-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
1
Chapter1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchoolsHowdowetalkaboutthevalueofschool?Howdowedefinethemeaningofaqualityeducation?Thevalueofschoolhastraditionallybeenmeasuredintermofresultsgradesonexams,projects,andessaysdesignedbyteacherstomatch
the taught curriculumanddutifully recorded in report cards
senthometoparentseachterm.Overthelasttwodecades,thesekindsofresultshavelostgroundtoexternalmeasures:standardizedteststhatallowfortheeasy
ranking and comparison of students across disparate
settings.Increasingly, these have become the markers of quality,
the measures bywhich we assess progress, and the outcome teachers
are teaching
for,studentsareworkingtoward,andthatparentsexpect.Butisthisreallywhywesendourchildrentoschool?Isthistrulythegoalofeducationtowhichwecollectivelyaspire?CommentingoneducationreforminabacktoschoolissueofTheNewYorkTimesMagazine,historianDianeRavitchstated,Thesinglebiggestproblemineducationisthatnooneagreesonwhyweeducate.Facedwiththislackofconsensus,
policy makers define good education as higher test scores(Lindgren
2009). Although the definitions of policymakers
surelymatter,theyarenotthefinalarbitersinthisdebate.
Policyisultimatelyshapedbysocietal, organizational, parental, and
studentheld definitions of good, orgreator any adjective we use to
define exceptional quality.
Thesedefinitionsestablishthebroadercontextinwhichschoolsoperate.Itistheseconversations
about quality that give rise to the standards that shape thelives
of teachers and students, and that defines the outcome to which
alleffortsmustbealigned.
Wemustchangethewaywetalkabouteducation.AsElliotEisner(Eisner2003)hassaid,As
long as schools treat test scores as the major proxies for student
achievement and educational quality, we will have a hard time
refocusing our attention on what really matters in education.
Ultimately,ourdefinitionof
agreatschoolorqualityeducationmattersbecause itwilldefinewhatwegive
timetoandwhatbecomesapriority inthedaytoday lifeof theclassroom.
Itwillshapeourexpectationsofwhatschoolscancontributetoourlivesandtooursociety.Inshort,ourdefinitionof
what makes a quality education shapes our aspirations as
parents,educators, and as a society at large. So, yes, itmatters
howwe talk
aboutschoolinganditspurpose.Itmattershowthesocietytalkstoitspoliticians,how
policymakers talk to themedia, how principals talk to teachers,
how
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
2
teacherstalktostudents,andhowparentstalktotheirchildren.
Itmattersbecauseourtalkshapesourfocusandourfocusdirectsourenergies,whichwillshapeouractions.ThinkingDifferentlyaboutOutcomesTohelpus
thinkaboutwhatmakesaqualityeducationand thepurposeofschooling
inoursociety, try thissimplethoughtexperiment. WhenIspeakwith
groups around theworld, be it parents, teachers, or administrators,
Ioftenbeginbyposingthequestion:Whatdoyouwantthechildrenyouteachto
be like as adults? Although I use the word teach, I mean this in
thebroadestsenseofeducating,sothatitappliestoparentsandadministratorsaswellas
teachers. Whenspeaking toparents I stress that Iwant
themtothinkaboutall thestudentsat theschool,not just
theirownchildren.
Thisensuresthattheyconsideroutcomesasamemberofsocietywhohasamuchbroader
stake in the outcomes of education. Take a moment now andconsider
how youwould respond to this question. What do youwant
thechildrenweareteachinginourschoolstobelikeasadults?Frequently,Ihavepeopleengagewiththisquestionbyusingaroutinecalledthe
Chalk Talk (Ritchhart, Church et al. 2011). In this routine,
individualsshare their thoughts silently by recording them on large
sheets of
chartpaper.Asindividualsshareideas,theyreadandrespondtothewrittenideasof
others by making comments, raising questions, asking for
elaboration,making connections between comments, and so on. At the
end of
tenminutes,wehaveaveryrichimageofthekindofstudentwe,thecollectivemembers
of this particular group, want to graduate from our
schools.Someonewho is curious, engaged, able topersevere,
empathetic,willing totake risks and try new things, a go getter,
able to problem solve, creative,passionateaboutsomething,a
listener,openminded,healthy,committedtothecommunity,respectful,analytical,
inquisitive,a life longlearner,anavidreader, being a critical
consumer, helpful, compassionate, able to take aglobalview,willing
to learn fromtheirmistakes,collaborative,
imaginative,enthusiastic,adaptable,abletoaskgoodquestions,abletoconnect,healthy,wellrounded,acriticalthinker.Andthelistgoesonwithmuchelaboration,explanation,andassortedarrowsconnectingthevariousqualities.What
is interesting about the lists and charts created by these
disparategroupsallover theworld ishowsimilar theyare. Itmatters
littlewhetherthe group is from a suburban district of Detroit, an
all boys school inMelbourne, a gathering of teachers from
international schools in Europe, a
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
3
consortiumofcharterschools,oranurbanhighschoolinNewYorkCity.Thesamesetsofqualitiestendtoappearoverandoveragain.Thereisoftenanemphasis
on attributes that drive learning: curiosity,
inquisitiveness,questioning. And those that facilitate innovation:
creativity, problemsolving, risk taking, imagination, and
inquisitiveness. There are the skillsneeded to work and get along
with others: collaborative,
empathetic,listening,helpful.Andthosethatsupporttheabilitytodealwithcomplexity:analysis,makingconnections,critical
thinking. Andusually thereare thosethat situate the learning in the
world as a global citizen, a member of acommunity, someone aware of
their impact on the environment, able
tocommunicate.Youllnoticetherearefewtraditionalacademicskillsmentioned.
Doesthatmean they arent important? Of course not. Its just that
they do
notadequatelydefinethekindofstudentswecollectivelyhopetosendintotheworld.
Nor do they define the kind of employee business and industry
islookingtohireinthe21stcentury.Inasurveyof400businessesacrosstheUnitedStatesconductedbyaconsortiumofhumanresource,education,andcorporate
entities (Partnership_for_21st_Century_Skills 2006); employerswere
asked to rank the skills theywere looking for in potential
applicantsfromalistthatincludedbothacademicandappliedskills.Appliedskillssuchas
professionalism,work ethic, collaboration, communication, ethics,
socialresponsibility, critical thinking, and problem solving topped
the list
overmoretraditionalacademicpreparedness.Onlywhenitcametothehiringofrecenthighschoolstudentsdidasingletraditionalacademicsubject,readingcomprehension,
make the top five (it was ranked 5th) in terms of itsimportance.
This list from employers, mirrors the qualities TonyWagnerheard
from his interviews with business leaders (Wagner 2008).
Wagnerdistilled these intowhathecallssevensurvivalskills: critical
thinkingandproblem solving, collaboration, agility and
adaptability, initiative
andentrepreneurialism,communicationskills,theabilitytoanalyzeinformation,andcuriosityandimagination.It
could be argued that businesses assume a high level of basic skills
andknowledgeasagivenandarethusonlyidentifyingtheseappliedskillsastheicingonthecake.Perhaps,thoughintheAreTheyReallyReadytoWork?report
mentioned above this appears not to be the case.
Prospectiveemployersrecognizeddeficienciesinacademicskills,yetstillrankedappliedskillsasbothbeingmoreimportantandevenmorelackinginapplicantsthenwasacademicpreparedness.Onecrossovercategorytoppedthelistintermsofdeficiency.
