“ “ Education is a progressive Education is a progressive discovery of our own ignorance” discovery of our own ignorance” - - Will Durant - Will Durant - CCRN REVIEW PART 2 CCRN REVIEW PART 2 Sherry L. Knowles, RN, CCRN, CRNI Sherry L. Knowles, RN, CCRN, CRNI
The CCRN Review prepares critical care nurses for the CCRN and PCCN certification exams and is an excellent review for other nurses and other health care professionals.
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““Education is a progressive Education is a progressive
discovery of our own ignorance”discovery of our own ignorance”- - Will Durant -Will Durant -
CCRN REVIEW PART 2CCRN REVIEW PART 2
Sherry L. Knowles, RN, CCRN, CRNISherry L. Knowles, RN, CCRN, CRNI
TOPICSTOPICS Renal Alterations Renal Alterations
– Acute Renal FailureAcute Renal Failure
– ElectrolytesElectrolytes
– IV Fluid TherapyIV Fluid Therapy Neurological Alterations Neurological Alterations
OBJECTIVESOBJECTIVES1.1. List the main functions of the kidney.List the main functions of the kidney.
2.2. List the common diagnostic tests associated with renal function.List the common diagnostic tests associated with renal function.
3.3. List the complications associated with acute renal failure.List the complications associated with acute renal failure.
4.4. Describe the common treatments of acute renal failure.Describe the common treatments of acute renal failure.
5.5. List the major signs & symptoms associated with electrolyte disturbances of List the major signs & symptoms associated with electrolyte disturbances of sodium, potassium magnesium and calcium and phosphorus.sodium, potassium magnesium and calcium and phosphorus.
7.7. List the intracellular & extracellular fluid compartments of the body.List the intracellular & extracellular fluid compartments of the body.
8.8. Describe the effects of hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic IV fluids.Describe the effects of hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic IV fluids.
9.9. Describe the different treatments for intravascular depletion verses cellular Describe the different treatments for intravascular depletion verses cellular dehydration.dehydration.
10.10. Identify the risk factors and signs & symptoms of brain aneurysms and Identify the risk factors and signs & symptoms of brain aneurysms and AVM’s.AVM’s.
11.11. Explain the current treatments available for brain aneurysms and AVM’s.Explain the current treatments available for brain aneurysms and AVM’s.
12.12. Describe the different types of intracranial hemorrhage and their associated Describe the different types of intracranial hemorrhage and their associated signs & symptoms. signs & symptoms.
CCRN REVIEW PART 2CCRN REVIEW PART 2
OBJECTIVESOBJECTIVES13.13. List the potential complications of associated with intracranial hemorrhages, List the potential complications of associated with intracranial hemorrhages,
brain aneurysms and AVM repairs.brain aneurysms and AVM repairs.
14.14. List the types of CVA’s, their risk factors and related pathophysiology.List the types of CVA’s, their risk factors and related pathophysiology.
15.15. Identify the recommended treatments for CVA’s.Identify the recommended treatments for CVA’s.
16.16. Differentiate between the signs and symptoms of DKA and HHNK.Differentiate between the signs and symptoms of DKA and HHNK.
17.17. Describe the treatment of DKA and HHNK.Describe the treatment of DKA and HHNK.
18.18. Differentiate between the signs and symptoms of DI and SIADH.Differentiate between the signs and symptoms of DI and SIADH.
19.19. Describe the treatment of DI and SIADH.Describe the treatment of DI and SIADH.
20.20. List the signs & symptoms of Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation.List the signs & symptoms of Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation.
21.21. Explain the treatments for disseminated intravascular coagulation.Explain the treatments for disseminated intravascular coagulation.
22.22. Understand the different stages of shock.Understand the different stages of shock.
23.23. Differentiate between different types of shock.Differentiate between different types of shock.
24.24. Identify the different treatments used for the different types of shock.Identify the different treatments used for the different types of shock.
