Causes of family breakdown and its effects on Children

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction.

1.1 Background of the Study.

This study is concerning the causes of family

breakdown and its effects on children in Juba Town,

Central Equatoria State, and South Sudan.

In today's society, there are many different types

of families. Some include intact, non-intact,

single families, stepfamilies and a variety of

others. Along with these different varieties of

families there is one common incident that can

cause the family structure to change. Family

breakdown is an unplanned event in a family's life.

It is something that affects each member of a

family at different times and in different ways.

About half of all marriages will end in breaking

up, leaving one million children each year to deal

with the process of family breakdown (Martin et aI,

2003).

Family breakdown rates in the United States rose

since the Civil war, decreased during the Great

1

Depression while peaking in 1980, and have remained

around fifty percent since then (Lazar et aI,

2004). Studies predict that thirty-eight percent of

white children and seventy-five percent of black

children born to married parents will experience

family breakdown prior to sixteen years of age

(Lazar et aI, 2004). The majority of these

adolescents will become part of a remarried family

prior to tuning eighteen years of age (Martin et

aI, 2004). Due to this, their family structure will

become different causing many changes and

adjustments in their life but no any findings have

convinced me on how family breakdown affects

children.

Families that come from lower incomes are more

likely to breakup, which in turn cause these

families to have a lower standard of living (Emery,

2004). Due to the lower incomes having a lower

standard of living, Emery (2004) found that

children may have to change schools, a parent may

have to work longer hours, older children may be

told they have limited choices for college and may

have to deal with their parents fighting over2

financial issues. These are concerns that children

may face after their parents’ divorce.

This could add more stress, anxiety and emotions

for an adolescent.

Several changes can take place during a family’s

breakdown. Some of these changes could include

moving, loss of contact with a parent, involvement

in conflict between the parents, and possibly

financial difficulties (Lazar et aI, 2004). The

changes can affect a person at different times and

can affect genders in different ways at different

points in the process (Hines, 2007).

Bowlby, back in 1969 created a theory of

attachment, and defined attachment as the

relationship between parent and child, this

attachment provides the child with an idea of how

to form a relationship and adjust to various life

experiences (Hines, 2007). The theory assumes that

adult friendships or romantic relationship develop

from parents or early caregivers examples.

(Carranza et aI, 2009). Carranza et al (2009) also

suggests that since these are formed early, a3

parental separation could cause the child to have

relationship issues later in life.

Family breakdown can change this attachment style

and can make a child have feelings of anger,

resentment and confusion, which can alter the

child's ability to form meaningful relationships

(Hines, 2007). This is one impact family breakdown

can take on adolescents, after a parental divorce.

It is hard for adolescents to understand this

process, while trying to figure out who they are

themselves. Family structure plays an important

part in helping an adolescent adjust and understand

to the changes in their life and body. It has been

shown in prior studies that family structure is one

of the factors that influence an adolescent's

success (Hines, 2007).

Building relationships and committing to a

relationship is one of the impacts on adolescents

during family breakdown. Research has shown that

marital conflict can affect the development of

intimate relationships during adolescents (Martin

et aI, 2003). Along with building relationships,4

several other factors contribute to effected

relationships.

Adolescents and young adults have shown that they

have trouble with commitment, lower trust in their

partners, lower satisfaction, trouble with

interpersonal skills and greater acceptance of

breaking up (Fine & Harvey, 2006).

According to CPC Acts; (March, 2014), when a family

breaks up it is usually difficult for everyone. It

is like a death which brings with it feelings of

grief and loss. Most people need time to get used

to the changes and each person’s response can be

very different. Parents try to grapple with their

own feelings while they make practical and very

important decisions that will affect the whole

family.

Splitting up may mean the end of a special

relationship between two adults, but not the end of

a relationship between a child and a parent.

Children need the ongoing love and support of both

parents.

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The best outcome for a child is usually reached

when both parents share the responsibility and all

the decisions that affect their child. This means

making a shift from being partners to being

parenting partners (something more like business

partners).

Although most parents want to do their best, many

parents do not handle this well and some create

more suffering for their children who are already

in pain from the break-up. For a small number of

parents who can’t talk to each other, professional

help is needed. The way in which parents handle

splitting up and especially any conflict, has an

enormous effect on the way children cope with their

lives.

1.2 Statement of the Problem.

Broken families have become a disaster in Juba town

which can result from separation due to illness,

divorce or other issues. The break-up of a family

has many negative impacts on the children. The

children are more likely to act out against

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siblings, biological parents, or stepparents.

Children also develop emotional issues, such as

anger, resentment, loneliness, and depression, due

to the change in the family unit. Children involved

in broken families are also more likely to engage

in early sexual activities and have difficulties in

school. Third of family break-up children lose

contact with fathers in ‘failing’ court system.

(John Bingham, 2009),

Tens of thousands of children a year are losing

contact with their fathers because of “failing”

family court system and disastrous custody

arrangements, a study has found.

One in three children whose parents separated or

divorced over the last 20 years disclosed that they

had lost contact permanently with their father.

Almost a tenth of children from broken families

said the acrimonious process had left them feeling

suicidal while others later sought solace in drink,

drugs or crime.

They complained of feeling “isolated” and “used”

while parents admitted having used children as

“bargaining tools” against each other.7

Lawyers said the study showed that the court system

itself was making family break-up more acrimonious

with children used as "pawns".

They warned that so-called “no fault” divorces were

encouraging warring parents to channel their

“bloodletting” into disputes over contact.

The poll of 4,000 parents and children was carried

out to provide a snapshot of the workings of the

family court system exactly 20 years after the

implementation of the landmark (Children Act,

1989).

It found that a third of children from broken

families had been tempted by drink or drugs while

as many as 10 per cent had later become involved in

crime.

A quarter of the children said that they had been

asked to lie to one parent by the other and 15 per

cent said they had even been called on to “spy” for

their mother or father.

Meanwhile half of parents polled admitted

deliberately drawing out the legal process for

maximum benefit and more than two thirds conceded

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that they had used their children as “bargaining

tools”. (Children Act, 1989),

Iain Duncan Smith, the former Conservative leader

and founder of the Centre for Social Justice,

warned that young people were bearing the scars of

a family breakdown “boom” and a resulting lack of

father figures.

“It is a mess, it needs a complete overhaul," he

said. "It is an organization locked in secrecy and

deeply unhelpful to the parents and the children

and all too often able to exacerbate the problems

that they are about to face.” (Children Act, 1989),

David Laws, the Liberal Democrat children’s

spokesman, added: “In too many cases the children

become caught up in the crossfire between two

warring parties in a system which sometimes

encourages the parents to take entrenched

positions.”

Miss Davis called for compulsory mediation for

parents hoping to use the divorce courts rather

than the current ”tick box” exercise for those

seeking legal aid.9

But a spokesman for the Children’s Society said

that compulsion “goes against everything we have

learned from many, many years of experience”.

(Children Act, 1989),

Delyth Morgan, the children’s minister, added:

“Divorce and separation can have a devastating

impact on children caught in the middle.

“But this survey, looking as far back as 20 years

ago, simply doesn’t reflect what support is

available for families now’’. These states that

there is clear needs for the current findings.

(Children Act, 1989),

1.3 The Purpose of the Study.

The purpose of the study is to find out the causes

of family breakdown and its effects on children

within Juba, South Sudan and creating awareness to

government in order to formulate laws that govern

families from breaking.

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1.4 Objectives of the Study.

This study was directed by the following

objectives;

1.To examine the root causes of family breakdown

within Juba Town and other external influences.

2.To examine the effects of family break down on

children’s mental, physical, emotional, and

social wellbeing within the domain of the

study.

3.To explore some alternative solutions to the

overviewed causes of the family breakdown in

Juba Town.

4.To observe appropriate ways of helping the

affected children.

1.5 Research Questions.

This study was conducted based on the following

research questions which are openhanded to the

objectives of the study.

i. What are the causes of family breakdown in

most families in Juba town, South Sudan?

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ii. How does family breakdown effects the

children of the affected families mentally,

physical, emotionally and socially?

iii.What are the potential alternative solutions

to the causes of family breakdown in Juba

town?

iv. How can the affected children be helped to

live a normal life?

1.6 Hypothesis of the Research.

This research will test the following assumptions:

H1: There is no significant relationship between

family breakdown and children low performance in

school in Juba City.

H0: There is significant relationship between family

breakdown and children low performance in school in

Juba City.

1.7 Methodology of the Study.

The methodology to be used for collecting the data

is going to be based mainly on secondary data,

documentary from libraries and completed field

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reports, workshops and seminars papers informal

discussion with experienced staff responsible of

the main offices.

This chapter explains the approach and methods used

in this study. It presents among others the

research design, the study population geographical

coverage, selection of the study participants, data

collection methods and tools used, data processing

and analysis.

The primary data will be collected through direct

questions to the target groups, observations and

interviews to the staff that were responsible in

the respondents in various descriptions.

1.8 The Scope of the Study.

Concerning the nature of this study, more targets

was put on the causes and the effects of family

breakdown on children in Juba Town, South Sudan and

will not drift beyond the territory of the causes

and effects of family breakdown on children.

1.8.1 Area scope/Geographical scope.

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This research will be conducted in Juba city

council, Juba County in Central Equatoria State.

The topic of this research covers the causes of

family breakdown and its effects on children and

will try to find some solutions to this social

problem.

1.8.2 Time scope.

This research will cover the fulfilment of

academic episode from 2010- 2013. The duration

of this research work will be starting from 21st

June to 31st August 2015.

1.9 Importance of the Study.

This study will be more useful to the following

stakeholders;

To the government.

The research information will benefit the

government (GOSS) especially the Ministry of

Gender, Child and Social Welfare, Directorate of

Child Protection and Gender violence to formulate

policies that will reduce family breakdown rate and

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creating suitable environment for the affected

children.

In line with the findings, the Ministry of Gender,

Child and Social Welfare (GOSS), Directorate of

Child Protection and the one of Social Welfare will

use the findings to obtain the following;

i. To evaluate the most causes of family

breakdown.

ii. To assess the impacts of family breakdown on

the children.

iii.To improve on their policies of approaching

such problems.

To the researchers.

The research findings will be significant to the

researchers who can use it as a launch pad for

other researches/studies. The information will also

be used in the Information and Resource Centers of

Higher Institutions of Learning like universities

that have Family Studies as a course for their

students as well as the Resource Centers in Family

Studies Institutions and their umbrella

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organizations. It will therefore be an additional

reference for the social problem studies within the

social institutions.

1.10 Research Organization.

The following section is a discussion of the

specific content of each chapter.

Chapter One introduces the research topic and

explains the statement of problem, the purpose and

objectives of the study, and the guiding questions

that formed the basis of the questionnaires and

interviews are also expounded. The chapter

introduces the methodology and scope of the study.

The chapter also presents the significance of the

research to various stakeholders who can

significantly benefit from it. In addition to that,

it also includes the research organization.