Writing inEnglishwas identifiedasdeficientamong72%of
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
4
applicants,anditsappliedskillcorollary,writtencommunication,asdeficientamong80.9%ofapplicants.Afterthattheskills,bothappliedandacademic,listedasmostdeficientwere(inorder):leadership,professionalism,criticalthinking
and problem solving, foreign languages, selfdirection,
creativity,mathematics,andoralcommunication.
Alloftheseskillswereidentifiedasdeficientinmorethan50%ofapplicants.Youcanseefromthislistthattheapplied
skills were deemed both more important and more likely to
belacking. Perhaps, the biggest take away, is that applied skills
are notconsidered an addon, but rather an integral part of
workplacepreparedness.The goal of cultivating a lifelong skill set
that propels innovation andinvention is championed internationally
as well. In a 2011 study of theeducational practices of the top
performing countries as measured by theProgramme for International
Student Assessment (PISA), Marc Tuckerreported that one
cannothelpbutbe struckby theattention that
isbeinggiventoachievingclarityandconsensusonthegoalsforeducationinthosecountries(Tucker2011).
Hisgroup,theNationalCenteronEducationandtheEconomy,foundaconcern,particularlyamongAsiancountries,withthedevelopmentofcognitiveskillsaswellasnoncognitiveskillsthatfacilitatedboth
global competitiveness and personal fulfillment. This sentiment
iscaptured in remarks made by Singapores minister of education in
2002,TharmanShanmugaratnam,inwhichhedescribedasatopprioritytheneedforSingaporeanstudentstodevelopawillingnesstokeeplearning,andanability
to experiment, innovate, and take risks (Borja 2004).
Likewise,ChinasCentralCommitteestatedthateducationinthecountrymustbegintoemphasizesowingstudentscreativityandpracticalabilitiesover
instillingan ability to achieve certain test scores and recite rote
knowledge (Zhao2006).Thequalities I consistently hear as important
to teachers andparents,
likethoseemergingfromtheworldofwork,arebeingcalledforbyothersourcesaswell.
In2002, in thebook Intellectual Character, I reviewed the call
forhabits of mind, intellectual passions, and thinking dispositions
beingchampioned from various circles and found agreement around six
broadcharacteristics:curiosity,openmindedness,beingstrategic,havingahealthyskepticism,
being a truth seeker, and being metacognitive. The learnerprofile
of the International Baccalaureate promotes students as
inquirers,thinkers,communicators,risktakers,openminded,reflective,wellbalanced,caring,
principled, and knowledgeable. Likewise, the Building Learning
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
5
Power initiative (Claxton, Chambers et al. 2011) seeks to
develop a set ofsome twenty learning capacities around
reflectiveness, resourcefulness,reciprocity/collaboration, and
resilience that are quite similar to many ofthose already
mentioned. Philosophers recognize these traits asencompassingasetof
intellectualvirtues. Onceagain, themoretraditionalacademic skills
thatmakeup the standardized tests, define our
graduationrequirements,andserveasgatekeepersforuniversityentrancedontappearexplicitlyontheselists.Andso,anewvisionofwhataqualityeducationisandwhatitshouldofferarisesfromthedata.Althoughahostofdifferentvocabularyisusedandthetraits
parsed slightly differently, what emerges is a rich portrait of
thestudent as an engaged and active thinker able to communicate,
innovate,collaborate,andproblemsolve.
Ratherthanadiscretesetofknowledgethateach studentmust possess, we
see the broad characteristics
thatmotivatelearningandleadtothegenerationofuseableknowledgeasthetraitsmostimportant
to develop. Somemight say this is the profile of a 21st
Centurylearner(TrillingandFadel2009),othersmightseeitaswhatitmeanstobeawellrounded
citizen (Arnstine 1995; Meier 2003), still others mightincorporate
thisdefinitionaspartof global competency
(BoixMansillaandJackson2011).Ichoosetoseethisportraitofastudentasthevisionofwhataqualityeducationaffords.Thisiswhatwemustbeteachingforandtryingto
achieve for every student. The big questions then are: How dowe
getthere;howdowerealizethisvision?Howareourschoolsdoingcurrentlyinproducingthisvisionofstudentsasthinkers?Whataretheforceswemustmarshalandmastertotrulytransformourschools?ThesearethequestionsIwilltakeupinthisbook.TeachingasEnculturationThe
qualities found in the various lists above reflective,
imaginative,curious, creative, and so onare often classified as
dispositions. Adisposition is an enduring characteristic or trait
of a person that serves tomotivate behavior. When we say a person
is curious, a particulardispositionalattribute, it
isbecauseweseeapatternofbehaviorsuchas,questioning,exploring,probing,andsoonemanatingfromthatpersonovertimeandacrosscircumstancesthatrelatestothatparticulardisposition.Ourdispositions
define who we are as people, as thinkers, as learners.
Inpreviouswritings,Ivearguedthatthedispositionsthatdefineusasthinkersmakeupourintellectualcharacter(Ritchhart,2002).
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
6
Wemightthinkaboutthesedispositionsnotonlyintermsoftheoutcomesofaqualityeducation,but,toborrowaphrasefromTedSizer,astheresidualsofeducation.Thatistosay,whatisleftoverafterallthethingswepracticedandmemorizedfortestsarelongforgotten.Whatstayswithuslongafterwehavelefttheclassroom?SpeakingattheSaveOurSchoolsrallyin2011,MattDamonhighlightedtheimportanceoftheseresidualssaying,AsIlookatmylifetoday,thethingsIvaluemostaboutmyselfmyimagination,myloveofacting,mypassionforwriting,myloveoflearning,mycuriosityallcomefromhowIwasparentedandtaught.AndnoneofthesequalitiesthatIvejustmentionednoneofthesequalitiesthatIprizesodeeply,thathavebroughtmesomuchjoy,thathavebroughtmesomuchprofessionalsuccessnoneofthesequalitiesthatmakemewhoIam...canbetested.The
thing about these dispositions, even though they are manifest in
theexhibitionofspecificskillsandactions,isthattheycannotbedirectlytaughtor
directly tested. Think about it. It would be absurd to teach a unit
oncuriosity or risk taking or collaboration and then to give
amultiplechoicetesttoassessstudentsdevelopment.Sure,studentsmightlearnaboutthedisposition,
but they would be unlikely to develop the disposition itself.Rather
these qualities, these dispositions, have to be developed over
time.Theymustbenurturedacrossavarietyofcircumstancessothattheybecomeengrained
and are likely to emerge when the situation calls for
them.Dispositions must be enculturated, that is, learned through
immersion in
aculture.OneofRussianpsychologistLevVygotskysmostfamousquotesis,Childrengrowintotheintellectual
lifeofthosearoundthem(Vygotsky1978). Thisstatement beautifully
captures what enculturation means. It meanssurrounding the
childwith thekindof intellectual life,mental activity, andprocesses
of learning to which we want them to grow accustomed. Itsuggests
that learning to learn is an apprenticeship in which we dont somuch
learn from others aswe learnwith others in themidst of
authenticactivities. Ifwe take Vygotskys quote to heart, thenwemust
take a
hardlookatourhomes,schools,andclassroomsandaskourselvesaboutthekindofintellectuallifewithwhichwearesurroundingourchildren?Whatkindsof
models do they see? What kinds of opportunities do they
experience?Whatkindsofthinkingarebeingvalued,privileged,andpromotedonadaytodaybasis?