25.25. Describe the stages of the sepsis syndrome.Describe the stages of the sepsis syndrome.
26.26. Explain the treatment of septic shock. Explain the treatment of septic shock.
WHAT ELSE DO THE KIDNEYS DO?WHAT ELSE DO THE KIDNEYS DO?
– Stimulate RBC productionStimulate RBC production Make erythopoietinMake erythopoietin
– Make corticosteroidsMake corticosteroids Regulate kidney functionRegulate kidney function
– Increase calcium absorptionIncrease calcium absorption Convert Vitamin D to its active formConvert Vitamin D to its active form Calcitriol Calcitriol
TheThe KidneyKidney
TheThe NephronNephron
GlomerulusGlomerulus– Network of capillariesNetwork of capillaries
Bowman’sBowman’s capsulecapsule– Membrane that surrounds Membrane that surrounds
the glomerulusthe glomerulus
Renal TubulesRenal Tubules– Travel from cortex to Travel from cortex to
medulla and back to cortexmedulla and back to cortex
Collecting ductCollecting duct– Within the medullaWithin the medulla
TheThe NephronNephron
TheThe KidneyKidney
The Renal Cortex ContainsThe Renal Cortex Contains– Bowman's CapsulesBowman's Capsules
The Renal Medulla ContainsThe Renal Medulla Contains– The PyramidsThe Pyramids
Loop of HenleLoop of Henle Collecting DuctCollecting Duct Blood VesselsBlood Vessels
Lies within CortexLies within Cortex
Controls the activity of Controls the activity of the nephronthe nephron
Plays major role in the Plays major role in the renin-angiontension-renin-angiontension-aldosterone systemaldosterone system
The Juxtaglomerular ApparatusThe Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
UrineUrine FormationFormation
AcuteAcute RenalRenal FailureFailure
DEFINITIONSDEFINITIONS
– Sudden interruption of kidney function resulting Sudden interruption of kidney function resulting from obstruction, reduced circulation, or disease of from obstruction, reduced circulation, or disease of the renal tissuethe renal tissue
– Rapid deterioration of renal functionRapid deterioration of renal function increase of creatinine of >0.5 mg/dl in <72hrsincrease of creatinine of >0.5 mg/dl in <72hrs ““azotemia” (accumulation of nitrogenous wastes) azotemia” (accumulation of nitrogenous wastes) elevated BUN and Creatinine levels elevated BUN and Creatinine levels decreased urine output (usually but not always)decreased urine output (usually but not always)
– AzotemiaAzotemia:: (Increased BUN, Cr, Urea)(Increased BUN, Cr, Urea) May be prerenal, renal, postrenalMay be prerenal, renal, postrenal Does not require any clinical findingsDoes not require any clinical findings
– Chronic Renal InsufficiencyChronic Renal Insufficiency Deterioration over months-yearsDeterioration over months-years GFR 10-20 mL/min, or 20-50% of normalGFR 10-20 mL/min, or 20-50% of normal
– ESRD:ESRD: GFR <5% of mL/minGFR <5% of mL/min
AcuteAcute RenalRenal FailureFailure
PERSONS AT RISKPERSONS AT RISK– Major surgeryMajor surgery
Hypovolemia, shock, blood loss, embolism, Hypovolemia, shock, blood loss, embolism, pooling of fluid due to ascites or burns, pooling of fluid due to ascites or burns, cardiovascular disorders, sepsiscardiovascular disorders, sepsis
Pre-Renal or Intra-Renal?Pre-Renal or Intra-Renal?
Pre-renal Intra-renal
BUN/Cr > 20 < 20 Urine Na (mEq/L) < 20 > 40
Urine Specific Gravity High Low
BUN/CR Ratio > 20:1 < 10-15:1
TREATMENTTREATMENT– Make/consider the diagnosisMake/consider the diagnosis– Treat life threatening conditionsTreat life threatening conditions– Identify the cause if possibleIdentify the cause if possible
– D/C or reduce causative agentD/C or reduce causative agent
– Adjust medication dosesAdjust medication doses
– May need dialysis to jump start renal functionMay need dialysis to jump start renal function
– May need to stimulate production of urine with May need to stimulate production of urine with IV fluids, Dopamine, diuretics, etc. IV fluids, Dopamine, diuretics, etc.