Chapter Two includes a discussion of the study

literature specific to the research topic and

research objectives and questions. The literature

review constitutes; definitions and concept of the

research topic, preventive alternatives to the

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research problem. The chapter also views

theoretical framework that explains the topic from

the developed western world; North America, Britain

and other African countries; Nigeria, South Africa,

and South Sudan.

Chapter Three is a detailed discussion of the

methodology of the research. It discusses how the

research will be carried out and the methods that

will be use to collect, analyze and record the

data. It also discusses the major challenges that

will face during the data collection as well as the

ways in which the challenges will be handled and

the limitations of the study.

The chapter also looks at how the respondents will

be selected and the specific type of research

instrument used on a particular respondent. The

justification for the methodology use will also be

presented in the chapter.

Chapter Four discusses the findings from the study

as guided by the research questions and objectives.

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The findings are discussed through presentations on

graphs, charts and others.

Chapter Five present the summaries of the findings

as per the study objectives, conclusions are drown

based on both the study findings and other relevant

literature which are considered necessary and

recommendation will be constructed vitally for the

study.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction.

Family breakdown is not an intended event in a

family's life. It is something that can affect each

individual of the family differently and at

different times. Today a family chance of getting

broken is of high percent. Since this is an event

that is not intended to happen, many factors need

to be considered when children are involved.

Literature shows that children from broken families

experience difficult adjustments such as social,

academic, and behavioral compared to children of

intact families, Doherty & Needle, (1991). Woosley

et aI, (2009), also concluded that children from

non-intact families tend to have lower

psychological well-being as compared to those from

intact families. This study will be searching at

the impact that non-intact families can have on

adolescent relationships. It will look at the

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impact on the parent to children relationship and

the relationships that children have themselves.

The review of literature will provide an overview

of what has already been concluded about causes of

family breakdown and its effects on the offspring.

This will also look at the research questions that

were presented in this study which were the

alternative approaches toward the problem.

Children can be put in a situation during the

family breakdown that can cause a triangulation

between family members. One researcher found that

when parents form alliances with a child/adolescent

against the other parent, the parent to parent and

parent to child relationships become unclear

(Buchanan, Maccoby, & Dornbusch, 1991). This type

of relationship puts the child/adolescent into

parent negotiations, tension and active conflicts

causing and impact on their relationship.

The interaction between parents can cause the child

to have mixed feelings about what and whom they

should be "siding" with. The theory of

triangulation is considered a family systems theory

20

(Buchanan, Maccoby, & Dornbusch, 1991). This theory

will be the base for this study. This theory will

aid in looking at the relationships that are formed

after a parental divorce. The relationship between

the child and parent is one factor that may change

or add stress to all involved. The parent child

relationships are representation of how the child

views relationships not only with friends but also

with a romantic partner (Bartell, 2001). Many

changes occur during and after family breakdown

that can impact this relationship.

2.1 Definitions and Concepts.

2.1.1 Family.

Family is a group of people affiliated

by consanguinity (by recognized birth),affinity (by

marriage), or co-residence and/or shared

consumption (see Nurture kinship). Members of the

immediate family may include, singularly or

plurally, a spouse, parent, brother, sister, son

and/or daughter. Members of the extended family may

include grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins,21

nephews, nieces and/or siblings-in-law (Wikipedia,

the free encyclopedia).

In most societies, the family is the principal

institution for the socialization of children.

As the basic unit for raising children,

anthropologists generally classify most family

organization as matrifocal (a mother and her

children); conjugal (a husband, his wife, and

children; also called the nuclear

family); avuncular (for example, a grandparent,

a brother, his sister, and her children); or

extended (parents and children co-reside with

other members of one parent's family). Sexual

relations among the members are regulated by

rules concerning incest such as the incest taboo.

"Family" is used metaphorically to create more

inclusive categories such

as community, nationhood, global

village and humanism.

The importance of strong marriage, healthy

families, and well-adjusted children, has been the

basis of a well functioning society. These aspects

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of a stable nation have been neglected over the

past several generations. In essence, we have lost

touch with the concept of the family and have

nearly destroyed the individual in the process.

Many individuals have chosen not to marry and some

have chosen not to have children. In addition, our

society has changed its concept of what constitutes

a family, and we are adjusting our thoughts and

behaviors regarding family values.

It is a known fact, though, that our family

experiences influence us well past childhood.

Family interaction is the initial and most lasting

influence that each of us will ever know. The way

that we experience our family members determines

what it means to us to be a human being. These

experiences have formed the very basic and core

belief about "who we are and how we behave".

The reason that the family systems model works in

helping individuals define their own lives is that

the conceptual focus is on the family system as a

whole, and not on one individual member. Individual

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symptoms are viewed as by-products of relationship

struggles, situations that are inherent in growing

up in a group of other people, whether biological

family members or not. Interventions are thus

geared toward understanding each individual's

behavior patterns, roles and functions, and how

they fit into the complex matrix of the specific

family system.

2.1.2 Types of Families.

1.Conjugal (nuclear) family

The term "nuclear family" is commonly used,

especially in the United States, to refer to

conjugal families. A "conjugal" family includes

only the husband, the wife, and unmarried children

who are not of age. Sociologists distinguish

between conjugal families (relatively independent

of the kindred of the parents and of other families

in general) and nuclear families (which maintain

relatively close ties with their kindred). However,

in the 21st century, the "nuclear family",

according to the 2010 Census, is "disappearing at a

rapid rate are homes with "traditional" nuclear24

families—Mom, Dad and two children." The nuclear

family is being replaced by other family structures

such as blended parents, single parents, and

domestic partnerships.

2.Matrifocal family.

A "matrifocal" family consists of a mother and her

children. Generally, these children are her

biological offspring, although adoption of children

is a practice in nearly every society. This kind of

family is common where women have the resources to

rear their children by themselves, or where men are

more mobile than women.

3.Extended family.

The term "extended family" is also common,

especially in United States. This term has two

distinct meanings. First, it serves as a synonym of

"consanguinal family" (consanguine means "of the

same blood"). Second, in societies dominated by the

conjugal family, it refers to "kindred" (an

egocentric network of relatives that extends beyond

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the domestic group) who do not belong to the

conjugal family. These types refer to ideal or

normative structures found in particular societies.

Any society will exhibit some underwear variation

in the actual composition and conception of

families.

4.Blended family.

The term blended family or stepfamily describes families

with mixed parents: one or both parents remarried,

bringing children of the former family into the new

family. Also in sociology, particularly in the

works of social psychologist Michael Lamb, traditional

family refers to "a middleclass family with a bread-

winning father and a stay-at-home mother, married

to each other and raising their biological

children," and nontraditional to exceptions from this

rule. Most of the US households are now non-

traditional under this definition.

In terms of communication patterns in families,

there are a certain set of beliefs within the

family that reflect how its members should

communicate and interact. These family

26

communication patterns arise from two underlying

sets of beliefs. One being conversation orientation

(the degree to which the importance of

communication is valued) and two, conformity

orientation (the degree to which families should

emphasize similarities or differences regarding

attitudes, beliefs, and values).

2.1.3 Family Breakdown.

Family breakdown is known as a point of divergence

in which the family members union comes to an end

and it happens when parents decide to separate,

divorce, and/or death of a parent or parents.

Parents may be tied up with their own emotional

issues and not very supportive. Young people may

face many emotions and problems as they get used to

new circumstances.

Many young people are concerned if their parents

fight and might be worried that they will break up.

This can mean worry about where they'll live, go to

school, who they'll live with, if they'll see their

other parent... But wait a minute - it hasn't

happened yet! They may not break up - some people

27

have learned to communicate in aggressive ways.

People can learn new ways to communicate, but this

might take time and help.

The root cause of violent crime thus is found in

failed intimate relationships of love in marriage

and in the family. The breakdown of stable

communities … flows directly from this failure. In

contrast, addressing the root causes … requires an

understanding of the crucial elements of supportive

family and community life.

Having families split up with mothers and fathers

living separately from each other is always deeply

disruptive, almost always sad and sometimes tragic

for children of all ages from birth to adulthood.

This fact is such a hard truth that it is usually

offered well-diluted with reassurances about

children being 'resilient' and quickly 'getting

over it'. But the message is vital and the

reassurances are false. Children are no more likely

than parents themselves to 'get over' parental

separation in the sense of forgetting about it or

it ceasing to be important to them.

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As a family breaks up, the needs of the children

should be the priority, and especially attachment

science and emotional and social development, we

know far more than earlier generations about what

those needs are. I hope this study will help

parents to face up to the enormity of the change

their separation is bringing upon their children

and offer ways in which they can choose to handle

it so as to soften the impact on them.

The message of this study, however, is that we can

do better by children whose families break up. It

does not suggest that parents should stay together

'for the sake of the children' but it gives facts

of the outcome from family breakage.

2.1.4 Children.

In this study, childhood refers to the ages between

six and seventeen years. After the age of five to

seven, children take a giant step, socially as well

as intellectually. At no time are they more ready

to learn (Oesterreich, 1995). In childhood,

children typically spend less time with their

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families and parents, as relationships are formed

with friends, teachers and others (DeBord, 1996).

Some theorists like Freud and Piaget view childhood

as a plateau, says Eccles (1999). According to

them, childhood is a time when children develop

mastery of the skills that they gained in pre-

school and it is a time of experiencing

adolescence.

Freud referred to this as to psychosexual latency

period. He sees the primary task for the child as

the development of cognition. In other words, it is

a period in which there is significant brain

development, with corresponding leaps in the

ability to think, process information, learn and

participate in formal education (Frazier, 2008).

Erikson believed that childhood is very important

in personality development and, unlike Freud, felt

that personality continued to develop beyond five

years of age; Stevens, (1983). Eccles (1999)

explains that; “psychological theorist Erik Erikson

saw the period of middle childhood not as a

plateau, but as an important time of transition

from home into the wider social community”. Erikson30

characterized this time as a tension between

industry and inferiority (Louww, Ede & Louw, 1998).

For the purpose of this study, children in

childhood can be seen as being between six and

seventeen years of age; when they start school up

to the last stage of adolescence.

Louw, Ede and Louw (1998) describe childhood as a

time relatively easy for physical development, but

very important in cognitive, social, emotional and

as sense of self-development. The childhood phase

is known for many changes and a substantial amount

of developmental tasks. Important milestones need

to be reached. Each age and stage of development

presents different issues and challenges.

“Erikson regards each stage as a “psychosocial

crisis” which arises and demands resolution before

the next stage can be satisfactorily negotiated.

Satisfactory learning and resolution of each crisis

is necessary if the child is to manage the next

ones satisfactorily” (Child & adolescent

development, 2005). Something as traumatic as a

family breakdown can handicap children in reaching

certain developmental milestones. Children regress31

and have to start over to try and succeed in

performing certain tasks. For the purpose of this

study the different tasks that children need to

complete before they move on to the next stage will

be discussed.

2.2 Stages of the Conflictual Process in Marriage.

1. Prior Conditions Stage; All family action has a

history of events leading up to its observation.

Given a family's rules and communication patterns,

conflict arises out of a perceived violation of

family rules, competition for scarce resources,

undesired dependence of one member on another, or

memory of previously unresolved family arguments.