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
7
CultureastheEnactmentofaStoryParents play an important role in
building character, both intellectual
andmoral,andenculturatingdispositionsintheirchildren.Parentsarethefirstandmostimportantmodelsforchildren.Aparentsvaluesanddispositionsare
regularly on display and their behaviors are the ones a childwill
firstimitate. At the same time, when it comes to the dispositions
related tothinkingand learning,schoolsplayaprivilegedrole
insociety. Schoolsaredesignedasplacesof learningandsosend
importantmessagesaboutwhatlearningis,howithappens,andwhatkindsoflearningareofvalue.Eachandeveryday,yearinandyearout,studentsarebeingatoldastoryoflearning.Enculturation
isaprocessofgradually internalizingthemessages&values,the story
being told, that one repeatedly experiences through
interactionwiththeexternal,socialenvironment.This
internalizationtakestimeasweidentify the messages and values that
are consistent and recurring in ourenvironment.This notion of
culture as a story we tell is a metaphor that I have
beenemployinginmyworkwithschoolsandorganizationsforanumberofyears.ItwasfirstpresentedtomeinthebookIshmael.Inthenovel,authorDanielQuinninvitesreaderstobeapartofdialogbetweenaskilledteacherandaskepticalbutwillingstudentaroundtheverynatureoftheroleofhumansontheplanet.Thefactthattheteacher,Ishmael,isagorillaeagertopassonhisacquired
wisdom about the human race through telepathy adds a bit of
atwisttothings.EarlyonIshmaellaysoutsomedefinitionsthatwillbekeytothe
dialog, in particular that of culture. He defines culture as a
group
ofpeopleenactingastoryandsaysthattoenactastoryistolivesoastomakethestorya
reality. For thepurposesof thenovel,
thestorybeingenactedconcernstherelationshipbetweenman,theword,andthegods.Drawingonthismetaphor,Idefinethecultureofschoolsasagroupofpeopleenactingastory.
Thestoryconcerns therelationshipbetween teachers, students,andthe
act learning. Everyone is a player in this story, acting in a way
thatreinforcesthestoryandmakesitreality.The idea that culture can
be transmitted through story telling and thereinforcementofkey
ideasandvalueshas longbeenrecognized.
Likewise,theideathataculturesendsmessagesaboutwhatisvaluedandworthwhilethroughitsuseoftraditions,behaviors,symbolicconduct,andothermeansisalsogenerallywellunderstood.
CarolynTaylor(Taylor2005),writingforabusiness audience, takes this
idea a step further, saying that, culturemanagement is about
message management. If you can find, and change,
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
8
enoughofthesourcesofthesemessages,youwillchangetheculture(p.7).Clearly,
the roleofmessages in revealingandshapingculture is
important.However,itistheselfreinforcing,continualconstructionofculturethroughthedynamicenactmentofbothindividualandcollectivevaluesthatIfindsopowerful.Thisperspectiveonthepowerofthestoryinthemakingcanhelpus
to understand the symbiotic role every participant plays in
creatingcultureaswellastheprivilegedroleleadersplay.Tounderstandthecultureofaschoolorclassroomthen,weneedtolookatwhat
story about learning they are telling. Beliefs, messages,
values,behaviors, traditions, routines, and so on are not the
culture itself, but aresignificant indicators of culture to the
extent they reinforce the core storybeing told. Theyare
themeansbywhichwe identify thestoryof learning.With this in mind,
there are three stories of learning we should
examinebeforewecanlookathowtotransformculture.Thefirstistheoldstory,thatis,thestoryeachofuswastoldasastudent.Thesecondisthecurrentstorythatrevealsthestorydominantinschoolsandclassroomstoday.Thethirdisthenewstorywewanttobetelling.UncoveringtheOldStoryWeallhavedifferentexperiencesofschooling.Evenwithinanyindividualsexperience,
there are different teachers and classrooms that might
beenactingdifferentevencompetingstories.Acknowledgingthesedifferences,itisnonethelessusefultoindividuallyuncoverthestoryoflearningweweretold.
This is as true for parents as it is for teachers, principals,
classroomaides,museumeducators,orcorporatetrainers.Thestorythatweweretoldas
students is most likely to influence, positively or negatively, how
weinteractwithourownchildrenandstudents.Steve identifies a
recurring theme from his school experience:
FrommyfirstdaysinschoolIwastoldastoryofsorting,classification,andability.Wewereputinreadinggroupsanditwasn'thardtofigureoutwhohadtherightstuffandwhowasstruggling.Attheendof1stgradeIexperiencedanotherkindof
sorting, being left back. I didn'tmake the grade andwouldn't
staywithmy peers. But for some reason the next year Iwas still in
that
lowreadinggroup.Andsoitwentupthroughmiddleschoolandbeingplacedinshopclassandtheninhighschoolinthevocationaltrack.
TherewasnevertalkaboutwhatIwanted,justimposedsortingandclassifying.Jasonrecallshiselementaryexperiencesmostvividly,Irememberschoolasbeingasilentplace,atleastforme.Wewerentallowedtotalk.
OnetimeI
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
9
recalltheteacheraskingme,Whyareyoutalking?Yourworkisntdone.Irememberthinkinghowstrangeitwastolinktalkingwithbeingdonewithmywork.
Iwasaslowworker. Iwasneverdonewithmyworkearly.
Sothatmeantnevertalking.Ofcourse,recesswasmyoutlet.Thatwasrealforme.Theclassroomwasnt.ItwasapivotalexperienceinjustoneclassthatleftabigmarkonRuth.
Irememberoneparticularalgebraclass.
Algebrawasnewanddifferent,andfor me exciting. I liked the puzzle
aspect of it, and it was much
moreinterestingthanjustdoingsums.Onedayinclasstheteacherwasexplainingadifficultproblem,and
I rememberbeing totallyengrossed in
theproblemandtryingtofigureoutwhyhewasdoingitthewayhewaswhenitseemedlikethereshouldbeanotherway.Myway.IkeptpuzzlingoverituntilIwasconvincedIwasright.
Mywaydidwork. Iworkedupthecouragetoraisemy hand to ask about it.
The teacher said he had already answered thatquestion. Wasnt I
listening? From that day on I never asked
anotherquestioninthatclassandIlostmyinterestinmath,eventhoughIwasgoodatit.IguessthemessageIgotwasschoolwasaboutlisteningtotheteacher,notfiguringthingsoutforyourself.ForNicole,
the story of learning shewas told is a familiar one. Itwas allabout
the grades and pleasing the teacher. Iwas good at that, but I
dontreallyfeellikeIlearnedallthatmuch.Iplayedthesystemandgotrewardedfor
it. I used grades to keep score. A similar theme comes up in
Maxsaccount, It seemed to be all about speed. I remember timed
tests, andspelling bees, and everything always having a time limit.
If you got doneearly it meant you were smart. First hand up to
answer the
teachersquestion?Smart.Iguessitwaslikeacompetition.DistanceandexclusionwerethemesforMarcella.Mylanguageandculturewerentrepresentedorevenacknowledgedinmyschool.
WeweretoldwewerenottospeakSpanish.Ofcourse,amongmyfriendswedid,butwehadtobecarefulnottogetcaught.Eveninsimplethingslikeaskingforhelporchattingbetweenclasseswewere
to speak inEnglish. It sent themessagethat something was wrong with
our home language. That school was
aforeignplacewewerevisitingratherthanaplaceinwhichwewereincluded.Wecouldonlygetasmallbitof
the instructionat
firstandsowerealwaysstruggling,whichsentthemessagewewerentgoodlearners.These
are just a few accounts of old stories of learning that were
told.Maybe they resonate with your school experience. The themes of
these
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
10
stories are powerful and pointed: that school is a
sortingmechanism, thatyou either fit or you dont, that there is not
a place for dialog andconversation, that learning requires
individualized seatwork and
practice,thatlearningiscompetitiveversuscooperative,thatbeingfastmeansyouaresmart,
that there isnoroomforquestioning, thatgetting thegrade
iswhatlearning is all about. These themes shape students experience
and
framehowtheycometoviewlearning,andinsomecasesdistortwhattruelearningis.Although
the stories presented above arent particularly positive, I
dontmeantosuggest that this isalwaysthecase.