– Watch for Watch for hyper/hypoglycemia hyper/hypoglycemia
– Maintain nutritionMaintain nutrition
– Mouth careMouth care
– Monitor skinMonitor skin
– S & S of Hyperkalemia: Malaise, anorexia, S & S of Hyperkalemia: Malaise, anorexia, parenthesia, muscle weakness, EKG changes parenthesia, muscle weakness, EKG changes
INVOLVED ININVOLVED IN– Muscle contraction Muscle contraction – Nerve impulses Nerve impulses – Cell membrane function Cell membrane function – Attracting water into the ICFAttracting water into the ICF– Imbalances interfere with neuromuscular function Imbalances interfere with neuromuscular function
and may cause cardiac rhythm disturbancesand may cause cardiac rhythm disturbances
– Often associated with hypercalcemia or Often associated with hypercalcemia or hypomagnesemia or too much Vitamin Dhypomagnesemia or too much Vitamin D
– Cell destruction - from chemotherapy, when the Cell destruction - from chemotherapy, when the tumor cells die at a fast rate tumor cells die at a fast rate
Can cause tumor lysis syndromeCan cause tumor lysis syndrome
Can cause aluminum toxicityCan cause aluminum toxicity
HyperphosphatemiHyperphosphatemiaa
IV Fluid TherapyIV Fluid Therapy
OSMOLALITYOSMOLALITY– Concentration of a solutionConcentration of a solution
– Concentration of solutes per kilogramConcentration of solutes per kilogram
– The higher the osmolality the greater The higher the osmolality the greater its pulling power for waterits pulling power for water
Normal serum osmolality is Normal serum osmolality is 275 to 295275 to 295 mOsm/L mOsm/L
Serum OsmolalitySerum Osmolality
Sodium = major solute in plasmaSodium = major solute in plasma – Estimated serum osmolality = 2 X serum Na Estimated serum osmolality = 2 X serum Na
Urea (BUN) and Glucose are large molecules Urea (BUN) and Glucose are large molecules that that serum osmolality serum osmolality – When either or both are elevated, the serum osmolality When either or both are elevated, the serum osmolality
will be higher than 2 times the sodium level, so the will be higher than 2 times the sodium level, so the following formula is more accurate:following formula is more accurate:
Serum osmolality = 2 X serum Na + Serum osmolality = 2 X serum Na + BUNBUN + + glucoseglucose 3 183 18
Major Mediators of Major Mediators of Sodium and Water Sodium and Water BalanceBalance
Angiotensin II Angiotensin II 1. Stimulates production of aldosterone1. Stimulates production of aldosterone
2. Acts directly on arterioles to cause vasoconstriction2. Acts directly on arterioles to cause vasoconstriction
3. Stimulates Na3. Stimulates Na++/H/H++ exchange in the proximal tubule exchange in the proximal tubule
Aldosterone Aldosterone 1. Stimulates reabsorption of Na1. Stimulates reabsorption of Na++ and excretion of K and excretion of K++ in in the late distal tubule the late distal tubule
2. Stimulates activity of H2. Stimulates activity of H++ ATPase pumps in the late ATPase pumps in the late distal tubule distal tubule
Synthesized in the hypothalamus and stored in the Synthesized in the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitaryposterior pituitary
Released in response to plasma hyperosmolality Released in response to plasma hyperosmolality and decreased circulating volumeand decreased circulating volume
Actions of ADHActions of ADH
– Increases the water permeability of the collecting tubule Increases the water permeability of the collecting tubule (makes kidneys reabsorb more water)(makes kidneys reabsorb more water)
HypertonicHypertonicSolutionsSolutions Pulls fluid into vascular spacePulls fluid into vascular space
IV SolutionsIV Solutions
D5WD5W
D10WD10W
D50WD50W
½ NS½ NS
NSNS
D51/2 NSD51/2 NS
D5NSD5NS
D5WD5W Hypotonic in the bodyHypotonic in the body
IsotonicIsotonic