2. Frustration/Awareness Stage; the prior condition

becomes unbearable in the minds of the

dissatisfied, and is characterized by frustration,

a growing awareness of being threatened (the

unhappy one), a growing awareness of being attacked

by the unhappy one, message responses to

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frustration. The unhappy one may back off several

times before the next stage.

3. Active Conflict Stage; conflict may be played

out as calm, precise arguments or animated

screaming matches, depending on the family's rules

for handling disputes. This stage marks clear

escalation from beginning hints of dissatisfaction

to stronger tactics. Coalitions may be drawn and

sides taken.

4. Accommodation/Solution Stage; Compromises occur,

declaration of terms are made, negotiation occurs,

or various management strategies are used here.

5. Follow- up/Aftermath Stage; this stage allows

for entrenchment of family rules for conflict

management, and includes re-eruptions, settlement,

holding of grudges and hurt feelings.

Other factors in family conflict include a family's

patterns of conflict, such as fighting styles. A

family may fight using reciprocal conflict in which

opponent’s trade "licks". A family may use

convergence on solutions, in which the couple work33

together to find solutions to their differences. In

either case, the introduction of hurtful remarks

further complicates the possibility of conflict

resolution. Further, the human need for intimacy is

often powerfully conciliatory. This need to be

loved may invite the danger of momentary "make ups"

which fend off the possibility of real conflict

resolution. Making up too soon will almost

guarantee a later fight or disagreement.

2.3 Ideas on Family Breakdown.

Families are the bedrock of society. When families

fall apart, society falls into social and cultural

decline. Ultimately the breakdown of the American

family is at the root of nearly every other social

problem and pathology.

Just a few decades ago, most children in America

grew up in intact, two-parent families. Today,

children who do so are a minority. Illegitimacy,

divorce, and other lifestyle choices have radically

altered the American family, and thus have altered

the social landscape (Kerby Anderson, 1994).

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Karl Zinsmeister of the American Enterprise

Institute has said, "There is a mountain of

scientific evidence showing that when families

disintegrate, children often end up with

intellectual, physical and emotional scars that

persist for life." He continues, "We talk about the

drug crisis, the education crisis, and the problem

of teen pregnancy and juvenile crime. But all these

ills trace back predominantly to one source: broken

families."

Broken homes and broken hearts are not only the

reason for so many social problems. They are also

the reason for the incumbent economic difficulties

we face as a culture. The moral foundation of

society erodes as children learn the savage values

of the street rather than the civilized values of

culture. And government inevitably expands to

intervene in family and social crises brought about

by the breakdown of the family. Sociologist Daniel

Yankelovich puts it this way:

Americans suspect that the nation's economic

difficulties are rooted not in technical economic35

forces (for example, exchange rates or capital

formation) but in fundamental moral causes. There

exists a deeply intuitive sense that the success of

a market-based economy depends on a highly

developed social morality--trustworthiness,

honesty, concern for future generations, an ethic

of service to others, a humane society that takes

care of those in need, frugality instead of greed,

high standards of quality and concern for

community. These economically desirable social

values, in turn, are seen as rooted in family

values. Thus the link in public thinking between a

healthy family and a robust economy, though

indirect, is clear and firm.

Social commentator Charles Murray believes

that "illegitimacy is the single most important

social problem of our time--more important than

crime, drugs, poverty, illiteracy, welfare or

homelessness because it drives everything

else." The public costs of illegitimacy are very

high. "Children born out of wedlock tend to have

high infant mortality, low birth weight (with

attendant morbidities), and high probabilities of36

being poor, not completing school, and staying on

welfare themselves. As a matter of public policy,

if not of morality, it pays for society to approve

of marriage as the best setting for children, and

to discourage having children out of wedlock."

Barbara Dafoe Whitehead warned Americans of the

cost of ignoring the breakdown of the family: If we

fail to come to terms with the relationship between

family structure and declining child well-being,

then it will be increasingly difficult to improve

children's life prospects, no matter how many new

programs the federal government funds. Nor will we

be able to make progress in bettering school

performance or reducing crime or improving the

quality of the nation's future work force--all

domestic problems closely connected to family

breakup. Worse, we may contribute to the problem by

pursuing policies that actually increase family

instability and breakup.

2.4 Correlated Causes of Family Breakdown on

Children.

37

Evidence on this subject was received from a

diverse range of organisations including many

federally funded service providers, church

organisations, government bodies, legal centres,

and associations representing a diverse range of

community interests. In addition, individual

submissions were received from academics, marriage

celebrants, counselors, marriage educators through

private citizens documenting their individual

experiences of marriage breakdown.

A common theme of these submissions is that the

causes of marriage breakdown are complex, diverse

and interactive and that no single factor can be

isolated as the most significant or important

reason for marriage breakdown. It is also evident

that the views vary depending on the background and

status of those who hold them, so that

professionals in relationship development may hold

theoretical understandings that differ widely from

the personal experiences of individuals within the

community.

Given the diversity of views presented to the

inquiry, the Committee sees value in providing a38

summary of the most common themes presented in

submissions. These themes can be broadly

categorized into socio-economic, cultural and

inter-personal factors.

2.4.1 Unemployment and Work Related Problems.

A discernible and quite striking trend noted in

submissions was the importance attached to

unemployment and other work related issues as

factors contributing to marriage and relationship

breakdown. Many submissions, particularly from

welfare organisations suggested that the pressures

placed on family life from unemployment are great

and have a strong impact on the well being of

relationships. Unemployment not only has the effect

of causing financial hardship but also lowers self

esteem, creates isolation and limits the ability of

families to lead fulfilling lives in the community.

Similarly, at the other end of the spectrum, other

families, due to financial pressures and fear of

losing employment, are working longer hours with a

consequent reduction in time for family. This in

39

turn places additional stress and pressure on

family life.

Comments included:

1.Poverty associated with lack of adequate

employment is a pressing issue. Unemployment,

underemployment and the changing nature of paid

work from full time permanent toward casual

employment all contribute to reduced financial

security, lowered expectations, isolation and

disharmony for some families. Families are

faced with increasing pressure from this

changing nature of paid work. These

uncertainties limit the ability of families to

purchase homes, have access to credit or lead

fulfilling lives in the community. This

pressure has a strong impact upon the well

being of their relationships.

2.Many families struggle with poverty,

unemployment or the uncertainty and fear of

unemployment. Children growing up in such

families frequently have lower expectations of

stable economic futures.

40

3.Financial strains are a major factor in family

breakdown. Families are spending less time

together and the inability of various family

members to communicate effectively with each

other is an outcome of this. This is

exacerbated by some employers who refuse to

recognize that workers have family

responsibilities.

4.The difficulties which couples face in dealing

with social pressures can exacerbate

relationship problems. For example, the

economic demands of long periods of

unemployment can prove too great for some. Work

practices which are 'family unfriendly' can

reduce the ability of couples to resolve

differences. The pace of change, combined with

high levels of uncertainty about the future of

jobs etc. can be very destabilizing.

2.4.2 Cultural Themes.

In terms of cultural issues, a strong theme coming

through submissions is that the redefinition of

gender roles has had a major impact on marriage and

41

the family. In the wake of the Women’s Movement,

women now have a radically new view of their role

and status in society and many men are still

uncertain how to respond to this change.

Submissions on this theme came from a diverse range

of groups and included the following comments:

1.Economic factors and the rights of women to

choose to work have changed the dynamics of

relationships over the past 20 years ... Role

models provided by parents are not always

relevant roles for the current generation where

more women need to work.

2.The influence of the feminist agenda of

equality has made the style of relationships

change. The traditional roles of earlier

generations have become more diverse with

several styles of relationships. Conflict and

breakdown may occur when one or the other

partner changes and the other do not understand

how to renegotiate their role within a

relationship.

3.The rapidly changing status of women and the

resultant demands on men being aspects of42

social changes to which many people have not

adjusted, particularly in relation to concepts

of marriage.

4.The current patterns of marital breakdown is

caused by the fact that the basic personal and

cultural norms of gender are changing ...

However there is little preparedness on men's

part, ... for a conscious accommodation to

changes on the part of so many women.

5.Changing roles of both men and women have

challenged expectations of marriages and lead

to uncertain and unrealistic divisions of

labour within families.

6.The greater participation of women, then

married women and finally married women with

dependent children in the paid work force has

had widespread ramifications for fertility,

expectations of marriage and the roles of men

and women in relation to their family

responsibilities.

7.Some proponents of radical feminism have been

quite hostile to the institutions of marriage

and family . . . feminism sees divorce as43

liberation from an oppressive institution, not

a break up of a sacred trust.

2.4.3 Ambivalence towards Marriage.

A cultural theme coming through many submissions

was that modern negative images of marriage

undermine marital stability.

Dr. Moira Eastman, from the Australian Catholic

University, presented the most scholarly submission

on this theme when she referred to society's

ambivalence towards marriage. She argued that one

of the most important contributors to marriage and

relationship breakdown is ambivalence (and possibly

even hostility) towards the concept of marriage

especially in academia, the government,

bureaucracy, social services, public policy and the

media.

In Dr. Eastman's opinion, perhaps the strongest

evidence of ambivalence to marriage (and family) is

that in at least two major policy areas, the

positive contributions made by marriage and family

are not acknowledged. One area of this ‘silencing’

is the domestic economy and the other is the44

contribution of marriage and family to health. She

referred to the fact that despite its significant

contribution to the national economy, the domestic

economy is ‘neglected, disregarded, slighted and

put out of the collective mind’. Similarly, marital

status is a significant factor impacting on health,

outweighing in impact the factor of smoking or not

smoking. Despite this evidence, national health

strategies ignore the role of marital status,

family stability and family processes in creating

or undermining health.

Dr. Eastman also argued that one reason for

marriage's marginal status is that there are many

'myths of marriage' or widely accepted negative

beliefs about marriage such as: marriage is good

for men and bad for women, marriage contributes to

health and well-being for men but makes women sick

and unhappy, that marriage is a hitting licence;

that violence and abuse are typical within

marriage; that marriage was originally designed to

facilitate both the maintenance of class inequality

and the oppression of women and that to propose to

reduce the amount of family breakdown is actually45

to attack, demean and stigmatize those who have

experienced marriage break-down.

These views culminate in some overarching beliefs

one of which is that current trends towards high

levels of marriage/relationship breakdown cannot

and should not be reversed. To attempt to reverse

them is to force people back into violent and

demeaning relationships. It involves placing a

stigma on the unmarried, separated, divorced and

those in de facto marriages. Another overarching

belief is that ‘support’ of marriage is of concern

only to those of the extreme right – especially

Christian fundamentalists or other minority groups

who for various reasons are unable to listen to the

facts that show that marriage is an essentially

unjust, unsafe and even violent social arrangement.

Dr. Eastman concluded that:

There is absolutely no evidence to support the

above negative beliefs about marriage and family

and the evidence to refute them is extremely strong

and constantly growing (Eastman 1996). But unless

the prevalence of these negative views of marriage

46

is taken into account, and unless the government

understands that there is a scholarly critique of

these views, and becomes informed of this critique

and on the basis of that information makes policy

that supports families and marriages as an essential

component of family life, then the cultural forces will

overwhelm any purely ‘educative’ approaches that

may be developed.

