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Interactivity in the Context of Designed Experiences
Carrie Heeter
Michigan State University
Abstract
Interactivity is something researchers study, new technology
commercials promote, and
designers create. It's not something people do. People use the
internet, watch T, shop,
explore, learn, send and receive email, loo! things up... The
word interactivity and its
derivatives are used to represent so many different meanings
that the word muddles rather
than clarifies the spea!er's intent. The construct is worth
salvaging carefully so future
research more clearly defines the interaction parameters of
interest and specifies what
aspect"s# of interactivity are $eing examined. This article
offers a conceptuali%ation of
interactivity and suggests domains for operationali%ations
intended to $e useful for
researchers and designers.
The Muddle: Common uses of interact and interactive
Interactivity is an overused, underdefined concept. Everything a
human does to or with
another human can $e called an interaction. &uman
interactions that use media are
mediated human interactions. Everything a human does to or with
a computer is a human
computer interaction.
The curriculum development group of the (C) *pecial Interest
+roup on Computer&uman
Interaction "www.acm.orgsigchicdg# suggests, -there is currently
no agreed upon
definition of the range of topics which form the area of
humancomputer interaction.-
Instead they offer a $rief definition followed $y a chapterlong
ela$oration.
-&umancomputer interaction is a discipline concerned with
the design, evaluation and
implementation of interactive computing systems for human use
and with the study of maor
phenomena surrounding them "Chapter / p. 0#.- )ost germain to
this article, -on the human
side, communication theory, graphic and industrial design
disciplines, linguistics, social
sciences, cognitive psychology, and human performance are
relevant. (nd, of course,
engineering and design methods are relevant.-
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Ted &anss "1222# used the word interact or interactivity 13
times in a recent tal! a$out
Internet/ applications. In addition to PE4P5E and C4)P6TE7*,
here are some things he
mentioned that humans interact with using Internet/8
I9*T76)E9T* "scanning electron microscope#
D(T( "atmospheric, oceanographic#
E9I749)E9T* "fly through spaces, colla$oratively view and
annotate virtual environments#
*I)65(TI49* "a farm over four seasons#
I*6(5I:(TI49* "construct, record, and preview scientific
visuali%ations; )7I $rain scans#
)EDI( C5IP* "audio li$rary#
Interactivity is freavascript to provide
logic for gaming or data$ase calls to dynamically compose
content. (lan Cooper "1222 p. //#
descri$es a $road domain he calls Interaction Design -the
selection of $ehavior, function,and information, and their
presentation to users.-
Using Interactive to Emphasize Changes in assive!
Traditional Media
?efore the Internet, $efore PCs were common, mass media
industries "newspapers, $oo!s,
movies, radio, and television# created and mar!eted pac!aged
content to $e consumed $y
passive audiences. )ass communication researchers studied the
one way flow of
programming sent $y media industry sources over media systems to
consumer audiences. In
the mid 12@As, communication researchers $egan to write a$out
new technologies $ringing
interactivity to mass media. 7ice "12@B p. 0# descri$ed new
media as communication
technologies that -allow or facilitate interactivity among users
or $etween users and
information.-
7eacting to expanded channel lineups $rought $y ca$le T, remote
controls, and prototype
videotext systems, &eeter "12@2# offered seven o$servations
a$out interactivity in emerging
media systems8
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1# Information is always sought or selected, not merely
sent.
/# )edia systems re
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u(45T
u)orecomwww.morecom.com
uorldgate
www.wgate.comsplashmain.html
set top $ox controller, viewed on your T set#corresponding to
$roadcasts offering play alonggame shows, voting, we$ $rowsing,
eCommerce.
Adds mediated interpersonal communicationwith other viewers and
with TV personalitiesto viewing experience.
Chat, email, instant messaging synchroni%ed with$roadcast T.
ersonal T$
u7eplayTwww.replaytv.comhome.htm
uTIowww.tivo.com
Changes the program selection process.
Digitally records and saves up to A hours,
recording synced to daily online program guide forpoint and
clic! automated recording of wee!lyshows and even genres. 5earns
from your viewing$ehavior and rating of programs. *uggests
shows.
Changes viewing $ehavior.
