot due to its

strategic position.

Babur in his memo1rs refers Luharnis, who were

collectively known as powindahs, as a significant group of

merchants. They were active in this trade since 1 Qth century

and possessed a monopoly of transport animals. 1

Indo-Central Asian trade, both by the overland and sea

routes survived political and technological changes.

1 Dr. Rubi Maloni, Indo-Iran trade relations: An overview. Iran culture

House, 2002, p. 228-29.

372

Central Asian emigrants in the Indian subcontinentsshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/16722/9/09_chapter 4.pdfMaulana Jalaluddin Rumi, ... Shaikh Salim Chisti, deeply venerated

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