2.4.4 Individualism.

Several submissions suggested that many couples

enter marriage believing that individual rights and

needs should override the good of the marriage

partnership.

Such couples, it is argued, have been poorly

trained or equipped for a lifetime of commitment.

They often have unrealistic exceptions of the

challenge of marriage and the media images of

blissful relationships contribute to high

expectations without necessarily the concurrent

skills.

Mr. David Blankenhorn, President of the Institute

for American Values, told the Committee that there

47

has been a generational change in attitude to the

meaning of marriage and marriage commitment, and a

strong move towards commitment to self and

individualism. From his research in the US Mr.

Blankenhorn would argue that this is the principal

reason for the weakening of marriage as an

institution.

Other submissions suggested that with an increased

life expectancy, couples committing to life-long

commitments are looking forward to very much longer

years of marriage than that of their great-

grandparents. This brings with it added stresses

and the greater likelihood that couples may outgrow

one another.

2.4.5 Communication.

On an interpersonal level, the most common factor

cited as causing marital breakdown was poor

communication skills. The Community Mediation

Service of Tasmania suggested that with the

majority of counseling sessions in their

experience, it is clear that many individuals are

not able to clearly and assertively state their48

needs to avoid the build-up of resentment or anger

which becomes destructive to the marriage.

1.Partners frequently express that their emotions

have not been acknowledged; the teaching of

listening skills appears to be important. It is

expressed that partners would like to be

listened to without a defensive/aggressive

response. There appears to be a lack of

social/relationship skills in dealing with

problems in relationships: parties need

assistance in developing negotiation skills to

relate effectively.

2.Marriages and relationships are directly

affected by the couple's ability to

communicate. Where communication is poor,

couples experience emotional isolation,

uncertainty, neglect and sexual difficulties

and sometimes seek intimacy outside the primary

relationship.

2.4.6 Parenting.

A lack of parenting skills was cited by some social

welfare groups as placing stress on families.

49

Organisations such as Mary mead and Home-Start

Australia argued that the child rearing years are

some of the most stressful and couples approach

parenting with little or no preparation. There are

often few supports to deal with this and no longer

are extended families available to support young

parents.

It was also suggested that the time when children

reach adolescence is a very demanding time for many

parents, and relationships may be under threat due

to these associated pressures. One submission

further suggested that the trend toward adult

children remaining longer in their family of origin

and third generation unemployment also created

added stress on families.

2.4.7 Domestic Violence.

Domestic violence was cited in many submissions as

a major reason for marriage breakdown. Evidence

from the Domestic Violence Resource Centre31, the

Women’s Action Alliance32, the Northern Suburbs

Family Resources Centre Inc33, Kids Helpline,

Lifeline, Women's Legal Service (Qld), Family50

Services Australia, Ballarat Children’s Home38, the

Australian Association of Social Workers39 and the

Queensland Government40 all suggested that they had

practical experience to indicate that domestic

violence wreaked devastation upon many families.

This submission agreed that violence is a major

contributor to the breakdown in relationships.

Comments included: At the Domestic Violence

Resource Centre, we are daily confronted with the

devastation wreaked upon families by violent

individuals.

The cycle of violence that often repeats from one

generation to the next and which puts marriage

under threat from the outset. Violence and the

abuse of power are evident in all types of families

with many men viewing their partners and children

as their property. There is plenty of evidence that

violence is a major contributor to the breakdown in

relationships. Where issues of power are dominant,

the result is often violence, trauma, sexual abuse

or social isolation affecting mainly women and

children.

51

2.5 Family Approaches.

It is generally assumed today that the modern

family has undergone significant transformations in

its structure.  We are told that societal changes

have contributed to a sharp reduction in the

percentage of classical “typical” families,

principally "nuclear" families.  Replacing these,

we are made to understand, are childless families,

one-parent families, other family configurations,

and quasi-family units based on non-marital

cohabitation.   This argument of the decline has

been advanced for a number of decades, but little

research has been conducted to test the premise. 

Bane (1976) disagreed with that conclusion and

pointed out that family sizes were getting smaller

and mobility was splitting up some families, but

the family remained as a functional social

institution.

52

 The main contention of this paper is that analysis

of changing family patterns is distorted by the

definition of the family that is generally used and

the way relevant data are collected.  In support of

this contention, two different approaches will be

used to gauge family status, and the two will be

compared.  First, the standard demographic approach

to defining and measuring the family concept will

be reviewed. Second, the genealogical view of the

family will be examined. A comparison will then be

made of the two perspectives and their consequences

for understanding the nature of changes in the

modern family.

2.5.1 Standard Demographic Approach.

The family is generally recognized as an element of

a broader kinship network that links ancestors and

descendants of a person.  Most published statistics

on the family are based on census or household

survey questions and responses.  In the United

States (and, for the most part, throughout the

world), the "family" is defined in censuses and

surveys as two or more persons  related by blood,53

marriage, or adoption, and living in the same

residence  (Fields and Casper 2001).  The first

part of the definition excludes non-marital

cohabitation but can include extended as well as

nuclear family members.  However, the second part

of the definition severely restricts family

composition by limiting the family members to those

who share living facilities under the same

roof (Glick 1957).  This standard definition is

basically an accommodation to requirements of data

collection in censuses and surveys in which

identifying population in geographic contexts down

to the separate dwelling unit is necessary. 

Moreover, the questions needed to identify non-

residential family members would be burdensome and

the information costly to obtain.

Persons who might be considered part of a family

but do not reside at the same residential address

are not included in demographic data.  They may be

part of a family at another address or they may be

living alone or in group quarters (housing for a

substantial number of unrelated individuals).  This

54

is the case even if such persons live close by

(maybe even next door) and/or visit or otherwise

regularly communicate (by phone or mail) with their

family of origin.  Additionally, because of census

and survey residence rules, college students living

in a college community and some long-term workers

at remote places are excluded from the family group

even if their intention is to return to the

family's residence after school or work is

completed.  In other words, the family definition

is controlled by the household definition, where

households describe current or potential housing

markets.

In fact, some persons who meet the standard

demographic definition of the family and are

included may have little association with other

family members in the same residence.  For example,

they may have different schedules of sleep, work,

or other activities, and they may not communicate

by phone or mail.  Their inclusion in the family is

pro forma and based only on the given family

definition. These facts raise questions about the

55

boundaries of the standard demographic definition

of the family and its consequences for

interpretations of how family structure might be

changing over time. 

2.5.2 The Genealogical Approach.

Genealogy is the study of family structural

history, drawing basically on demographic data

sources such as censuses, birth and death

certificates, immigration records, and other

administrative records.  The aim of genealogical

research is to construct a family tree of ancestors

and dependents of a key person (Smith and Mineau

2003).  The tree can be limited in its extension to

cousins and other persons remotely related, but

typically the attempt is to be inclusive of related

kin.   Some genealogists prefer the term "family

history" to "genealogy" because the latter term

implies a genetic connection that may not be real

because of questionable paternity and because it

would not apply to adoptive persons.

56

Many types of information can be included in family

trees, but the pattern of relationships is not

dependent on residential locations.  Residence can

be one item of information for each individual in

the tree, along with such items as dates of birth

and death, place of birth, occupation, and other

personal markers.  One can examine a family tree

and extract a family structure using a variety of

family definitions, based on how extensive one

wishes to consider the family (Finnegan and Drake

1994).  Family trees typically distinguish between

living and dead members of the family, so that

several family definitions can be applied to only

living members.  In this sense, the genealogical

approach to looking at family structure provides

for a broader range of family forms than is

possible from the demographic approach.  Thus, one

can describe a couple and their offspring, living

together or not; a multi-generation family, living

together or not; as well as extended family

groupings. 

57

Genealogies have not been incorporated into family

research very much.  Smith (1987) indicates that

obtaining any type of kin count or structure (and,

by implication, residence-based families) "is often

difficult or impossible ….  Genealogical research,

even when done with the aid of computers, is

labour- intensive and requires extensive archival

data."  The use of genealogies in demographic

research has been heavily oriented to estimating

population size, as well as fertility and mortality

of communities.

Because sets of family trees are often hard to come

by, the broader kinship network that the family

tree describes can be obtained by having survey

respondents reconstruct the history of a family’s

changing structure by tracing the family’s

evolution from the marriage date of a couple to the

point where only one member of the family group is

still living.

2.6 Types of Marriage and Family Conflicts.

58

Differences in a marital system's characteristics

will influence the type of conflict that may occur.

2.6.1 Endogenous Conflicts are those in which the

situation is defined as a conflict by agreement

between the people involved. These are also known

as Structural Conflicts, or relationship oriented

conflict. A family breakdown concludes the

awareness of sexual infidelity and disagreement

about its relevance because we have laws and norms

regarding the sexually exclusive nature of

marriage. This is the "You've hurt me by your

actions, but we can work things out by talking."

type of conflict.

2.6.2 Exogenous Conflicts are those in which there

is no pre-existing system for the resolution of

this type of conflict. With this, the "I hate your

guts" kind of conflict, there is little to be

discussed. Exogenous conflicts are also known as

Instrumental Conflicts.

2.6.3 Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Structures are

those in which members of the marital dyad have the

59

same resources and perceive their power base as

equal. Escalation of conflict here might result in

rapid coming to blows and violence because each

believes he or she can win. Asymmetrical structures

are those in which members of the marital dyad do

not have the same resources, which results in some

variation of a dominant/submissive relationship.

Escalation of conflict is not as likely because one

member is perceived as more power.

Within either symmetrical or asymmetrical marital

structures, Issues Oriented Conflict will reside.

This is conflict over specific situations or

events--conflict over the disposition of family

resources, for example. The autonomy issue--

distance regulation in systems language--is one.

The "privilege" issue--money, power, resources--is

another. Both autonomy and privilege issues are

accounted for by Dahrendorf, who simultaneously

sees all conflict and the social order as resulting

from the Unequal Distribution of Authority in

society. Just as the authority structure of

bureaucracies serves as the principle basis for

60

conflict in the larger society, so is the authority

structure of "normal" marriages and families

(patriarchy in our society). Unlike the secondary,

bureaucratic, relationships of inter-institutional

interaction, primary relationships (i.e.,

husband/wife, parent/child) are characterized by

level of intimacy.

2.7 Explanation of Theory Related to Family.

By the way, theories can be used to study society

-- millions of people in a state, in a country, or

even at the world level.

2.7.1 Family Systems Theory.

When understanding the family, the Family Systems

Theory has proven to be very powerful. Family

Systems Theory claims that the family is understood

best by conceptualizing it as a complex, dynamic,

and changing collection of parts, subsystems and

family members. Much like a mechanic would

interface with the computer system of a broken-down

car to diagnose which systems are broken

(transmission, electric, fuel, etc.) and repair it,61

a therapist or researcher would interact with

family members to diagnose how and where the

systems of the family are in need of repair or

intervention. To fully understand what is meant by

systems and subsystems, look at Figure 6 below.