HypertonicHypertonic
HypertonicHypertonic
HypotonicHypotonic
IsotonicIsotonic
HypertonicHypertonic
HypertonicHypertonic
HypertonicHypertonic
IsotonicIsotonic
HypertonicHypertonic
HypertonicHypertonic
HypertonicHypertonic
HypertonicHypertonic
HypertonicHypertonic
3% NaCl3% NaCl
LRLR
D5LRD5LR
AlbuminAlbumin
DextranDextran
HetastarchHetastarch
PRBC’sPRBC’s
Daily Fluid BalanceDaily Fluid BalanceIntake:Intake:1-1.5 L1-1.5 L
Insensible LossInsensible Loss - Lungs 0.3 L - Lungs 0.3 L - Sweat 0.1 L- Sweat 0.1 L
Urine: 1.0 to 1.5 LUrine: 1.0 to 1.5 L
Intracellular Intracellular
(2/3)(2/3)
Extracellular Extracellular
(1/3) (1/3)
Solids 40% of WtSolids 40% of Wt
HH22OO HH22OO
NaNa
Intra-Intra-vascularvascular((1/4)1/4)
E.CE.C..FF.. COMPARTMENTSCOMPARTMENTS
Interstitial (3/4)Interstitial (3/4)
HH22OO HH22OO
NaNa NaNa
Colloids Colloids & RBC’s& RBC’s
““Third Space”Third Space” Third space refers to collection of fluids (usually Third space refers to collection of fluids (usually
isotonic) that is sequestered in potential spaces.isotonic) that is sequestered in potential spaces.
This situation is not normal and the fluid is derived This situation is not normal and the fluid is derived from extracellular fluid.from extracellular fluid.
Principles of TreatmentPrinciples of Treatment
How much volume?How much volume?– Need to estimate fluid deficitNeed to estimate fluid deficit
Which fluid?Which fluid?– Which fluid compartment is predominantly affected?Which fluid compartment is predominantly affected?
– Must evaluate other acid/base, electrolyte & Must evaluate other acid/base, electrolyte & nutrition needsnutrition needs
CrystalloidsCrystalloids –– able to pass through semi permeable membranesable to pass through semi permeable membranes
–Isotonic solutionsIsotonic solutions
–Hypotonic solutionsHypotonic solutions
–Hypertonic solutionsHypertonic solutions
ColloidsColloids – do not cross the semi permeable membrane and remain – do not cross the semi permeable membrane and remain
in the intravascular space for several days (pulling in the intravascular space for several days (pulling fluid fluid out of the intracellular and interstitial space) out of the intracellular and interstitial space)
–AlbuminAlbumin
–DextranDextran
–HetastarchHetastarch
1 liter 5% Albumin1 liter 5% Albumin
IntravascularIntravascular=1 liter=1 liter
Total body waterTotal body water
ECFECF
ICFICF
Total body waterTotal body water
ECF=1 literECF=1 liter ICF=0ICF=0
IntravascularIntravascular
=1/4 ECF=250 ml=1/4 ECF=250 ml
1 Liter 0.9% saline1 Liter 0.9% saline
Interstitial=3/4 Interstitial=3/4 of ECF=750mlof ECF=750ml
Infusion of Ringer Lactate solution may lead to metabolic Infusion of Ringer Lactate solution may lead to metabolic alkalosis because of the presence of lactate ionsalkalosis because of the presence of lactate ions
Lactated Ringer’s should be used with great care with Lactated Ringer’s should be used with great care with patients with hyperkalemia, severe renal failure, and patients with hyperkalemia, severe renal failure, and hepatic insufficiency hepatic insufficiency
Solutions containing lactate are not for use in the Solutions containing lactate are not for use in the treatment of lactic acidosistreatment of lactic acidosis
BREAKBREAK
CCRN REVIEW PART 2CCRN REVIEW PART 2
NeurologicalNeurological AlterationsAlterations
Brain Aneurysms & AVM’sBrain Aneurysms & AVM’s
Intracranial HemorrhageIntracranial Hemorrhage
StrokeStroke
TheThe HumanHuman BrainBrain
CerebralCerebral SpinalSpinal FluidFluid
The serum-like fluid that circulates through the ventricles of the The serum-like fluid that circulates through the ventricles of the brain, the cavity of the spinal cord, and the subarachnoid spacebrain, the cavity of the spinal cord, and the subarachnoid space