*low motion replay, pause live T and resumewhere you left off,
fast forward with
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www.actv.com
uin!www.win!.com
vary depending on user choices at branchingdecision points.
Interact with live television $y changing channels"up to B (CT
channels carry synchroni%ed relatedcontent such as different camera
angles of thesame event, or different answers to the same
trivia
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with planning for future actions and storytelling a$out past or
imagined events- "9ehaniv
1222a#.
&umans therefore tend to approach and recall interaction in
a way that ma!es narrative
sense. &umans possess narrative intelligence we have
awareness of our own and the
o$ects and $eings in our world's history and expectations for
the future ")urray 1223#. e
ma!e inferences that go $eyond our o$servations to construct
coherent stories and
interpretations of events.
(ffect for humans is an aspect of situatedness in time....
Temperament, mood, and emotion
each occupy a point in emotional space. Diet% and 5ang "1222#
have mapped affect to a cu$e
along (rousedCalm, Pleasant6npleasant, and ControlDominance
dimensions.
Temperament is a fixed coordinate that defines one's rudimentary
personality. )ood is our
persona at any given time and emotion is our emotional state at
the moment.
Situated in Space (embodied)
e perceive the world from the point of view of our $odies,
situated in time and space,
mediated $y the senses. 4ur $odies are our interface to the
world. They represent us to the
world, and they present the world to us.
If the self is an em$odied $eing whose life is manifest in
action, the relation to the
surrounding world will inevita$ly assume the form of an
interaction ")acann 122 p. 0#.
The physical $ody directly interacts with its environment while
psychic states endow a
distinctive point of view. It is via udgment or inference that
we connect with the physical
world, $ut it is via action that we interact with the world.
Physical aspects of interaction in the world, with appropriate
research instrumentation, are
directly o$serva$le. These include direction of ga%e, focal
point, $ody position and motion,
speech, facial expression, and all other physical actions and
reactions.
(ccompanying internal dimensions of interaction with the world
and with ourselves "selective
attention, perception, interpretation, intent, thin!ing,
feeling, imagining, wanting,
anticipating, etc.# are not su$ect to direct o$servation.
ived !xperience
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Paraphrasing dictionary definitions, to experience something
means to participate in or live
through an event or a series of events. It implies $eing present
in space and in time.
(ccording to &usserl, a lived experience is whatever is
actually lived out "perceived, thought,
imagined, remem$ered# ")acann 122#.
"ifferentiating Self and #ther
&ow do humans distinguish self from nonselfF *patially, our
$ody is -here- and everything
else is -there.- Throughout early childhood our differentiation
of self and nonself solidifies.
&usserl emphasi%es $odily movements, and the !inesthetic
experiences where the -I- comes
into contact with other corporal o$ects. 4ne's $ody 'holds sway'
over o$ects of the world
through actions such as lifting, moving, !noc!ing over, etc.
"Phillips 122B#.
4ur $odymind is self and everything else is nonself. *chuemie
"1222# suggests we first
distinguish self and nonself, and then further divide nonself
into social and environmental
components. e differentiate living and nonliving things, human
and nonhuman.
4ur conceptuali%ation of other $eings is $ased upon our own
experience we must
recogni%e another $ody as a lived $ody li!e ourselves another
-I- which is em$odied and
holds sway. e recogni%e it as the $ody of a person, or at least
a sentient $eing... ")iller12@B, Phillips 122B#.
&umans tend to attri$ute human, selfli!e .>. +i$son's
concept of affordances "descri$ed in 9orman 122@#. -( roc! can
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$e moved, rolled, !ic!ed, thrown, and sat upon not all roc!s,
ust those that are the right
si%e for moving, rolling, !ic!ing, throwing, or sitting upon.
The set of possi$le actions is
called the affordances of the o$ect.-
hen we assess our immediate environment, we are aware of the
some of the affordances
each o$ect offers. Chairs to sit on or throw, doors to open or
close, !itchens to coo!, lights
to illuminate. (n affordance is not a property of an o$ect as
much as it is a relationship
$etween an o$ect and the organism that is acting on the o$ect
"9orman 122@ p. 1/#. The
same o$ect can have different affordances for different
individuals. ( child might scan a
!itchen and notice playthings and treats, a noncoo! might notice
possi$ilities for eating
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,undamentals of Communication Technologies
The $ody separates, integrates, and represents a human in the
world. Communication
technologies further separate, integrate and represent the $ody
in a mediated world.