Family Systems Theory comes under the Functional

Theory umbrella and shares the functional approach

of considering the dysfunctions and functions of

complex groups and organizations.

Today multi-generational family systems are

becoming more common, but there are typically only

three generations: the married adult child and his

or her spouse and children move back home. Juan and

Maria raised their two children, Anna and José,

with tremendous support from grandparents. Maria's

mother is a college graduate and has been a big

help to José, who is a sophomore in junior college

and a basketball team member. Juan's mother and

father are the oldest family members and are

becoming more and more dependent. Juan's mother

requires some daily care from Maria.

2.8 Used Alternative Solutions on Family Breakdown.62

2.8.1 The Family Law.

The intensive debate that the preceding Bill

stimulated in both Houses during the drafting

stages was largely focused on the needs of

children, with the positive outcome that children’s

issues have achieved a high media and public

profile. The introduction to the Act outlines its

purpose to support marriages in the interests of

children and contains a number of measures aimed to

reduce the conflict associated with family

breakdown, in particular the removal of fault as a

fact to evidence the ground for divorce and

encouragement (by information giving and fiscal

support) for couples to actively consider

mediation. Measures to encourage parents to

cooperate in joint future planning include: time to

debate the outcome of separation (minimum one year)

and possible routes to reconciliation; an

imperative to receive and digest information about

the effects of the decision to separate on

themselves and their children; effective ways of

approaching domestic violence and the protection of

63

mothers and children; assessment of suitability for

mediation; and mediation, not adjudication, as a

preferred option for most parents.

2.8.2 Information Giving and Mediation.

Mediation services have to be available in a

country following the Finer Committee

recommendation that a more conciliatory approach to

the ending of marriage would be of more assistance

to parents than separate adversarial

representation. Mediation affords the opportunity

for both parents to meet together with trained

mediator(s) to plan living and contact arrangements

and, if they choose, future financial provision for

the family. Few of the wide range of professionals

who provide services for families and children are

aware of the importance of mediation and the

availability of services has been limited by

financial constraints.

Setting up new services to provide information

about the process and consequences of family

breakage and the expansion of mediation services

were piloted in UK by the Lord Chancellor’s64

Department and the Legal Aid Board in different

parts of the country during 1997.

One major advantage of identifying the problem

areas for children in the present climate of family

change and considering ways in which children may

become vulnerable is to assist in the development

of strategies to help parents support their

children. It is important that paediatricians and

other doctors understand both the philosophy and

the practicalities of the Family Law Act 1996 and

the associated information giving sessions and

mediation services. They may also, however, be able

to provide a different form of support in a

clinical setting.

When parents contemplate separation, they often

look first for support from within their own family

circle and friendship networks. Unfortunately, just

at a time when all their resources are needed,

access becomes complicated by family and friends

assuming divided loyalties, and by the secrecy

which often surrounds the decision of one partner

to leave.

65

Several studies have indicated that the family

doctor is often the first person outside the family

to be consulted by parents. Parents consider such a

consultation as within the realms of normality and

often produce physical symptoms as an outward sign

of the inward emotional distress which is often the

as yet unacknowledged trigger for the visit.

Parents recognize that help for the range of

problems that they face, often for the first time,

is hard to find, confusing, and often only

available when crisis points are reached. In

response to these findings that parents would

welcome assistance at an early stage, One Plus One

have developed a programme (Brief Encounters) which

aims to provide health professionals with skills to

enable the brief consultations possible in busy

clinical practices to more effectively support and

direct couples to other services, and to use the

time available to them to best advantage.

Professionals are aware of the front line part they

play in the support of families, yet when they seek

a service to which patients could be referred at an

66

early stage of a relationship problem when there is

still a commitment to resolve differences, they may

find that they lack specific knowledge about the

referral route to an effective service. Relate

counselors and others from similar organisations

are increasingly providing services on primary

health care premises, and in line with government

directives have re-emphasised their role in

persuading couples to reconsider their decision to

breaking up. On the whole there is as yet little

assistance for families as a matter of course when

extraneous support is necessary. It is hoped that

new initiatives will be encouraged by the

philosophy of the Family Law Act 1996.

2.8.3 Supporting Children.

For children whose parents are going through, or

have completed, divorce, there is little or no

provision for separate advice and counseling

outside the therapeutic setting in which

paediatricians often see children. Because of their

unique relationship with children and parents as

trusted and non-labeling professionals they may

67

have a real opportunity for diagnosis and

treatment. Recognizing the possibility of symptoms

having a functional basis may be the key to moving

forward for a child or young person with recurrent

pain, sleep disorders, school difficulties, chronic

fatigue syndrome, eating disorders, anorexia

nervosa, or a variety of other symptoms.

There are clearly situations where immediate

presumptions that in reordered families these

issues are responsible for symptomatology can be

more damaging than therapeutic. The clinical

appointment offers an occasion for these issues to

be raised with parents and a possible “treatment”

plan discussed which may have more to do with the

reorganization of family dynamics than medical

intervention. Few professionals other than general

practitioners have similar access and ability to

address most areas of a child’s life and

paediatricians as “outside opinions” may have more

clinical power and a more effective armamentarium

of interventions at their disposal. Paediatricians

as a group is also in a position where their power

68

to lobby policy makers would be expected to result

in new genuine initiatives to support children

before recognized symptoms require orthodox

treatment.

Some professionals consider that the school

environment could provide a safe arena to discuss

the shared problems of family separation and

reorganization. Successful small scale

interventions involving parents and children have

been introduced in the USA (N Kalter et al, Time

limited developmental facilitation groups for

children of divorce: early adolescence manual;

unpublished manuscript, University of Michigan,

1993). In the UK there are pockets of good practice

where family issues are part of a school personal

and social education programme, but there is room

for development. Organisations such as Relate have

two pilot programmes to provide counseling for

adolescents in Northern Ireland and the Midlands

(Relate teen, details from Relate Marriage

Guidance, Rugby).

69

Some mediation services provide the opportunity for

children to be involved either directly or by being

offered a separate mediation session. In both

public and private law all ways of involving

children raise important ethical issues surrounding

confidentiality and the safeguarding of children’s

interests which have yet to be addressed, but

require urgent attention.

The implementation of the Children Act 1989

highlighted the fact that the medical and legal

professions had important contributions to make to

the practice of each other and allied professions.

The National Council for Family Proceedings, based

in Bristol, and the Family Justice Studies

Committee under the direction of The Rt Hon Lord

Justice Thorpe are promoting ways of developing

interdisciplinary training and cooperation to

promote understanding of the legal, medical,

psychological, and social influences which affect

families and children.

2.8.4 Marriage Preparation and Parenting: new

initiatives.

70

The public debate about marriage which surrounded

the passage of the Family Law Bill through the UK

Parliament has given a welcome emphasis to the

necessity of preparing young people for long term

adult relationships and parenting. Programmes which

concentrate on the realities of marriage and the

demands made by the arrival and management of

children are being set up in various parts of the

country in conjunction with Relate, the London

Marriage Guidance Council, and One plus one.

Partnerships are also being formed with religious

and ethnic groups such as the Jewish Marriage

Council and the Afro-Caribbean support group, and

those from the Asian community who represent and

demand different beliefs and responses.

2.8.5 Education to Communicate.

A Schools Sex Education Programme at present being

offered in some areas of the UK is based on methods

of assisting pupils to acquire negotiation and

communication skills within personal relationships

and to withstand pressure more effectively.

Evaluation has shown that it is possible to

71

influence both beliefs and behaviour in a school

based intervention. Conflict is a feature of every

viable personal relationship. Concentration on the

acquisition of skills to successfully resolve

conflict rather than deny or ignore its existence

in everyday life may help to reduce the increasing

numbers of children who find themselves at the

centre of such continuing adult disputes.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction.

This chapter discusses how data collection was

carried out before the distinct research study

was done and it explains how the flow of

collection of data was done. The data were

collected using structured questionnaires and

interviews. Thus, this chapter on methodology is72

devoted to research design, research population,

sample size and sampling procedure, research

instrument; validity and reliability of the

instrument, data gathering procedures, data

analysis, ethical considerations and limitations

of the study.

3.1 Research Design.

Quantitative and qualitative research was use for

the researcher to understand the causes of family

breakdown and its effects on children. The

quantitative method which was descriptive in nature

helped in explaining the information from the field

to draw conclusive decisions. The research method

was use to describe non qualitative factors such as

clients motivation, communication as well as

organizational variables that cannot be measured in

qualitative terms. Therefore research design

includes;

3.1.1 Research Approach.

The study used combined approach, positivism and

phenomenological approach that is qualitative and

73

quantitative research method for data collection

was use to test the hypothesis using various

statistical measures to examine the causes of

family breakdown and its effects on children in

Juba City of South Sudan. This was used because the

study focused on peoples’ lives, behaviors and

their influential motives, because it is complex to

handles family issues if not approach tactfully.

3.1.2 Research Strategy.

A survey in Juba City was carried out to establish

how Family alternative solutions have improve the

family breakage issues of families within the three

Payams of Juba City; Kator, Munuki and Juba. It

identified the methods to be used and some

constraints like failure to access data in Family

history.

3. 2 Study Population.

A study population is generally a large collection

of individuals or objects that is the main focus of

a scientific query. For this case, Juba City was

chosen to be the study population with elevation of

74

550 m (1,800 ft). Juba is the capital and largest

city of the Republic of South Sudan. It also serves

as the capital of Central Equatoria, one of the

ten states of South Sudan. The City is situated on

the White Nile and functions as the seat

and metropolis of Juba.

Juba itself was established in 1922 as a small town

by a number of Greek traders which were mostly

supplying the British Army at the time. Although

their number never exceeded 2,000 inhabitants,

together with a much larger number of the native

Bari tribe with whom they had excellent

relationship.

In 2005, Juba's population was 163,442. Based on

analysis of aerial photos, the best estimate of

several donors working in Juba calculated the 2006

population at approximately 250,000. The 5th Sudan

Population and Housing Census took place in

April/May 2008, stating the population of Juba

County to be 372,413 (the majority residing in Juba

City, which dominates the county), but the results

were rejected by the Autonomous Government of

75

Southern Sudan. Juba is developing very rapidly due

to oil money and the Chinese coming for work and

development. In 2011, the population of the City of

Juba is estimated at approximately 372,410, but may

potentially be more. As of 2013, the City is

growing at a rate of 4.23%.

3.3 Sample Size.

Due to the large sizes of population, the

researcher often cannot test every individual in

the entire city because it is too expensive and

time-consuming. However, the major three Payams;

Kator, Juba and Munuki were chosen in which 15

individuals were selected from Kator, 11 from Juba

Payam and 34 from Munuki Payam making up 60

respondents.

TABLE 3.1: showing the selection of respondents

from each of the three Payams

The residential areas of the respondents

Frequency

Percent

ValidPercent

CumulativePercent

Kator 15 25.0 25.0 25.0

Juba 11 18.3 18.3 43.3

76

Munuki

34 56.7 56.7 100.0

Total 60 100.0 100.0

Source: Field work, 2015.

3. 4 Sample Selection.