Spinal Cord Nerve TractsSpinal Cord Nerve Tracts
Ascending Sensory
Tract
Descending Motor Tract
(Corticospinal Tract)
(Spinothalmic Tract)
Brown-Séquard syndromeBrown-Séquard syndrome
Incomplete Spinal Cord
Injury
(Hemi-section)
Central Cord SyndromeCentral Cord Syndrome
Walking Quads
Homonymous HemianopiaHomonymous Hemianopia
Brain AneurysmBrain Aneurysm
– An intracranial aneurysm is a weak or thin spot on a blood An intracranial aneurysm is a weak or thin spot on a blood vessel in the brain that balloons out and fills with bloodvessel in the brain that balloons out and fills with blood
AV Malformation (AVM)AV Malformation (AVM)
– Arteriovenous malformation (AVM)Arteriovenous malformation (AVM) of the brain is a "short of the brain is a "short circuit“circuit“ between the arteries and veinsbetween the arteries and veins
Brain Aneurysms & AVM’s Brain Aneurysms & AVM’s
Intracranial AneurysmsIntracranial Aneurysms
Usually occur at bifurcations and branches of the Usually occur at bifurcations and branches of the large arterieslarge arteries located in the Circle of Willislocated in the Circle of Willis
The most common sites include the:The most common sites include the:– Anterior Communicating artery (30 - 35%)Anterior Communicating artery (30 - 35%)
– Bifurcation of the Internal Carotid and PosteriorBifurcation of the Internal Carotid and Posterior Communicating artery (30 - 35%)Communicating artery (30 - 35%)
– Bifurcation of Middle cerebral (20%)Bifurcation of Middle cerebral (20%)
Saccular aneurysmSaccular aneurysm– Occurs at bifurcationsOccurs at bifurcations
Fusiform aneurysmFusiform aneurysm– Often in basilar arteryOften in basilar artery
Dissecting aneurysmDissecting aneurysm
Ruptured aneurysmRuptured aneurysm
Brain Circulation Brain Circulation
Arterial Circulation in the Brain Arterial Circulation in the Brain
RISK FACTORSRISK FACTORS– SmokingSmoking– HypertensionHypertension– Coarctation of the aortaCoarctation of the aorta– Dissections/traumaDissections/trauma– Intracranial neoplasm Intracranial neoplasm – Polycystic kidney diseasePolycystic kidney disease– Abnormal vessels or High-flow states (eg, vascular Abnormal vessels or High-flow states (eg, vascular
SIGNS & SYMPTOMSSIGNS & SYMPTOMS– Usually asymptomatic until ruptureUsually asymptomatic until rupture
Cranial Nerve PalsyCranial Nerve PalsyDilated PupilsDilated PupilsDouble VisionDouble VisionPain Above and Behind EyePain Above and Behind EyeLocalized Headache Localized Headache
– Warning signs prior ruptureWarning signs prior ruptureLocalized HeadacheLocalized HeadacheNausea & VomitingNausea & VomitingStiff NeckStiff NeckBlurred or Double VisionBlurred or Double VisionSensitivity to Light (photophobia)Sensitivity to Light (photophobia)Loss of Sensation Loss of Sensation
Intracranial AneurysmsIntracranial Aneurysms
Treatment of Brain Treatment of Brain AneurysmsAneurysms SurgerySurgery
– – Craniotomy and clipping Craniotomy and clipping
Endovascular coilingEndovascular coiling
Aneurysm Post-Op RisksAneurysm Post-Op Risks
RebleedingRebleeding– Most frequently within the first 24 hoursMost frequently within the first 24 hours– Up to 20% of patients rebleed within 14 daysUp to 20% of patients rebleed within 14 days– Main preventative measure is control of blood pressure Main preventative measure is control of blood pressure
– Usually occurs before 3 days or after 10 days (post bleed)Usually occurs before 3 days or after 10 days (post bleed)– May require hypervolemic therapyMay require hypervolemic therapy
The arteries and veins have a direct connection, The arteries and veins have a direct connection, bypassing the capillary networkbypassing the capillary network
Presents with ongoing headaches, seizures, Presents with ongoing headaches, seizures, hemorrhage, or progressive neurological hemorrhage, or progressive neurological dysfunctiondysfunction