Communication technologies alter the human experience of time
and space. They limit,
eliminate, and sometimes amplify or alter our normal $ody
inputoutput perceptions and
interactions. Context is less visi$le and must $e inferred to a
greater extent. Computer
interactions result in $ehavior unconnected to physical forces,
resulting in cognitive friction
"Cooper 1222#. =or example, typing E7(*E (55 on a typewriter
results in a page of type that
says E7(*E (55, while typing E7(*E (55 on a computer could erase
the contents of a hard
drive.
Situated in Time
Communication technologies ena$le human mediated interaction and
human machine
interaction to occur asynchronously. )essages or commands can $e
sent and received later.
Events can $e recorded and experienced later. The human
participant always experiences
composing or receiving a communication in the present, even when
the overall experience is
asynchronous, separated in time. hen we compose a message to $e
received later, we
attempt to tailor the message to $e received and understood
later. hen we receive an
asynchronous message, we attempt to ta!e the time warp into
account as we interpret it.
5atency is a pro$lem in mediated experiences. Cheshire "122#
writes, -whether we're
dealing with people or o$ects, interaction is essential. e
perform some action, and when
we o$serve how the person or o$ect reacts we modify our $ehavior
accordingly. *ometimes
the reaction needs to $e very oint Computer
Conference on minimal response times for a media system8
4ne tenth of a second "A.1# is a$out the limit for having the
user feel that the
system is reacting instantaneously
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4ne second is a$out the limit for the user's flow of thought to
remain uninterrupted,
or for the user to feel they are moving freely through
information space, even though
the user will notice the delay.
1A seconds is a$out the limit for !eeping the user's attention
focused on the
dialogue.
?oth ?iocca "1222# and 7eeves "1222# tal! a$out human $andwidth
matching transmission
speeds with the information processing capa$ilities of users.
(lready the Internet and
$roadcasting carry more information than any human could
process. ?ut the amount of
content in an individual transmission is usually far less than
we experience physically
through our real world $odies.
Situated in Space (embodied)
In the physical world we are here and everything else is there.
e exist in an environment
surrounded $y o$ects and forces. Traditional media recogni%e our
spatiality not at all. They
are another o$ect within our space, and we do not exist within
their space.
Communication technologies allow us to experience spaces we
could not visit $efore
spaces which do not exist in the physical world and spaces we
cannot physically visit. They
afford us new means of experiencing spaces "point and clic!,
fly# while they deny us familiar
!inesthetic means of $odily exploration.
Communication technologies can invo!e a sensation of presence at
a fictional or distant
experience. 5om$ard "/AAA# compiled this definition of
presence8
Presence "a shortened version of the term -telepresence-# is a
psychological state or
su$ective perception in which even though part or all of an
individual's current experience is
generated $y andor filtered through humanmade technology, part
or all of the individual's
perception fails to accurately ac!nowledge the role of the
technology in the experience.
&e defines time to $e an essential aspect of presence
"5om$ard /AAA#.
Presence occurs during an encounter with technology and not
$efore or after this encounter
"although the conse
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in varying degrees at each instant "as it seems# or /# our sense
that presence is continuous
is the result of the cumulative effect of instants, which may $e
as short as milliseconds, in
which presence either does or does not exist.
I suggest a slightly different definition, inspired $y 5om$ard
and $uild upon the assumptions
defined here so far. Presence is the sensation of $eing
spatially and temporally located within
a mediated experience. The sensation may $e fleeting or it may
continue for a longer
duration. =or example, umping when a dinosaur on the movie
screen lurches toward you
suggests, in that moment, you felt spatially and temporally
located with the dinosaur. The
affordances changed at that moment one possi$le interaction
$etween you and the
dinosaur was to $e eaten. 6sing a flight simulator recreates the
visual illusion and controls of
flying, often yielding an extended period of feeling spatially
and temporally present in the
coc!pit of a virtual world.