Purposive sampling technique was used by the

researcher during the study because this study was

small where the population samples required a

limited number but significant number of people

whose responses met the objectives of the study.

3. 5Data collection.

a) Primary Sources.

Data for this research was generated from

observation, and informal interviews were conducted

among the illiterate community members.

Administering questionnaires to them facilitated

the method better. More responses were solicited

through the interviews with the key informants such

as the students and some government employees. This

strategy helped to generate information with

respect to causes of family breakdown and its

effect on children. Focus group interviews were77

also conducted to generate data from the residents

of Kator, Juba and Munuki Payam concerning the

effects of family breakdown and its effects on

children. This method was useful because the

researcher was able to get responses from different

individuals. Data was also collected from

vulnerable groups such as the elderly, youth, and

persons with disabilities and the women within

those localities.

b) Secondary Sources.

Data was generated from other sources, which

facilitated the review of literature: University of

Juba Library, UNDP Library, Human Rights Commission

Library, Peace and Development Library, Home

Library, GOSS Ministry of Gender, Child and Social

Welfare Documentation. Information got included

national strategic plans, text books, government

policies, workshop and seminar reports and

journals.

3. 6Research Instruments.

a) Questionnaires.

78

A self administered questionnaire was administered

to the Juba City residents such as the students,

health officer, religious leaders, local chiefs,

teachers, and government staff residing in the

selected three Payams; Kator, Juba and Munuki. The

sample for the citizens was not limited to specific

groups of either sex, student, rich, poor, working

class or unemployed but to those who have been

instrumental in spearheading the effort against

family breakdown, and need some changes in the

welfare of the children within Juba City and the

entire nation. The structured questionnaire was

used to conduct interviews with the parents or

guardian and children in social institutions.

The respondents were selected regardless of their

occupation but on the knowledge and experiences of

family issues. The researcher was able to get

detailed information because of the open ended

nature of the questionnaire, which the respondents

who could read and write preferred.

b) Interview Schedule.

79

The use of the interview schedule was important for

this study because of the need to have detailed and

information about family breakdown and its effects

on children in Juba City. The structured interviews

were administered to the selected respondents in

the residents who were found to be knowledgeable

and experimental of the problem under

investigation. In addition, it enabled some

respondents who could not read and write to

participate in the research. A set of well-defined

and highly standardized questions was used.

c) Interview Guide.

The researcher used interview guide for

unstructured interviews to facilitate interviews

and the focus group discussions. The target groups

comprised youth, women, elders and persons with

disabilities. This was a suitable method for the

research because of its flexibility and advantage

of helping the researcher to capture specific

information from those who were interviewed. The

method also gave the researcher full freedom to ask

questions in whatever manner he desired. It also

80

allowed and facilitated interaction on

controversial issues with key informants on

important issues that were not raised in the

questionnaire.

d) Observation.

This method gave direction for the researcher to

observe and present the situation of families and

children in Juba City. He was also able to compare

the information generated by the other methods

above. This method was articulate because the data

consisted of detailed descriptions of participants’

behaviours and the full range of human

interactions. The method also provided the

researcher with direct observation of available

facts.

e) Internet.

This was used by the researcher to establish

whether previous research, workshops, conferences

and media reports adequately addressed the data

collected from the study.

f) Documentary Analysis.

81

The data from document analysis yielded excerpts,

quotations, or passages from records,

correspondences and official reports, which the

researcher used to establish whether previous

research, media reports, text books and seminar or

conference reports addressed the information

gathered from the study within the domain of the

study.

g) Data Analysis.

This research study was based on a thorough

description of the characteristics, processes,

transactions and contexts that constitute the

phenomenon being studied, as well as an account of

the researcher’s role in constructing this

description. The data generated from the

observations, interviews schedules, interview

guides and questionnaires as well as from the

documentary reviews was transcribed, grouped and

categorized into cording frames indicative of the

themes that emerged. These were then linked to the

objectives of the study and were later generalized

and argued out in a detailed research report.

82

3.7 Data Processing and Analysis.

The data collected, was processed and analyzed

using statistical packages for social science

(SPSS) and tools like tables, graphs, charts, and

percentages to get information from the study.

After collecting the data through questionnaires,

and observation of the data, data will be tallied,

edited, coded and tabulated so as to give similar

information. Editing will be done to ensure

completeness, accuracy, consistency and uniformity

of the work. Coding will involved classifying the

data collected into their meaningful categories;

each category will be given a name or code to

enable easy analysis. Data coded was worked out in

percentages and put in tables, graphs, charts and

percentage for easy interpretation.

3. 8Limitation of the Study.

This study of family breakdown has its own

limitations that range from social, political and

economical point of view. These limitations include

the following;

83

i. Financial Constraint: the study was very

expensive because it involves types of

materials and distributing them to various

respective places which involves transport to

the field as well as financing other duties

towards the success of the research.

ii. Communication Barriers: The commonly used

language in Juba Town is Arabic language that

becomes very difficult for me to ask some

technical questions. The translation of

English to Arabic is so difficult,

iii. Unwillingness of the Community in Delivering

Information: Others think that I am from the

government and they are weary in giving the

same information which has no fruit realized.

iv. Bad Weather: The climate condition of Juba Town

is mostly characterized by hot weather which

makes it hard to travel from one place to the

other to collect for information.

v. Literature Limitation: Further limitations

include limitation of literature and amount of

time for the researcher.

84

3.9 Conclusion.

The field research was successfully conducted

because of the positive response and cooperation of

the lovely citizens of South Sudan residing in Juba

City i.e. children, parents, teachers, students,

government employee and entire community. However,

information gathering from the internet proved

expensive and information on family issues were

scattered through the newspapers, government

reports, UN reports, workshop and conference

reports as well as unpublished work. The researcher

established an index system to categorize the

various themes. Towards the end of field work, the

researcher felt impatient, nervous because of the

need to frequent different Payams to have the

questionnaires filled by the correspondents and

returned. However, all the 60 questionnaires were

completed and returned on the expected time period.

85

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.0 Introduction.

The objective of this study was to investigate the

causes and effects of family breakdown in Juba City

of South Sudan. This chapter presents the analysis

and the findings and examines the framework that

86

addresses various family breakdown issues. The

study reflects on the roles of the stakeholders in

preventing family breakdown in Juba City. It

identifies causes, effects, recommendations and

possible solutions of family breakdown on children

in Juba City. The following is the presentation.

4.1 General Background on personal Information.

This section presents the general characteristics

of the respondents. These include the response s

gender, marital status, age brackets, educational

level, occupation, religion and state of the

respondents. These are presented in the subsequent

sections.

Table 4.1.1 showing the gender of the Respondents.Gender of Respondents

Frequency Percent Valid

Percent

Cumulative Percent

Male 36 60.0 60.0 60.0

Female 24 40.0 40.0 100.0Total 60 100.0 100.0

Source; field work, 2015.

87

According to table 4.1.1, total number of 60 people

participated answering the questionnaire in which

males dominated the participation. The finding

indicated that 36 males participated in answering

the questionnaire while 24 females only. This study

shows that there was no discrimination in term of

sampling whereby males dominated by 60% and females

were 40%. Therefore, the two percentages

respectfully participated on the causes and effects

of family breakdown on children.

Figure 4.1.1 showing the marital status of the

respondents.

88

Source; field work, 2015.

The study reveals that 50% of the respondents were

single people, 41.7% were married respondents and

5.0% were widowers while divorced and widows

equally by 1.7%.

The figure above shows that single are the majority

leading by 50%, followed by married 41.7% then

widower 5.0% and the minimum are the divorced and

89

the widow 1.7% respectively. This sampling included

various marital status categories for full

understanding of why families breakdown and its

effects on the off-springs in Juba City.

Figure 4.1.2 showing the age bracket of the

Respondents.

Source; field work, 2015.

90

This figure indicated that 1.7% are age category

16-18, 71.7% for respondents from age category 19-

29, 13.3% belongs to age bracket 30-45, 10.0% for

respondents from age bracket 46-55 and finally,

3.2% for those respondents from age category 56 and

above.

Therefore, the results indicated that age category

19-29 responded in large number of 43 out of 60

respondents, followed by age category 30-45 by 8

respondents out of 60. Although the age brackets

46-55, 56 and above, and finally, 16-18 responded

in less numbers of 6, 2 and 1 respectfully, the

sampling included all the age categories.

Figure 4.1.3 showing the Educational level of the

Respondents.

91

Source; field work, 2015.

From the above figure, the survey sampling

indicated that 4 degree holders responded in

answering the questionnaires, 13 were certificate

and diploma holders, 15 were secondary levers and

finally, 28 respondents end up in primary level.

However, those ended in primary level responded in

the largest percentage of 46.7%, followed by

secondary levers by 25.0% and then the certificate

92

and diploma levers by 21.7% and the limited number

were the degree holders by 6.7%.

This implies that, large number of the respondents

dropped out or ended up in the primary level

whereby they are the ones experiencing the huge

effects of family breakdown in Juba City of South

Sudan.

Figure 4.1.4 Showing the Occupation of the sample

Population.

Source; field work, 2015.

93

The above figure indicates that the high percentage

of the respondents’ occupation were the unemployed

indicating 50.0%, followed by the self employed

shows 35.0% and then lastly were the government

employed people with limited turn up of 15%.

The highest level of unemployment resulted from the

low level of education and self employed too. Out

of 60 respondents, only 9 people are government

employees viewing that, majority of the people are

not employed as one of the factors contributing to

the causes of family breakdown.

Figure 4.1.5 Showing the Religious affiliation of

the Respondents.

94

Source; field work, 2015.

From the above figure, the sample survey proved

that majority of the people responded are

Christians 83.33% of the study population, less

majority are Muslims by 10.0%, the minority are the

Animists by 5.0% and Judaists by 1.67%.

This implies that Christians are the majority in

Juba City. The sampling was not based on religious

95

line but on the causes of family breakdown and its

effects on children. This is done because religious

difference was assumed to be one of the causes of

family breakdown.

Figure 4.1.6 Showing the Respondents’ states of

Origin.

Source; field work, 2015.

96

From the figure 4.1.6, the sample survey represented

all the ten states of South Sudan. The studies

specify that Central Equatoria comprises of 53.3%

of the respondents, Jonglei was represented by 3.3%

of the sample population, Eastern Equatoria with

13.3%, Warrap with 6.7%, Western Equatoria with

6.7%, Lakes with 3.3%, Unity with 1.7%, W. Bahr el

Ghazal with 6.7%, N. Bahr el Ghazal with 3.3% and

finally, Upper Nile sate represented by 1.7% of the

entire sample population of 60 respondents.

The figure 4.1.7 shows that Central Equatoria state

contributed more to the study by 53.3% out of the

respondent rate of 100.00% followed by WES, LS, JS,

EES,WS, US, WBGS, NBGS and UNS.

4.2 Empirical Facts about the Variables of the

Study.

Data presented in this section majorly focused

study questions. The data was organized to guide

the study and this analyzes are presented by the

research questions.

97

Table 4.2.1 showing whether family breakdown is

common in their localities within Juba City.

Is family breakdown common in your locality within Juba

City?