Subtle behavioral changesSubtle behavioral changes Communication or thinking disturbancesCommunication or thinking disturbances Loss of coordination and balance Loss of coordination and balance Paralysis or weakness in one part of the bodyParalysis or weakness in one part of the body Visual disturbances Visual disturbances Abnormal sensationsAbnormal sensations
– MRI MRI (including MR Angiography) as well as (including MR Angiography) as well as CTCT Angiography help identify AVM’sAngiography help identify AVM’s
– Cerebral AngiographyCerebral Angiography is a prerequisite to is a prerequisite to treatment treatment
To identify the precise anatomy and configuration To identify the precise anatomy and configuration of both the lesion and the feeding and draining of both the lesion and the feeding and draining vesselsvessels
– Believed to "work" by initiating an "inflammatory" Believed to "work" by initiating an "inflammatory" response in the pathological blood vessels response in the pathological blood vessels ultimately resulting in their progressive narrowing ultimately resulting in their progressive narrowing and ultimate closureand ultimate closure
– The risk for hemorrhage is not reduced during this The risk for hemorrhage is not reduced during this lag timelag time
– There is the added risk of radiation necrosis of There is the added risk of radiation necrosis of adjacent healthy brain tissue or brain cyst formationadjacent healthy brain tissue or brain cyst formation
Brain RadiosurgeryBrain Radiosurgery
ADVANTAGESADVANTAGES– Noninvasive Noninvasive
– Can access all anatomic locations of the brainCan access all anatomic locations of the brain
DISADVANTAGESDISADVANTAGES– Can only treat smaller lesions Can only treat smaller lesions
(<3 cm in diameter)(<3 cm in diameter)
– Requires 2 or more years to completeRequires 2 or more years to complete
Sudden onset of “the worst headache of my life”Sudden onset of “the worst headache of my life”
IntracranialIntracranial HemorrhageHemorrhage
IntracranialIntracranial HemorrhageHemorrhage
EpiduralEpidural
SubduralSubdural
SubarachnoidSubarachnoid
IntraparencymalIntraparencymal
IntraventricularIntraventricular
CerebellarCerebellar
ICH is a dynamic, not a static processICH is a dynamic, not a static process
Hemorrhage volume can increase over timeHemorrhage volume can increase over time
CT scan is the most important diagnostic toolCT scan is the most important diagnostic tool
Managing blood pressure is extremely importantManaging blood pressure is extremely important
Must aggressively manage fever and seizuresMust aggressively manage fever and seizures
Consider hyperventilation and paralytics in setting Consider hyperventilation and paralytics in setting of increased ICP and deteriorationof increased ICP and deterioration
IntracranialIntracranial HemorrhageHemorrhage
Treatment of ICHTreatment of ICH
KEY CONCEPTSKEY CONCEPTS
1)1) Intracranial PressureIntracranial Pressure– Elevated when ICP >20 mm HgElevated when ICP >20 mm Hg
DEFINITION DEFINITION –When a blood vessel just outside the brain ruptures, the When a blood vessel just outside the brain ruptures, the
area of the skull surrounding the brain (the area of the skull surrounding the brain (the subarachnoid subarachnoid space) rapidly fills with bloodspace) rapidly fills with blood
Warning bleeds” are relatively commonWarning bleeds” are relatively common
Sentinel headache 30-50%Sentinel headache 30-50%
Early diagnosis prior to rupture will improve outcomesEarly diagnosis prior to rupture will improve outcomes
50% of patients die within 48 hours irrespective of 50% of patients die within 48 hours irrespective of therapytherapy
Subarachnoid HemorrhageSubarachnoid Hemorrhage