WhenIaskgroupsofparentsandeducatorstosharethestoriesoflearningtheyencounteredasstudents,Iinvariably
hear a story like Antonias: I remembermy 5th grade
teacher.Shewaspassionateaboutlearningandsoexcited.Shewasalwaystellingusstories
about new things or places she had been. It was contagious.
Youwanted to learn because you wanted to be a part of her world.
Have aconversation with her. That has always stayed with me. She
was a bigreason I became a teacher. As parents and educators, we
should neverforget the power of the individual to make a difference
and often totransformnegative,unproductive,anddemoralizingstoriesof
learning
intopositiveones.Atthesametime,asasociety,adistrict,oraschoolweneedtoexamine
thedominant story students and teachers are enacting. What
arethemessagesaboutlearningandthinkingweareimpartingovertime?TakingaHardLookattheCurrentStoryAlthough
students arent always the best evaluators of their
longtermeducational needs, they can be excellent barometers of the
focus ofinstructionand itsmeaningfulness to them.
Theyknowwhentheyareandarenotbeingintellectuallyengaged,andtheyarequiteadeptatrecognizingwhentheyaretrulylearninganddevelopingashumanbeings.
It
isintheirvoicesthatwewillfindthecurrentstoryoflearningbeingtoldinourschools.Bringing
students into the conversation about outcomes and purpose
isimportantforallschoolsandteachersasithelpstodevelopasharedmissionthat
all canwork toward. TheBuildingLearningPower initiative
(Claxton,2011)inBritainincludesstudentsintheregularauditsofclassroomstohelplook
for the kinds of thinking the school says it values. MasadaCollege
inSydney,AustraliaalsoengagesitsstudentsasplanningpartoftheCulturesofThinkinginitiativethere.Suggestionsonhowtoelicitstudentsperceptionsofthelearningtheyareencounteringtobetteruncoverthestoryoflearninginyourclassroomandatyourschoolcanbefoundattheendofthischapter.
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
11
Like never before in history, students around the world are
making
theirvoicesheardandtalkingaboutthestoryoflearningtheyareexperiencingbyusingsocialmedia,blogs,YouTube,andInternetnewssites.
NikhilGoyal,asixteenyearoldstudentatSyossetHighSchoolinNewYork,wroteanarticleforTheHuffingtonPostabouthowafocusontestpreparationhashijackedclassroom
learning and expressing the need to focusmore on
creativity,imagination, discovery, and projectbased learning (Goyal
2011). In hisYouTubevideoentitled, OpenLetter
toEducators,universitystudentDanBrowndiscusseswhyhedecided
todropoutof a systemdedicatedalmostsolely to imparting information
over stoking creativity and innovationbecause my schooling was
interfering withmy education (Brown 2010).Cultural anthropologist
Michael Wesch (Wesch 2008) has labeled this acrisis of significance
in which education has become a relativelymeaningless game of
grades more than an important and meaningfulexplorationof theworld
inwhichwe
liveandcocreate(p.5).HecapturedthisdisconnectintheYouTubevideo,AVisionofStudentsToday,featuringhisownstudentsatKansasStateUniversity.At
Teenink.com, Sophia W. (W. 2011) writes a scathing article
aboutAdvanced Placement course in which she renames them as
AbsolutelyPreposterous Weapons of Mass Instruction, decrying how
these coursesonly teach studentswhat to think, not how to think,
and serve to distancestudents from their own ideas, opinions,
creativity, and reason.
SophiasrantaboutthedisconnectbetweenAPcoursesandreallearningisbornoutbya2006studybyresearchersatHarvardUniversityandtheUniversityofVirginia
that found AP science courses do not significantly contribute
tosuccessincollege(Bradt2006).
Instead,thestudyfoundafocusontheindepthstudyofafewtopics,ratherthanthecoverageapproachoftheAP,wasa
better indicator of university success in science. The very thing
beingpromotedaspreparingstudentsforcollegeisnt.Thestoryoflearningemergingfromthesevoicesisthatschoolcanbemindnumbingandirrelevant,focusingmostlyonmemorization.
Ofcourse,thesevoices belong to those speaking out in very public
forums to expressdiscontent and frustration. It is reasonable to
ask how typical they are ofwhat most students experience. These
same themes can be found in
themuchmorerepresentativeGallupYouthSurvey(Lyons2004).Inthissurvey,middleandhighschoolstudentswereaskedtoselectthreewordsfromalistof
adjectives to describe how they usually feel in school. Topping the
list,50%ofthestudentschosethewordbored.Insecondplacewastiredwith42%.HappyandChallengedwerenextwith31%,abitmorehopefuland
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
12
positive to be sure. However, it should be noted that
studentsweremorelikely to choose positive adjectives if they
selfidentified as being aboveaverageofnearthetop,
indicatingthatthestoryof
learningstudentsareencounteringmaydifferbyability.Onecanalsoseethissamepatternofexperienceinthefindingsofoneofthelargest
longitudinal studiesofhowstudentsexperienceelementary
schoolsconductedbytheNationalInstituteofChildHealthandHumanDevelopment(Pianta,
Belsky et al. 2007; Pianta, Belsky et al. 2007). The ongoing
studyinvolvesclassroomobservationsof1364studentsastheyprogressthroughschool
to assess the type of instruction they experience. Themost
recentassessment of students fifthgrade year involved 956 students
(somestudents dropped out of the study) enrolled in 737 classrooms
distributedacross502schools(bothpublicandprivate)in302districts(mostlymiddleclass)
in33different states. Taking just the fifth gradeobservations as
anexample, itwas found that58%of students timewas spentonbasic
skillslearning and less than13%onhigher level learning involving
analysis andinference. Furthermore, less than 5% of the
instructional time involvedcollaborative work and less than 1% of
the observed class episodes(approximately six hours in each
classroom) were classified as instanceswhere studentswere highly
engaged. The image that emerges from
theseclassroomsissimilartothatexpressedbyDanielPink(Pink2012)inwhichhesaysthattoooftenthegoodkidsarecompliant,thesocalledbadkidsaredefiant,butnooneisengaged.Onemight
expect things to getbetter as studentsprogress through school,but
the evidence says otherwise. The Collegiate Learning
Assessmenttracked2,300studentsthroughtheiruniversityexperienceat24schools
inthe United States and found that just slightly more than half
(55%) ofstudents showed any significant improvement in key measures
of
criticalthinking,complexreasoningandwritingbytheendoftheirsophomoreyears(Gorski
2011). These statistics only improved slightly by the end of
fouryearswith64%demonstratingimprovementonthesemeasures.Thestudyfound
the overall school experience for students was similar to
thosereported by Michael Weschs students in his YouTube video in
which thereading isnt relevant, little writing is done, and
lectures dispenseinformationbutdontaskstudentstothink(Wesch2007).
AsUniversityofMissourifreshmanJuliaRheineckerstated,MostofwhatIlearnedthisyearIalreadyhadinhighschoolIjusthaventfoundmyselfpushingasmuchasIexpected(Gorski2011).