Frequenc

y

Percent Valid

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Yes 47 78.3 78.3 78.3

No 13 21.7 21.7 100.0Total 60 100.0 100.0

Source; field work, 2015.

According to table 4.2.1, most respondents agreed that

family breakdown is commonly practiced at their

neighborhood with 78.3% out of respondents’ rate of

100.00%. Meanwhile, 21.7% of the respondents

claimed that family breakdown was hardly practiced

from their residential area. This implies that

family breakdown indicating high in Juba City of

South Sudan. Thus, immediate alternatives have to

be taken.

Table 4.2.2 showing those who are the victims and

those who are not the victims of family breakdown.

98

Are you a victim of Family breakdown?

Frequency Percent Valid

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Yes 24 40.0 40.0 40.0

No 36 60.0 60.0 100.0Tot

al

60 100.0 100.0

Source; field work, 2015.

From the above table, respondents were asked

whether they were victims of family breakdown or

not. Therefore, majority was not affected but fewer

majorities was affected of different forms of

family breakdown. From the table 4.2.2, proves that

60% of the study population was not affected while

40% of the study population was affected of family

breakdown.

Even though those affected were less than those who

were not affected, family breakdown may widen into

alarming issues than possible within a short period

of time if measurable alternatives were not taken

to reduce its severe stage than profound.

99

According to Kerby Anderson, (1994) families are

the bedrock of society. When families fall apart,

society falls into social and cultural decline.

Ultimately the breakdown of the American family is

at the root of nearly every other social problem

and pathology.

Just a few decades ago, most children grew up in

intact, two-parent families. Today, children who do

so are a minority. Illegitimacy, divorce, and other

lifestyle choices have radically altered the

family, and thus have altered the social landscape.

Figure 4.2.1 showing the forms of family breakdown

that affected the victims at the table 4.2.2

100

Source; field work, 2015.

The Figure 4.2.2 shows that 8.33% of the families of

the respondents broke in legal way of divorce and

37.50% broke through illegal means of separation

while 54.17% of the victims of family breakdown,

their families end up by the death of highly

supporting family member.

Thus, within the sample area, divorce was not

highly practiced by the people, rather they

101

suggested separation where by third party is not

involved in calming the situation. This happens

when the individuals failed to sort out their

issues, then they end up separating. But, death is

not an intended even but only nature.

Figure 4.2.3 showing the groups of those who agreed

and those who disagreed that their cultural

practices encourages family Breakdown.

Source; field work, 2015.

102

According to Figure 4.2.3, respondents views was asked

whether their cultural practices backup with family

breakdown or not. Thus, the study indicated that 12

respondents claimed that their cultures backup with

family breakdown while 48 respondents disregarded

the claims.

Nevertheless, the views of the 20% of those

respondents who claims that their cultural

practices are backing up with family breakdown was

appealed to depend their claim, however, they

further proceeded by illuminating that, their

cultures support family breakdown on the following

procession;

1.Polygamous structure; marrying many wives may

leads to less or non-support to the other wives

and this may lead to their withdrawal making up

a family breakdown.

2.Majority stated that forced marriage is one of

the dangerous factors contributing to family

breakdown. They further enlightened that

marriage is a long journey that is driven by

love, but that long journey with love, it is

103

like a house build on sound soils that can be

washed away if heavy rain rained.

3.Inheritance has been one of the claims that

triggered family breakdown, togetherness comes

from desire.

4.High bride wealth has been believed by other

respondents to be the alarming cause other than

the rest.

5.However, others stipulated that marrying barren

partner is unwanted by most cultures within

Juba city i.e. cultures encourages family

breakdown.

For those respondents who claimed that cultural

practices doesn’t encourage family breakdown

depended their argument on the following believes;

1.Marriage is an everlasting contract that

proceeded beyond death of the partner i.e. even

though the husband dies, the wife can be

inherited by the husband’s closet relative yet

producing children for the dead person.

2.Most of the cultures in Juba City discourages

family breakdown with a believed that it is a

104

shame for married people to break i.e.

indicating the partners weakness.

3.Some cultures gives heavy fine for the

individual who is willing to breakaway, for

example, if a woman is willing to break the

marriage, her relatives have to return the

bride wealth of the husband through

compensation if they gave birth to

child/children.

Figure 4.2.4 showing views of those who

acknowledged that the current family structure has

a multitude change in comparison to the past and

those who did not acknowledged the changes.

105

Source; field work, 2015.

The figure above, indicated that 58.33% of the

respondents claimed that the family system from its

old way of the structure to the modern era

structure. While 41.67% of the respondents viewed

the family system that there was nothing in the

family structure, they believed that old family

structure yet existed in the modern era.

However, the 58.33% of the respondents who believed

that there are some changes in family structure

within the three Payams of Juba City to identify

106

the changes. Their views saw the changes in the

following perspectives;

1.Civilization and modernization; nearly half of

the cultural norms, beliefs, customs, attitudes

and practices are not longer existing due to

the current forms of civilization that most of

the communities are passing through. This

include shifting a family from extended to

nuclear where the aged people are facing some

challenges.

2.Changing of the gender role; women used to be

known as housekeepers but today, women are

represented in any of the social, political,

economical, and religious settings.

3.LBGT; formally, marriage was characterized of

male to female naturally, but in the current

society, marriage can be between male to males

known as gay marriage, and female to females

known as lesbian marriage or bisexual for both,

forming a group known as LGBT (lesbian, gay,

bisexual and transgender). Due to mixed

cultural practices in Juba city, such practices

are knocking at the gate.107

4.3 Causes of Family Breakdown

Table 4.3.1 showing the major causes of family

breakdown by ticking the appropriate choices.

Causes of familybreakdown

Strongly agree

Agree Notsure

Disagree Stronglydisagree

F % F % f % f % f %

Physical, sexualand emotionalabuses

30 50 17 28.3 12 20 1 1.67

0 0

Addiction toalcohol and drugs

39 65 19 31.67

1 1.67

0 0 0 0

Religious and cultural differences

6 10 27 45 12 20 14 23.3

1 1.67

High Expectations 22 36.7

19 31.67

16 26.7

3 5 5 8.3

Lack of Communication Skills

15 25 30 50 9 15 5 8.3 1 1.67

Inability toresolve conflicts

29 48.3

24 40 5 8.3

1 1.67

1 1.67

Differentpriorities and

17 28. 20 33.3 16 26 6 10 1 1.67

108

interests 3 .7

Financial problem 33 55 16 26.67

5 8.3

4 6.67

2 3.3

The disappearingof intimacy

12 20 18 30 20 7 11.67

3 5

Getting in forwrong reasons

13 21.7

18 30 18 30 9 15 2 3.3

Death 33 55 16 26.67

3 5 5 8.3 3 5

Threateningdiseases likeHIV/AIDS

30 50 17 28.3 6 10 3 5 4 6.67

Source; field work, 2015.

According to table 4.3.1, 39 respondents strongly

agreed that addiction to alcohol and drugs is the

major cause of family breakdown constituting 65.0%

of strongly agreed, 31.67% of the respondents

agreed.

After addiction, 55.0% strongly agreed and 26.67%

agreed both on financial problem and death

respectively, however, it can’t means that the two

are causing the family breakdown at the same rate.

From the above figure, 6.67% disagreed and 3.3

strongly disagreed that financial problem doesn’t

109

have relationship with family breakdown, while 8.3%

disagreed and 5% strongly disagreed that death

doesn’t cause family breakdown. This indicated that

financial problems has high rate of causing family

breakdown than death.

Physical, sexual and emotional abuses has been

correlated with threatening diseases like HIV/AIDs

providing equal results in strongly agreed by 50.0%

and agreed by 28.3%. According to the analyzes,

physical, sexual and emotional abuse is rated high

because it has only 1.67% disagreed and 0% strongly

disagreed compared to 5% disagreed and 6.67%

strongly disagreed on threatening diseases like

HIV/AIDs.

Inability to resolve conflicts is rated as number

six major cause of family breakdown with 48.3% of

strongly agreed and 40.0% of agreed, even though

8.3% are not sure while 1.67% disagreed and 1.67%

strongly disagreed.

Nevertheless, some of the other causes of family

breakdown are rated as; high expectation with 36.7%

110

of strongly agreed, different priorities and

interests with 28.3% of strongly agreed, lack of

communication with 25.0% of strongly agreed and

getting in for wrong reasons with 21.7% of strongly

agreed.

The last two rated causes include the disappearance

of intimacy 20.0% of strongly agreed and religious

and cultural differences rated with 10.0% of

strongly agreed.

4.4 The effects of family breakdown on children in

Juba City.

Figure 4.4.1, showing the effects of family

breakdown in Juba City.

111

Source; field work, 2015.

According to Figure 4.4.1, the analyzes indicate that

having difficulties in school is one of the major

effects of family breakdown on children rated with

16.12%, followed by stress which is rated with

15.46%, early engagement in sexual activities, then

insecure and afraid of the future is rated with

12.50%, depression is also one of the effects of

family breakdown on children rated with 11.84%.

Other effects of family breakdown on children from

the above figure includes; 9.21% for fearful of

112

being abandoned, 8.55% for resentment, 8.22% for

torn in two and finally 4.93% for powerless.

Therefore, difficulties in school is the major

effect, while powerless is the less effect of

family breakdown on children.

4.5 Solutions to Family Breakdown in Juba City.

Table 4.5.1 showing some of the Alternative

Solutions to Family Breakdown.

Alternativesolutions tofamily breakdown

Very Good Good Fair

Frequency

% frequency

% frequency

%

Creation offamily laws

37 61.67

15 25.0

8 13.3

Informationgiving andmediation

24 40.0 24 40.0

12 20.0

Supportingchildren

36 60.0 13 21.67

11 18.3

Marriagepreparation andparenting: newinitiatives

26 43.3 25 41.67

9 15.0

113

Education to communicate

38 63.3 13 21.67

9 15.0

Source; field work, 2015.

According to the research findings, the respondents

rated the alternative solutions to family break

down as follows; 61.67% for creation of family laws

as very good, 40.0% for information giving and

mediation, 60.0% for supporting children, 43.3% for

marriage preparation and parenting new initiatives

and finally, 63.3% for education to communicate.

Therefore, the analyzes indicated that, among all,

the best alternative solution to family breakdown

was the education to communicate and followed by

creation of family laws. Supporting children was

rated to be number three and marriage preparation

and parenting new initiative rated among the best

four. Finally, the last alternative solution rated

was information giving and mediation.

4.5.1 How can the affected children be helped to

live a normal life.

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The respondents from different Payams of Juba City

enlightened that, the affected children can be

helped in various ways such as; providing shelters,

education, medication, freedom of expression,

counseling, and clothing them as a primary source

of helping.

The results viewed the secondary necessities as;

empowering the children at their late childhood

with entrepreneurial ideas, communication skills to

the tormented children, creation of recreational

centres, adaptation practices to those who are

willing, outing programmes, provision of social

needs such as love, compassion and caring.

Finally, government should take this into account

by initiating policies and programmes that make the

children free from any effects. These programmes

include health insurances, compulsory education to

all and financial supports to the children where

necessary.