&umans are not represented directly $y their physical $odies
when they use communication
technologies. 4ur physical voice, mediated $y telephone and
phone lines, represents us in
phone calls. In traditional media our $odies are represented not
at all. Computer mediated
experiences reduce the $ody's representation to mouse actions,
!eystro!es, or low
$andwidth audio. &umans and agents may $e represented $y
"em$odied as# avatars in some
internet and virtual reality chat systems, $ut the capa$ilities
of these avatars are more
constrained than a physical $ody in their range of expression
and motion and means of
control.
"ifferentiating Self from #thers
&umans interact with other disem$odied humans, or with a
device, or an agent. 7eeves and
9ass' "122# research shows that -individuals' interactions with
computers, television, and
new media are fundamentally social and natural, ust li!e
interactions in real life.- 7eevesand 9ass conclude, -all people,
automatically and unconsciously, respond socially and
naturally to media.- Even command line and text interfaces are,
to a certain extent, infused
with social signifiers "7eeves G 9ass 122#.
7eeves and 9ass' explorations have $een of media. There is no
$asis for setting limits to
human's social orientation to o$ects. It is li!ely we respond to
our refrigerator and alarm
cloc! socially, too. 4ne complication for research is that
humans deny that they interact
socially with media. Het research clearly shows they do treat
media as social $eings.. Thus,
the phenomenon cannot $e studied directly $y as!ing a$out it.
Computers are not real.
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Computer agents are not real. ?ut the automatic response is to
accept what seems to $e real
as in fact real. =or researchers and designers, distinguishing
$etween real and virtual
environments, and $etween human communication with other humans
versus human
communication with computer agents is natural. ?ut it may not $e
always $e important from
the human participant's perspective. (t some point...-we will no
longer $e interested in
whether the characters we are interacting with are scripted
actors, fellow improvisers, or
computer$ased chatter$ots, nor will we continue to thin! a$out
whether the place we are
occupying exists as a photograph of a theatrical set or as a
computer generated graphic or
al$eit whether it is delivered $y radio waves or telepresence
")urray 1223 pp. /31/3/#.-
(t least $efore they grow accustomed to using computers, humans
expect entities they
interact with to have awareness of the history of interaction
and they expect their interaction
partners to construct a picture of them in the course of
interaction "9ehaniv 1222#. Het the
narrative structure of our computerhuman interaction is
disposa$le or forgotten. Computer
$ehavior and emotionally stilted, inhuman interactions may seem
strange to us at first $ut
we get used to it. e develop -calluses- after spending a lot of
time using computers, so li!e
a violinist who practices fingers on strings we can play without
pain.
9ehaniv "1222# suggests three ways computers could improve their
apparent narrative
intelligence8
recogni%ing narrative structure
expressing narrative structure "storytelling#
having narrative structure "an auto$iography, $eing temporally
grounded#
Computers and other media are changea$le. They ta!e on different
personalities $ased on
the program running at the time. Thus, they are schi%ophrenic,
insensitive, emotionally
retarded entities with poor human communication s!ills. 7o%
Picard founded the (ffective
Computing +roup at )IT, wor!ing to ma!e computers sense human
affect, recogni%e
patterns of affective expression, understand and model human
emotion, and synthesi%e
"have# emotions "www.media.mit.eduproectsaffect#. Diet% and 5ang
"1222# endowed an
onscreen computer agent with a su$stantial range of emotion
using a model of expression
mapping. The affect of the agent changes appropriately over time
as the human
accomplishes tas!s.
Creation of personas is an important part of designing
experiences. hether or not there is
intent to introduce a personality into an interface, humans
respond as if technology is
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human. hat happens if another real human is present in the
mediated experience does
that presence overshadow or eliminate the persona of the deviceF
&ow many different
personas can "or should# $e concurrently present in a device or
experienceF hen there are
multiple personas, such as when a communication technology is
mediating human
communication, I am guessing that the dominant persona can
overshadow the other"s#. =or
example, with the telephone, we thin! a$out interacting with the
other person and not much
a$out interacting with the intermediary device "the phone#.
Perhaps 7eeves and 9ass would
discover that we are also polite to the phone itself. 4r perhaps
in the face of a real human,
the device $ecomes less prominent.
Cooper "1222# descri$es desira$le characteristics of an
interface designed for politeness.