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
13
Itmayseemfromthesereportsthatthereisntmuchofadifferencebetweenthe
old story many of us experienced and the current story with
theemphasis on rote learning, grades, and in many cases an
irrelevantcurriculum.However,somearearguingthatthecurrentemphasisontestingand
accountability is actually leading schools to diminish
studentsopportunity rather than enhance it (Meier 2003; Ritchhart
2004; Wagner2008; Rose 2009; Zhao 2009; Ravitch 2011). What is
being created is
atestingcultureratherthanalearningcultureinwhichweseescoresontestsgoing
up but learning, understanding, and engagement actually
decreasing(Shepard2000).Although we dont have good historical data
to make such a comparison,there is evidence that current
educational policies do in fact have aninhibiting rolewhen it comes
toopeningup learning,promoting
creativity,andpromotingthinking.Ina20002001surveybytheNationalEducationalAssociation,
sixtyone percent of public school teachers said that testingstifles
real teaching and learning (NEA 2003). This survey predated
theimplementationof
theNoChildLeftBehindreform,whichmandatedmuchmore testing. In their
book, Imagination First, Eric Liu and Scott NoppeBrandon (Liu and
NoppeBrandon 2009) note how the test culture haswarped our
perspective of what it means to educate, Too many publicschool
focusonthemeasurabletotheexclusionofthepossible.Asaresult,toomany
students end up better prepared for taking tests than for
beingskillful learnings in theworld beyond school. In
theUnitedKingdom, thefocus on the National Curriclum has made it
harder for teachers to bringenthusiasm,creativity, thinkinganda
responsivecurriculumtostudentsasteachers struggle with the
increasing standardization, centralization,
andvocationalfocusofeducation(Robinson1999;Maisuria2005;Lipsett2008;Wagner2008;Claxton,Chambersetal.2011).AsAustraliabeganitsmovetowardaNationalCurriculumanditsassociatedtesting,policymakerslookedattheimpactsimilarreformeffortshadintheUSandUK.Oneanalysisconcluded,Fullcohort[allstudentssystemwide]tests
encouragemethods of teaching that promote shallow and
superficiallearning rather than deep conceptual understanding and
the kinds ofcomplex knowledge and skills needed in modern,
informationbasedsocieties(QSA2009).
Nonetheless,policymakersenamoredwithnotionsof accountability, value
added, and measurable results seem poised
toimposeatestingpolicythatmirrorsallthefailedaspectsofthoseimposedin
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
14
theUSAandUK,ignoringthemountingevidencethatsuchtestingwarpsanddistortsthestoryoflearningforbothteachersandstudents.Nikhil
Goyal, mentioned above, talked about classrooms as
testprepfactories.Indeed,theCenterforEducationalPolicyfoundthatsince200102most
school districts in the United States, 84%, had made changes
tocurriculumandtheallocationofinstructionaltimetofocusontestedcontent(McMurrer2007).TonyWagner,authorofTheGlobalAchievementGap,hasvisited
classrooms in some of the best public and private schools in
theUnited States. In these learning walks, Wagners goal is to
assess
theintellectualchallengebeingofferedtostudents.Intypicallearningwalks,hefindsthatlittletimeisspentonactivitiesthatrequirehigherorderthinkingandthatteachersrarelyaskquestionsinvolvingmorethanrecall.Heisluckytovisitasingleclassoutofadozenwhereallstudentsareactivelyengagedand
thinking. Inmy own research groups study of teacher questioning
instandardsbased classrooms in the United Kingdom, defined as
classroomswhere teachers deliver instruction based onmeeting
specific objectives
asdelineatedinanexternallyprescribedcurriculum,wefoundthatthemajorityofteachersquestions,58%,wereeitherofaproceduralnatureorfocusedonreviewing
content. Just 10% were designed to push, probe and
facilitatestudents thinking. In Jo Boalars study of traditional
high schoolmathematics classes in both the US, she found that
virtually all, 97%,
ofquestionsinvolvedrecallandreview(BoalerandBrodie2004).Severalthemesareemergingfromthesedisparateaccounts:thatlearninginschoolsisoftenboring,largelyentailsmemorizingandrepeatingfacts,rarelydemands
that students think, and is generally an isolated exercise.
Thesethemes are given much of their traction, life, and longevity
by
anothercommonstorythread:competition.Theideathatlearningisacompetitiverather
than collaborative venture is practically baked into our system
ofeducationinwhichrankings,GPAs,andexamscoresareusedasmeasuresofaccomplishmentandcriteria
foradmissions touniversityprograms. In
thedocumentaryRacetoNowhere,theeffectsofthiscompetitiononstudentsisexplored
in termsof the stress,disengagement, alienation, cheating,
lossofcreativity,andoverallmentalhealthissuesit
inducesinmanyofthosewhochoose to buy in and the high drop out rates
that result when
studentschoosenottobuyinorfindthemselveslockedoutbythetestingculture.Thedocumentarygivesvoicetostudents,mostlyfromhighlycompetitivepublicand
private schools, who feel that grades and scores have become
thepurpose of school rather than learning. Inspired by her own
daughters
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
15
stress induced illness, documentary director Vicki H. Abeles,
has issued
awakeupcallforschoolstochangethestoryoflearningtheyareenacting.AnotherwakeupcallwasissuedbySirKenRobinsoninhiswidelypopularTED
Conference talk (viewed by over 200 million people), Bring on
theLearningRevolution.Inhisaddress,Robinsonstressestheurgentneedfornurturing
human potential on an individualized basis as an
educationaloutcome,athemethatemergedfromhiscommitteesreporttotheSecretaryof
State for Education and Employment in the United Kingdom
(Robinson1999).TotheTEDaudience,Robinsonspeaksabout
thisneedasacrisisofhumanresourcesbeingbroughtaboutbyaneducationthatdislocatespeoplefrom
their natural talents rather than helping them identify and
developthem.Helaystheblameforthisdislocationanddeathonthedominantstoryof
learning being told in our schools today. Specifically he
identifies twostorythemes:linearityandconformity.
Schoolspresentlearningasatrackthat studentsareplacedonwith
theendgoaloftenbeingattendingagoodcollege.However,thislinearviewofeducationignorestheorganicnatureoflearning
and human development. This linearity also leads us to
seeingeducationasacompetitiontoreachthatendgoalfasterandbetter(attendingamoreselectivecollege)thanothers.Accompanying,
and perhaps even exacerbating, the linearity
Robinsonidentifiesisthethemeofconformity;theideathatwecanhaveaonesizefitsallsystemofeducation.Oneseesthisplayingoutintheincreasingcallsforstandardization
of curriculum, tests, and teaching. Robinson
(Robinson2006)saysthatwehavesoldourselvesintoafastfoodmodelofeducationand
it is impoverishingourspiritsandourenergiesasmuchas fast food
isdepleting our physical bodies. Instead of accepting the belief
that qualitycomes from conformity, he suggests we attain such high
quality when
westriveforcustomizationoverstandardization.Thisfocusonconformitykillscreativityandimagination,Robinsonargues.Thisismorethanamerebelief,however.
A reviewof almost300,000scoresof childrenandadultson theTorrance
Creativity Test, reveals a steady and very significant decline
inscoressincethe1990s,withthoseofAmericanelementaryschoolstudentsshowingthemostseriousdecline(BronsonandMerryman2010).Aswithourreviewoftheoldstory,thisexaminationofthecurrentstoryhasto
be considered as only a partial view. Certainly there are schools
andclassrooms tellingadifferent,moreengaging, andmore thoughtful
storyoflearning.