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CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION

5.0 Introduction.

This chapter summarizes the findings, concludes the

study and finally recommends the study that was

focused on causes of family breakdown and its

effects on the children in Juba City of South

Sudan. Basing on the study findings, conclusions

were made and areas for further study were made.

5.1 Summary of Findings.

This research study focused on finding out the

causes of family breakdown and its effects on

children in Juba city. Juba is the capital city of

South Sudan with diverse cultural practices of the

people within South Sudan and overseas. Out of all,

family issues emerged from the recent past and

become one of the challenging issues in Juba city.

From the results, 78.3% of the study indicated that

family breakdown is commonly found within the three

Payams of Juba city. In the current moment,

addiction to alcohol and drugs contributed a lot to

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the breakage of the families and leaving the

children having difficulties in schools, stressed

and engaging in sexual activities at their

childhood.

The methods of data analysis employed by the

researcher were quantitative and qualitative

analysis of facts that were experienced in the

field. The data was analyzed through the help of

distribution tables and graphs which show the

frequencies and percentages to understand the facts

of the results. The chapter on data analysis in the

area of Gender, Marital Status, Religion,

Education, State of Origin of respondents, and

occupation among others was based on random

sampling of the sample population who responded to

this research regardless of other differences. The

research was targeting the causes of family

breakdown and its effects on children in Juba city.

The study indicated that, the major cause of family

breakdown is addiction to alcohol and drugs abuse.

The other causes following addiction includes;

financial problems, death of supporting family

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member, plus physical, sexual and emotional abuse,

threatening of diseases like HIV/AIDs and inability

to resolve conflicts among many others.

This study clearly examined that family breakdown

can be address through the application of the

alternative solutions such as educating families

communication skills, creation of family laws,

supporting children, marriage preparation and

parenting new initiatives, and finally information

giving and mediation.

Finally, the study illustrated that, the affected

children can be helped to live a normal life

through variety of alternative services and

programmes such as counseling, provision basic

needs, empowering the children at their late

childhood with entrepreneurial ideas, communication

skills to the tormented children, creation of

recreational centres, adaptation practices to those

who are willing, outing programmes, provision of

social needs such as love, compassion and caring.

5.2 Conclusion of the Findings.

118

Family breakdown is known as a point of divergence

in which the family members union comes to an end

and it happens when parents decide to separate,

divorce, and/or death of a parent or parents. At

this juncture, the findings concluded that there is

significant relationship between family breakdown

and children difficulties in schools among others.

According to the findings of this research study,

it has shown clearly that family breakdown existed

in high and alarming level within the three Payams

of Juba city in South Sudan. Its existence has been

proven beyond doubt that factors such as substance

abuse, financial problems, death of supporting

partner plus psychological, sexual and emotional

abuses, threatening diseases like HIV/AIDs and

inability to resolve conflicts are the major

tragedies of family breakdown in Juba city.

The study proves that family breakdown occurs in

three major ways; the major one is the death of

most supporting family member/partner which may

bring a big gap that the other members cannot

manage to recover. Secondly, it occurs through

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separation; when the family members failed to

address the challenges that are facing them,

majority may separate immediately. This proves that

inability to resolve conflicts clear leads to

family breakdown. Finally, divorce is the last form

of family breakdown. Divorce includes legal

procedures of ending up the family, but it is not

highly practiced.

In general, the study attests that, children

difficulties in schools, stress, early engagement

in sexual activities, depression, and resentment,

insecure and afraid of the future, fearful of being

abandoned, powerless and torn in two are the proven

effects of family breakdown on the children.

Finally, the research study revealed that family

breakdown can highly be controlled by educating

communication skills to the family members,

creation of family laws, supporting the children of

extended families with basic necessities such as

education, food, medical assistance and many

others. Marriage preparation and parenting new

initiatives policies and programmes have to be

120

leveled. Lastly, information has to be given to

conflicting partners and mediated during resolving

their issues.

5.3 Recommendation of the Research Findings.

The recommendation of this research study is

presented to all the stakeholders (Ministry of

Gender, Child and Social Welfare, concerned NGOs,

and the academia). The following recommendations

have been prepared in the basic research finding on

the causes of family breakdown and its effects on

children.

1.The government should develop new initiatives

that can help keep the family intact, since the

major form of family breakdown was found to be

death and separation, lead the government

improves the health sector and policies that

guide family separation.

2.From the findings, the affected children suffer

from difficulties in schools, stress, early

engagement in sexual activities and many

others. Therefore, not only the government but

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also NGOs should play part of designing

programs and services that can help the

affected children live normal lives.

3.The findings proved that polygamy is one of the

cultural practices that contributed to family

breakdown. Thus, the government should develop

policies that shift polygamy into monogamy

marriage to reduce the high rate of family

breakdown.

4.The study defined substance abuse as one of the

most challenges making the families in Juba

city non-intact. Therefore, critical strategies

have to be viewed by the government to reduce

the high rate of consumption, specifically to

the bar owners to sell only two bottles of beer

to the consumers.

5.The government should take a serious measure by

employing social workers in all social

institutions/agency such as schools, hospitals,

and social welfare settings among others to

handle difficulties in performance, stress,

depression and early engagement in sexual

activities.122

6.One of the alarming issues was identified as

financial problem in Juba City. Therefore, the

researcher recommends the concerned

stakeholders to widen their ability in creation

more jobs through improving the agricultural,

educational and industrial sectors.

7.Most families’ breakdown was due to inability

to resolve conflicts. Thus, the government and

scholars should review the curriculums and

involve conflict resolution into the education

system of the country.

8.Finally, the researcher recommends that, the

academia who will be researching on family

breakdown to put much emphasizes on the

connection between cultural practices and

family breakdown. Most of researchers failed to

identify factors such as polygamy, high bride

wealth, marrying barren partner, forced

marriage, and inheritance of widow contributed

to family breakdown. Therefore, for the

upcoming researchers to retest these factors to

cement these findings.

123

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2.Furstenberg, Frank F. & Teitler, Julien O.

(1994). Reconsidering the effects of marital

disruption: What happens to children of divorce

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3.Hetherington, E. Mavis (1989). Coping with

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4.Wallerstein, Judith S. (1991). The long-term

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545-553.

6.Wallerstein, Judith and Kelley, Joan (1980).

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7.Amato, P. R. (2001).  Children and divorce in

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(1991) meta-analysis.  Journal of Family

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8.Amato, P.R. (1994). Life-span adjustment of

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9.Crowder, K., & Teachman, J. (2004).  Do

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& Sturgess, W. (2001).  Family lives and

friendships:  The perspectives of children in

step-, single-parent, and nonstep families. 

Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 272-287.

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the Virginia Longitudinal Study of Divorce and

Remarriage with a focus on the early

adolescent. Journal of Family Psychology, 7,

39-56. 

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13. Amato, P. R., & Keith, B. (1991). Parental

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analysis. Journal of Marriage & the Family, 53, 43-58.

14. Berman, W. H. (1988). The role of

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15. Blakeslee, S., & Wallerstein, J. S.

(1989). Second chances: Men, women and children a decade

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APPENDIX I

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE STUDY

Dear respondent,

My name is David Metaloro Zakaria; a fourth year

student in the college of Community Studies and

Rural Development, Department of Community Studies,

specializing in Bachelor of Social Work, University

of Juba.

I am carrying out my research study on the topic

“causes of family breakdown and its effects on the

children” a case study; Juba City, Central

Equatoria State of South Sudan. The outcome of this

research study will be used for academic purpose in

partial fulfillment of the requirement for award of

Bachelor Degree in Social Work.

129

Your response and information will be kept

confidential. Therefore, your kind support will

highly be esteemed.

SECTION A: Personal Information (put tick in the Bracket)

1. Sex of the respondent

a) Male ( ) b) Female ( )

2. Marital status

a) Married ( ) b) Divorce ( ) c) Single ( ) d) widow ( ) e) widower ( )

3. Age bracket of the respondent

a) 16-18 ( ) b) 18-29 ( ) c) 30-45 ( )

d) 46-55 ( ) e) 56 & above ( )

4. Education level of the respondent

a)Degree & above ( ) b) Certificate & Diploma ( )

c) Secondary ( ) d) Primary ( )

If others, specify ……………………………………………………………………………..

5. Occupation

a) Government Employee ( ) b) Unemployed ( ) c) Self employee ( )

130

6. Religion

a)Christian ( ) b) Muslim ( ) c) Animism ( ) d) Judaism ( )

7. State of origin ……………………………………………………………

8. Residential Area……………………………………………………….

SECTION B: Open and Structure questions.

9. Is family breakdown common in your locality within Juba City?

a) Yes ( ) b) No ( )

If yes, explain in brief

.……….…………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

10. Are you a victim of family breakdown?

a) Yes ( ) b) No ( )

If yes, which form of family breakdown your family went through?

a)Divorce ( )b)Separation ( )c)Death ( )d)If other, specify………………………………………

11. Do your cultural practices encourage family breakdown?

a) Yes ( ) b) No ( )131

If yes, how does it encourage the family breakdown?

1.……….……………………………………………………………………

2……..………………………………………………………………………

3………..……………………………………………………………………

4………………………………………………………………………………

5………………………………………………………………………………6………………………………………………………………………………

If No, how does your cultural practice discourage it?

1.……….……………………………………………………………………

2……..………………………………………………………………………

3………..……………………………………………………………………

4………………………………………………………………………………5……..………………………………………………………………………

6………………………………………………………………………………

12. The view of family breakdown in the current erain relation to past. Is there any changes?

a) Yes ( )

b) No ( )

If yes, explain the trigger of the changes?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

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SECTION C: Causes of Family Breakdown

13. In the section below, specify the major causes of family breakdown by ticking the appropriate choices.

Causes offamilybreakdown

Stronglyagree

Agree Notsure

Disagree

Stronglydisagree

Physical,sexual andemotionalabusesAddiction toalcohol anddrugs

Religious and cultural differences

HighExpectations

Lack of Communication Skills

Inability toresolveconflicts

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Differentpriorities andinterests

Financialproblem

Thedisappearing ofintimacy

Getting in forthe wrongreasons

Death

Threateningdiseases likeHIV/AIDS

SECTION D: Effects of Family Breakdown on Children

14. Which of following are the most effects affecting children when family breakdown?

Effects Mark youroption(s)

Resentment (the child will be harshwith the surrounding)

Having difficulties in school

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Fearful of being abandoned

Powerless

Stressed

Depressed

Insecure and afraid of the future

Early engagement in sexual activities

Torn in two

SECTION E: Solutions to Family Breakdown.

15. According to your perception, how do you rate the following alternative solutions in reducing family breakdown?

Alternative solutions tofamily breakdown

VeryGood

Good Fair

Creation of family laws

Information giving andmediation

Supporting children

Marriage preparation andparenting: new initiatives

Education to communicate

16. How can the affected children be helped to livea normal life?

135

1…….…………………………………………………………………………2…….…………………………………………………………………………

3……………………………………………………………………………….4………………………………………………………………………….……5………………………………………………………………………………

The End,

Thanks for the Support.

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Source; Google.

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