Often accompanied by a period of unconsciousness Often accompanied by a period of unconsciousness (50% never wake up)(50% never wake up)
Common signs include neck stiffness, photophobia, Common signs include neck stiffness, photophobia, headacheheadache
20% have ECG evidence of myocardial ischemia20% have ECG evidence of myocardial ischemia
Subarachnoid HemorrhageSubarachnoid Hemorrhage
Complications of SAHComplications of SAH
HydrocephalusHydrocephalus may develop within the first 24 may develop within the first 24 hours because of obstruction of CSF outflow in the hours because of obstruction of CSF outflow in the ventricular system by clotted bloodventricular system by clotted blood
RebleedingRebleeding of SAH occurs in 20% of patients in the of SAH occurs in 20% of patients in the first 2 weeks. Peak incidence of rebleeding occurs the first 2 weeks. Peak incidence of rebleeding occurs the day after SAH and may be from lysis of the aneurysmal day after SAH and may be from lysis of the aneurysmal clotclot
VasospasmVasospasm from arterial smooth muscle contraction from arterial smooth muscle contraction (symptomatic in 36% of patients)(symptomatic in 36% of patients)
Re-bleeding After SAHRe-bleeding After SAH
Re-bleeding occurs most frequently within the first 24 hrsRe-bleeding occurs most frequently within the first 24 hrs
Up to 20% of patients rebleed within 14 daysUp to 20% of patients rebleed within 14 days
The main preventative measure is to control the blood The main preventative measure is to control the blood pressure – preferably beta blockerspressure – preferably beta blockers
Early clipping of the aneurysm allows hypertensive and Early clipping of the aneurysm allows hypertensive and hypervolemic therapy to prevent vasospasmhypervolemic therapy to prevent vasospasm
Vasospasm After SAHVasospasm After SAH
Worst time is day 7 to day 10 (most frequent time for Worst time is day 7 to day 10 (most frequent time for vasospasms)vasospasms)
Diagnosed by neurologic exam, transcranial doppler and Diagnosed by neurologic exam, transcranial doppler and angiographyangiography
May use calcium channel blockers May use calcium channel blockers
Neurologic deficitsNeurologic deficits from cerebral ischemia, peaks at days 4-12from cerebral ischemia, peaks at days 4-12
Hypothalamic dysfunctionHypothalamic dysfunction causes excessive sympathetic causes excessive sympathetic stimulation, which may lead to myocardial ischemia or labile BPstimulation, which may lead to myocardial ischemia or labile BP
HyponatremiaHyponatremia may result from cerebral salt wasting / SIADHmay result from cerebral salt wasting / SIADH
Nosocomial pneumoniaNosocomial pneumonia and other such complicationsand other such complications
3)3) Treating and prevent vasospasmTreating and prevent vasospasm
Treatment of SAHTreatment of SAH
Maintain systolic BP >130mmHgMaintain systolic BP >130mmHg
– Use vasopressors if necessary to maintain CPP Use vasopressors if necessary to maintain CPP and reduce ischemic complications from vasospasmand reduce ischemic complications from vasospasm
– Generally avoid vasodilators (except calcium Generally avoid vasodilators (except calcium channel blockers)channel blockers)
Treatment of SAHTreatment of SAH
BREAKBREAK
CCRN REVIEW PART 2CCRN REVIEW PART 2
StrokeStroke
StrokeStroke
RISK FACTORSRISK FACTORS TIATIA CADCAD High Blood PressureHigh Blood Pressure High CholesterolHigh Cholesterol SmokingSmoking Heart DiseaseHeart Disease DiabetesDiabetes
Excessive alcohol Excessive alcohol Family HistoryFamily History AgeAge SexSex RaceRace ObesityObesity
Annual risk of stroke: Increases with ageAnnual risk of stroke: Increases with age
StrokeStroke
Computed Tomography (CT)Computed Tomography (CT)