HavingworkedwithDisneysAmericanTeacherAwardsprogramand coauthored
the Creative Classroom series, I know many excellent
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
16
teachers. Im sure you also know of some excellent schools and
dynamicteachers.Thatsaid,weshouldntbetooquicktopatourselvesonthebackorbecomecomplacentabouthowourstudentsareexperiencinglearninginourschoolsandclassroomsonalargerscaleandovertime.Ittakesadegreeofnerve,
ambition and fortitude to steadfastly and honestlywork to
uncoverthestoryoflearningoneistellingstudents.Onceuncovered,onemustthenassesshowitstacksupagainstwhatwetrulywantforourstudents.Arewein
fact cultivating the kinds of adults we want our students to be?
Thisalignment isnteasypreciselybecausewehaveallowed
lowleveloutcomeson tests to shapeourviewofwhat aquality education
is and shouldoffer.The storyof learningweare enacting also gets
framed through the lensofour own experience as students. We tend to
perpetuate and reinforce thestatusquobecause it is
theonlystoryweknow. In thiswaythecultureofschools, the story of
learning we are enacting, becomes invisible to us.However, as the
large scale studies mentioned above have all found, thedominant
story is not one that is serving students well or
adequatelypromotingthekindsofoutcomeswesaywevalue.Therefore,wemustthinkabouttellingadifferentstoryoflearning.CraftingaDifferentStoryforSchoolsCreatinganewstoryrequiresustorethinknotonlythepurposeandvisionof
education, but also to examine theway schools operate and function
asdelivery agents of that vision. To change the story and achieve
differentoutcomes,likethosesetforthpreviously,wemustsendnewmessagesaboutwhatlearningisandhowithappens.Craftingandsendingnewmessagesisnotaneasytask.Itrequiresustoreallywalkthetalk.Theoldstoryandoldways
of doing things are quite engrained in us as students, teachers,
andparents,makingiteasytofallintooldwaysofdoingthings.Inthefollowingchapterswewillfocusonhowwecanmarshalandmastertheforcesatworkwithingroupculture
inaway thatwillenableus toenactadifferentstory.But
first,wemustallowourselves todreamanewvisionandarticulate
itsessence.All toooftenweeducatorsfinditdifficult todream. There
isatendencytosee the barriers, constraints, and structures around
us as
impenetrablebarriers.Theresthetimetable,theexternalexams,universityentrance,50minuteinstructionalperiods,governmentmandates,annualyearlyprogressmeasures,
outside inspectors, parental expectations, and so on. All
thesecauseustothrowupourhandsandsay,untilthesystemchanges,thereisnothing
we can do. David Jakes, an educational advocate interested in
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
17
transforming schools through technology, also uses the
storymetaphor tothink about schools and their vision. In doing so,
he suggestswe need tochange our language from one of limits to one
of possibilities, Creating
anewstoryrequiresthattheauthororauthorsofthatnewstorycastasidethedestructiveYahButmentality,andaskWhatIf?"(Jakes2012).Letsconsiderafewwhatifsthatsuggestanewstory.Whatifschoolswerelessaboutpreparingstudentsfortestsandmoreaboutpreparingthemforalifetime
of learning? What if schools measured success not by
whatindividuals did on exams but by what groups were able to
accomplishtogether? What if schools took the development of
students
intellectualcharacterastheirhighestcalling?Whatifunderstandingandapplicationofskillsandknowledgewerethegoalratherthantheacquisitionofknowledge?What
if studentswere really engaged in their learning rather
thanmerelycompliantintheprocessofschoolasitisdonetothem?Whatifstudentshadmore
control of their learning? There is an endless array of What
ifquestionswemightask tohelpusrethinkourschoolsandtodreamanewvision
of education. The ones above might spark fresh thinking and
richdreaming on the part of you and your colleagues as you
explorewhat theimplications might be of these what ifs for teachers
and students. Inaddition, you might want to identify your own what
if questions,
eitherindividuallyoraspartofaprofessionalgroup,forexploration.The
What if? question at the core of this book is: What if we sought
todevelop a culture of thinking in our schools,
classrooms,museums,meetings,and organizations? Taking up the
question in earnest, in a way thattransforms schools and
organizations, means enacting a new story byharnessingthepowerof
the forcesthatshapegroupculture.
Thesewillbeexploredindetailinthecomingchapters.However,beforewejumpintothehow,weneedtobeabitmoreclarityaroundourstory.Justwhatisitwearetryingtoaccomplish?
Onlywhenweareclearaboutthecoremessageswewish to sendcanwehope
tocapture theessenceof this story
inawaythatwecantellittoourselvesoverandoveragainuntilitbecomestheveryheartofournewvision.In
this story, our schools, classrooms, and organizations become
places
inwhichagroupscollective,aswellasindividual,thinkingisvalued,visibleandactively
promoted as part of the regular, daytoday experience of all
groupmembers.Thisisthebeatingheartofourstory.Wemuststrivetoconstantlymake
thinkingvalued,visible, andactivelypromoted inallour
interactionswith learners, as part of the lessons we design,
central in the assessment
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
18
process,partandparcelofourinstruction,andgenerallyintegratedinallwedo.Eachofthesecoreactionsmakingthinkingvalued,visible,andactivelypromotedneedsabitmoreunpackingsothatweunderstandourmissionandhaveabetterideaofwhatitentails.Wemustbeginbysendingarobustmessageaboutthevalueofthinking.Ofcourse,whateducatorisgoingtosayheorshedoesntvaluethinking?Butinfact,
schools send students very mixed messages about the value
andimportanceofthinkingandoftenorganizationsmaybeclearaboutthetaskat
hand but not always the thinking needed to accomplish it. Too
oftenstudentsaresentthemessagethatmemorization is
theonlytoolnecessaryforlearningandthatthereisntaplacetobringincomplications,questions,or
connections fromoutside the classroom thatmightmake
learningmorereal.Ifwetrulyvaluethinking,thenwemustbeabletodefinitelyarticulatewhatkindsof
thinkingweareafter,whytheyare important,andhowtheymighthelpones
learningoraccomplishmentof thetaskathand.
Wemustcommunicatethatlearningisaconsequenceofthinking,notsomethingextrathatwetackonbutsomethinginwhichwemustactivelyengagetopromoteourownandotherslearning.Sowhatkindsof
thinkingareofvalue? Whatareweafter? Naturally,
thisdependsonthelearningcontext,butbroadlyspeakingwewantstudentstobecomeproficientwith
the kinds of thinking they canuse to develop
theirownunderstandingofthings.Forexample:
Askingquestions,identifyingpuzzles,andwonderingaboutthemysteriesandimplicationsoftheobjectsandideasofstudy
Making connections, comparisons and contrasts between andamong
thingsincluding connections within and across
thedisciplineaswellaswithonesownpriorknowledge Building ongoing and
evolving explanations, interpretations,and theories based on ones
ever developing knowledge andunderstanding Examining things from
different perspectives and alternativepoints of view to discern
bias and develop a more balancedtakeonissues,ideas,andevents.
Noticing, observing, and looking closely to fully notice
thedetails, nuances, and hidden aspects and to observe what is
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
19
really going on as the foundational evidence for
onesinterpretationsandtheories Identifying, gathering, and
reasoningwith evidence to justifyand support ones interpretations,
predictions, theories,arguments,andexplanations Being able to delve
deeply to uncover the complexities andchallenges of a topic and
look below the surface of
things,recognizingwhenoneonlyhasasurfaceunderstanding
Beingabletocapturethecoreoressenceofathingtodiscernwhatitreallyallabout.Thisisabynomeansanexhaustivelistofthinking.Iandmycolleagueshavewritten
elsewhere in more detail about what might constitute
effectivethinking((Ritchhart,Churchetal.2011),butthislistisagoodplacetostart.Inaddition,onecouldtakesomeofthegoals
identifiedearlierandbegintounpack them for the typesof thinking
theyrequire.Whatkindsof thinkingare important in problem solving?