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) can be given Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) can be given within three hours from the onset of symptomswithin three hours from the onset of symptoms
In addition to being used to treat strokes, the In addition to being used to treat strokes, the following can also be used as preventative following can also be used as preventative measuresmeasures
Treatment of Ischemic CVATreatment of Ischemic CVA
Surgery is often required to remove pooled blood Surgery is often required to remove pooled blood from the brain and to repair damaged blood vesselsfrom the brain and to repair damaged blood vessels
Prevention:Prevention:– An obstruction is introduced to prevent rupture and An obstruction is introduced to prevent rupture and
bleeding of aneurysms and AVM’sbleeding of aneurysms and AVM’s
– Surgical InterventionSurgical Intervention
– Endovascular ProceduresEndovascular Procedures
Treatment of Hemorrhagic Treatment of Hemorrhagic CVACVA
Control high Blood PressureControl high Blood Pressure
Lower cholesterolLower cholesterol
Quit smokingQuit smoking
Control diabetesControl diabetes
Maintain healthy weightMaintain healthy weight
ExerciseExercise
Manage stressManage stress
Eat a healthy dietEat a healthy diet
Prevention of CVAPrevention of CVA
BREAKBREAK
CCRN REVIEW PART 2CCRN REVIEW PART 2
DKA & HHNKDKA & HHNK
DI & SIADHDI & SIADH
DICDIC
Shock StatesShock States
SepsisSepsis
MetabolicMetabolic AlterationsAlterations
Diabetic KetoacidosisDiabetic Ketoacidosis
What is DKA?What is DKA?
– Diabetic KetoacidosisDiabetic Ketoacidosis
– A life-threatening complication seen with A life-threatening complication seen with Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Type 1
CLOTTING FACTORS DEPLETEDCLOTTING FACTORS DEPLETED– Platelets Platelets – Fibrinogen Fibrinogen – Protein Activated C Protein Activated C – Antithrombin Antithrombin
ReferencesReferences American Stroke Association. (2007). Acute and Preventative
Treatments. Retrieved March 4, 2007 from http://www.strokeassociation.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=2532.
Block, C., and Manning, H. (2002). Prevention of acute renal failure in the critically ill. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine; (165)320-324.
Brenner, B. M., and Rector, F.C. (2000). The kidney (6th ed), Vol I. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company; (1)399-416.
Brettler S. (2005). Endovascular coiling for cerebral aneurysms. AACN Clinical Issues; (16)515-525.
Britz, G. W. (2005). ISAT trial: Coiling or clipping for intracranial aneurysms? Lancet; (366)783-785.
Campbell, D. (2003). How acute renal failure puts the breaks on kidney function. Nursing 2003; (33)59-63.
References ContinuedReferences Continued Campbell, D. (2003). How acute renal failure puts the breaks on kidney
function. Nursing 2003; (33)59-63.
Carlson, K. (2009) Advanced Critical Care Nursing. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders/Elsevier.
Guyton, A. C., and Hall, J. E. (2000). Unit V: The kidneys and body fluids. In A. C. Guyton & J. E. Hall. Textbook of medical physiology (10th ed.). Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company; pg. 264-379.
Impact of Stroke. (2007). American Stroke Association. Retrieved March 4, 2007 from http://www.strokeassociation.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=1033.
Lynn-Mchale Wiegand, D. J. (ed.). (2011). AACN Procedure Manual for Critical Care. 6th ed. St. Louis, MO: Saunders.
Pagana, K. D. & Pagana, T. J. (2008). Mosby’s Diagnostic and Laboratory Test Reference. 9th ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby/Elsevier.
Stillwell, S. (2006). Mosby’s Critical Care Nursing Reference. 4th ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby/Elsevier.: Diagnosis and Management (5th ed).