What kinds of thinking supportinnovation and creativity? What kinds
of thinking are needed to be
aneffectivecommunicatororadvocate?Youlllikelyfindsomeoverlapwiththelistabove,butsomenewtypesofthinkingarelikelytoemergeaswell.Onceweare
clearon thekindsof thinkingweare trying to
encourage,wemuststrivetomakethisveryelusiveentity,thinking,asvisibleaspossiblesothat
it too can become an object of development asmuch as the
concepts,knowledge,andskillsthatareamoretypicalpartofthecurriculum.Whenwe
make thinking visible, we are provided a window into not only
whatstudents understand but also how they are understanding it.
Uncoveringstudents thinking provides evidence of students insights
as well as theirmisconceptions. We need tomake thinking visible
because it provides
uswiththeinformationneededtoplantheopportunitiesthatcantakestudentslearningtothenextlevelandenablecontinuedengagementwiththeideasofstudy.Itisonlywhenweunderstandwhatourstudentsarethinkingthatwecanusethatknowledgetofurtherengageandsupportthemintheprocessofbuilding
understanding. Thus, making students thinking visible
mustbecomeanongoingcomponentofourteaching.Teachersareusedtoaskingquestionsthatuncoverstudentsknowledgeandtesttheirmemories.Individuallyandcollectively,wealsomustgetbetterat
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
20
asking questions that probe, push, and help to uncover students
thinking(Ritchhart2012).Thenweneedtolistentoourstudentssothatwecantrulyhearwhattheyhavetosay.Listeningmeanstakingavigorousandgenuineinterest
in theother. Whenwedothat,studentsaresent themessagethattheir
thinkingand ideasmatter, that theyarepartof theconversation,
andintegral to the learning. We then can take our listening the
next step anddocument students thinking so that we have a record of
our collectivethinkingandourcommunitysprogresstowardunderstanding.
Thisrecordbecomes one way to examine and talk about our thinking
and
itsdevelopment.Itisavehicleforbothcapturingandadvancinglearning.Whatismore,
theveryactofdocumentingstudents thinkingsendsan
importantmessageaboutitsvalueandimportance.Butwe cant stop at
visibility. Wemust also seek to actively advance andpromotestudents
thinking ifweare
toproducestudentswhoareengagedlearnersandactivethinkersabletocommunicate,innovate,collaborate,andproblemsolve.
Thismeans thatachiefgoalof instruction,
rightalongsidethedevelopmentof contentunderstanding, is
theadvancementof
thinking.Thisdualfocus,whatGuyClaxton(Claxton,Chambersetal.2011)callssplitscreen
teaching,buildsonand ismadepossibleonly throughourefforts
tovaluethinkingandmakeitvisible.Itisthecompletionofourtriadicgoal.Takingthepromotionofthinkingseriouslymovesusintonewandsomewhatlesschartedterritoryformostteachers.Ontheonehand,oneadvancesanyskill
through the opportunities one has to engage it. Therefore,
teachersmust createopportunities for thinkingandprovide time for
itnotalwaysaneasythingamidstthepressforcoveragebutanecessitynonetheless.Onthe
other hand, practice alone does not ensure progress and
meaningfuldevelopment.Onealsoneedsfeedbackandcoachingononespractice.Thiskindofcoachingcalls
foranuanced,situated,andembeddedassessmentofstudentseffortsinthemoment.Itisanassessmentthatfeedsandspursthelearnersefforts,beingpurelyformativeinnature.I
hesitate to use the word assessment in this context since it
carries somuch baggage for educators. Some educators cannot get the
red pen
orgradebookoutoftheirmindsassoonastheyheartheword.Otherscringeatthedeadeningeffectsomanyformsofschoolbasedassessmentshaveonthe
learning and teaching process, turning even the most
enjoyableexploration intomerework for theteachertograde. But
thesearemostassuredlynottheformsofassessmentthatarehelpfulinadvancingstudentsthinking.Weareaftertheassessmentofacoachontheplayingfield,ableto
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
21
identifywhereaplayerisatinhisorherdevelopmentandwhatisneededtotakeperformancetothenextlevel.Thisistheskillofacoach.Itisalsotheskill
of an effective teacher. Practically anyone, and increasingly
anything,candispenseinformation.Reallearningisadvancedthroughthecreationofpowerful
opportunities for mental engagement accompanied by
thediscerningeyeandtargetedfeedbackofsomeonemoreexpertthanoneself.EnactingOurNewStory,RealizingOurVisionIn
this chapter, I articulated a set of new outcomes that define a
qualityeducation:thepromotionofthedispositionsneededforstudentstobecomeactivelearnersandeffectivethinkerseagerandabletocreate,innovate,andsolveproblem.Itisthisoutcomethatismostneededforsuccessintheworldtoday.
Although not wholly new, it is an outcome that has enjoyed
onlyperipheralattention,seldomcapturing thecoreofourattention.
Toooftenpushedtothesidebyafocusonexamscoresalone. However, it
isavisionthatencapsulatesourhighestcallingaseducators,representingwhatweareabletoachievewhenweallowourselvestodreamoutsideofthewellwornconstraintsoftheschoolbureaucracy.
It
isthestuffofpassion,energy,anddriveforbothourstudentsandus.Ithenidentifiedthevehicleneededtogetusthere:enculturation.Wemustsurroundourstudentswithan
intellectual life intowhich
theymightgrow.Todothis,weneedtofirstidentifyandevaluatethestoryoflearningwearecurrently
telling our students through the messages we send them
(someideasfordoingthatfollowattheendofthischapter).Then,wemustworktoshiftthosemessagesinordertoenculturatestudentsintoanewstoryoflearningwhere
thinking isvalued,visible,
andactivelypromotedaspartoftheongoing,daytodayexperienceofallgroupmembers.Wemustbecomeshapersofcultureandmessagemanagerstorealizeourvisionandtransformourschools.But,
how do we shift the messages within an already established
culture?How do we enact a new story of learning for both our
students
andourselves?Howcanweunderstandtheinsandoutsofgroupculturesothatwemayharnessitspowerandshapeittotellournewstory?ThesearethequestionswetakeupinChapter2aswedelveintoanexplorationofgroupandorganizationalculture.
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
22
UncoveringtheStoryofYourSchoolorClassroom Using the method of
the Gallup Youth Survey, create a list of 25adjectives: 10 positive
(engaged, interested, curious, etc.), 5 neutral(coasting,
comfortable, fine, etc.) and 10 negative (tired, bored,frustrated,
etc.). Ask students anonymously to select three
wordsfromthelisttodescribehowtheyusuallyfeelinschoolingeneralorin
your class in particular. Include a question asking students
toidentifyhow they see themselvesacademically: near the top,
aboveaverage,average.Whatdoesthepatternofresponsetellyou?
UsetheMyReflectionsontheLearningActivitiesinthisClasssurveyofstudents(AppendixA)toassessstudentsviewsaboutthetypesofthinking
that aremost present in a particular class lesson.
Howdostudentsviewsmatchwithyourown?
Uncoverthemessagestheschoolsendsteachersaboutwhatitmeansto teach at
your school. Have the faculty respond inwriting to theprompt: For a
first year teacher beginning his/her career at
ourschool,whatmessageswouldhe/shepickupaboutwhatitmeanstobeateacherhere?Whatkindsofprofessionalconversationswouldheorsherecognizeasdominatingourtime?Whatwouldheorshenoticeabouthowonedevelopsasateacheroverthecourseofhis/hercareerifonestaysat
thisschool? Shareanddiscusspeoplesresponses insmall groups to
identify themes, and then share them out with thelargergroup.
GoonaLearningMessageWalk.Visitasmanyclassesatyourschoolas you
canona givenday, stopping in each class just 510minutes.The purpose
is not to evaluate teacher performance but to get ageneral feel for
students experience in classes. Pay attention
toengagementandparticipation.Areallstudentsparticipatingorjustafew?
Note level of intellectual challenge and the teachers press
forthinking. Is this justmoreof thesameordostudentsreallyhavetodig
inand think? Geta feel for thediscourse in theclassroom.
ArestudentsengagingandrespondingtooneanotherorisitonlyaPingPong
ball dialog with the teacher? Take note of how students areworking:
whole class, small groups, in pairs, or individually.
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
23
ReferencesArnstine, D. (1995). Democracy and the arts of
schooling. Albany, StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.
Boaler,J.andK.Brodie(2004).Theimportance,natureandimpactofteacherquestions.PsycholgyofMathematicsEducationNorthAmerica.Toronto.
BoixMansilla, V. and A. Jackson (2011). Educating for global
competency:Preparingouryouthtoengagetheworld.NewYork,AsiaSociety.
Borja, R. R. (2004). "Singapore's digital path."
EducationWeek(TechnologyCounts). Bradt, S. (2006). High school AP
courses do not predict college success
inscience.HarvardUniversityGazette.Cambridge,MA,HarvardUniversity.
Bronson, P. and A. Merryman (2010). "The creativity crisis."
RetrievedNovemeber 1, 2010, 2010,
fromhttp://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/2010/07/10/thecreativitycrisis.print.html.
Brown,D.(2010)."Anopenlettertoeducators."RetrievedJanuary25,2011,2011,fromhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P2PGGeTOA4.
Claxton, G., M. Chambers, et al. (2011). The learning powered
school:Pioneering21scentruyeducation.Bristol,TLOLimited. Eisner, E.
(2003). "Preparing for today and tomorrow."
EducationalLeadership61(4):610. Gorski,R. (2011). "45%of
studentsdon't learnmuch
incollege."RetrievedJanuary23,2011,fromhttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/01/18/45ofstudentsdontlearn_n_810224.html.
Goyal,N.(2011)."It'stimeforalearningrevolution."RetrievedNovember1,2011,
from
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/nikhilgoyal/post_2586_b_1034887.html.
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
24
Jakes, D. (2012). "What if? The Upshot." Retrieved February 2,
2012, fromhttp://davidjakes.com/whatiftheupshot.
Lindgren,H.(2009).Howtoremakeeducation.NewYorkTimes.NewYork.
Lipsett, A. (2008). National curriculum contrains teachers and
pupils. TheGuardian.London,MediaLimited.
Liu,E.andS.NoppeBrandon(2009).Imaginationfirst:Unlockingthepowerfopossibility.SanFrancisco,JosseyBass.
Lyons,L. (2004)."Mostteensassociateschoolwithboredom, fatigue."
fromhttp://www.gallup.com/poll/11893/mostteensassociateschoolboredomfatigue.aspx.
Maisuria, A. (2005). "The trubulent times of creativity in the
NationalCurriclum."PolicyFuturesinEducation3(2):141152. McMurrer,
J. (2007). NCLB Year 5: Choices, Changes, and Challenges:Curriculum
and Instruction in the NCLB Era. Washington DC, Center
onEducationPolicy.
Meier,D.(2003).inschoolswetrust:Creatingcommuniteisoflearninginaneraoftestingandstandardization.NewYork,BeaconPress.
NEA (2003). Satus of the American public school teacher
20002001.Washington,DC,NationalEducationAssociation:384.
Partnership_for_21st_Century_Skills(2006)."Aretheyreallyreadytowork?".fromhttp://www.p21.org/storage/.../FINAL_REPORT_PDF092906.pdf.
Pianta, R. C., J. Belsky, et al. (2007). "Opportunities to Learn in
AmericasElementaryClassrooms."Science315(March30,2007):17951796.
Pianta, R. C., J. Belsky, et al. (2007). "Support online material
forOpportunities to Learn in Americas Elementary Classrooms."
fromhttp://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/315/5820/1795/DC1.
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
25
Pink,D.(2012)."MontgomeryschoolsMarylandSuperintendent'sbookclubdiscussion
". Retrieved February 1, 2012, 2012,
fromhttp://www.montgomeryschoolsmd.org/departments/superintendent/bookclub.aspx.
QSA (2009). Student assessment regimes: Getting teh balance right
forAustralia.Brisbane,QueenslandStudiesAuthority. Ravitch,D.
(2011).Thedeathand lifeof
thegreatAmericanschoolsystem:Howtestingandchoiceareunderminingeducation.NewYork,BasicBooks.
Ritchhart, R. (2004). "Creative teaching in the shadow of the
standards."IndependentSchool63(2):3241.
Ritchhart,R.(2012)."Harnessingthepowerofquestions."CreativeTeachingandLearning3(1).
Ritchhart, R., M. Church, et al. (2011). Making thinking visible:
How
topromoteengagement,understanding,andindependenceforalllearners.SanFrancsico,JosseyBass.
Robinson, K. (1999). All our futures: Creativity, culture and
education.London,NationalAdvisoryCommitteeonCreativeandCulturalEducation.
Robinson, K. (2006). "Bring on the learning revolution." 2009,
fromhttp://www.ted.com/talks/sir_ken_robinson_bring_on_the_revolution.html.
Rose,M.(2009).Whyschool?NewYork,TheNewPress. Shepard, L. A. (2000).
"The role of assessment in a learning
culture."EducationalResearcher29(7):414.
Taylor,C.(2005).Walkingthetalk.London,RandomHouseBusiness.
Trilling,B.andC.Fadel (2009).21stcenturyskills: Learning for life
inourtimes.SanFrancisco,JosseyBass.
Tucker,M.S.(2011).Standingontheshouldersofgiants,NationalCenteronEducationandtheEcononmy.
-
CHAPTER1:ThePurposeandPromiseofSchools
CreatingCulturesofThinking:The8ForcesWeMustMastertoTrulyTransformOurSchoolsbyRonRitchhart(2012)
D R A F T : NO T F O R C I R CU L A T I ON W I T HOUT P E RM I S
S I ON
26
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978).Mind in society.
Cambridge,MA,HarvardUniversityPress. W., S. (2011). "AP classes:
Absolutely preposterous weapons of massinstruction." from
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/12/03/apabsolutelypreposterou_n_1127539.html.
Wagner,T.(2008).Theglobalachievementgap:Whyevenourbestschoolsdon't
teach
thenewsurvivalskillsourchildrenneedandwhatwecandoaboutit.NewYork,BasicBooks.
Wesch, M. (2007). "A vision of students today."
fromhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dGCJ46vyR9o.
Wesch,M.(2008)."Antiteaching:confrontingthecrisisof
thesignificance."EducationCanada48(2):47. Zhao,Y.
(2006)."ApausebeforeplungingthroughtheChina
lookingglass."EducationWeek.
Zhao,Y.(2009).Catchinguporleadingtheway:Americaneducaitonintheageofglobalization.Alexandria,VA,ASCD.