=rom the human participant's perspective, a polite interface
should $e8
interested in me
deferential to me
forthcoming
have common sense
anticipate my needs
responsive
taciturn a$out its personal pro$lems
well informed
perceptive
selfconfident
stay focused
fudga$le
give instant gratification
trustworthy
9ot only are devices and other humans disem$odied, $ut so too
are we when we participate
in mediated experiences. ?iocca "1222# and 9owa! "9owa! and
?iocca, 1222# are studying
em$odiment as representation from the perspectives of
representation of self and udgments
of others $ased on their em$odiment in virtual worlds.
7eeves "1222# summari%es his predictions for what the coming
increases in networ!
$andwidth will do for communication technologies. hen the
Internet's $andwidth is less
limited, latency will improve and new, richer sensory channels
of interaction will $e possi$le.
7eeves suggests -social- $andwidth will increase, allowing more
of human physical
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perception to occur over mediated channels. Emerging
communication technology will $ring
more socially complete exchanges. *ocial ?andwidth will ena$le
compelling automated social
relationships and ena$le technology to automate social
interaction and to $ecome social
actors themselves. Technology will ena$le different social
opportunities, and new forms of
interaction.
Affordances
hat are the affordances of communication technologiesF 6ses and
gratifications research
loo!s at affordances sought and achieved with media reasons why
people say they watch
T or read newspapers. Things li!e to $e informed, to have fun,
to relax, $ecause I'm $ored,
to !now what other people in the world are doing, etc. (
telephone lets you tal! to people.
The range of affordances is vast "order pi%%a, as! for
information, visit socially with a friend,
conduct $usiness, etc.# &umans may invent or perceive
affordances not intended $y the
designer. )itchell points to the example of the answering
machine people found it could $e
used to screen calls in addition to ta!ing messages.
The actions you can perform with the physical device of
telephone or television are
straightforward and limited. The options are to turn it on,
change channels, and watch for
T, or to dial, tal! and listen for telephone. The computer is
confusing o$ect $ecause it canafford so many different actions,
al$eit with limited inputoutput through !ey$oard or mouse.
Designers try to ma!e o$vious to the human what actions are
possi$le at any time, and what
affordances are availa$le within an application or we$ site.
Information appliances are and
will increasingly $e more speciali%ed, limited devices with less
functionality than a computer.
They will $e designed to do only one or a few things, and thus
can $e optimi%ed for those
functions.
Cooper "1222# advocates goaldirected design, focusing on human's
goals rather than on
tas!s or navigation. &e starts $y developing a precise
description of a hypothetical archetype
of an individual for whom the software will $e designed.
$nteractivity
Communication has $een modeled as flow of message from source to
receiver over sensory
channels, exemplified $y ?erlo's "12A# classic *)C7 model.
S467CE ME**(+E C&(99E5 -ECEIE7
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hen considering interaction in the context of designed
experiences, I propose an alternative
participantchannelsexperience model.
(7TICIP(9T C&(99E5* "DE*I+9ED# EPE7IE9CE
,igure "#
Designed experiences are created with intention to impact,
involve, andor ena$le a human
participant. There is usually more availa$le to $e experienced
in a designed experience than
what is actually experienced $y a single participant. Thus, an
individual participant parta!es
of some portion of the potential experience.
The designers' goals may or may not overlap with the goals of
the participant. Designers
intend certain affordances for participants. Participants
perceive affordances $ased on their
own goals and the clarity and design of the experience. *o,
there are intended, perceived,
and achieved affordances. hether or not the designers construct
personas within a
mediated experience, the participant is li!ely to infer
personas. 6nless the personas are
either real humans or agents with human characteristics, the
participant is li!ely to $e
unaware of their own reaction to the hidden, em$edded persona.
(nalysis of interactivity
should try to define the players or personae within a designed
experience. ho or what does
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the participant $elieve they are interacting withF 7eturning to
&anss' "1222# list, is it other
humans, data, instruments, an environment, an agent...
The actual realm of interactivity is limited to physical actions
and reactions $y the participant
and the experience. The actions and reactions are mediated
through the $ody, and, if
communication technologies intervene, through technology which
limits or extends normal
physical channels.
)ore interactivity is not necessarily good. ( poorly designed
interface is li!ely to re
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museum designs created for -freely moving, voluntary,
leisureoriented people in pu$lic
environments.- isitor research has identified different visitor
dispositions at a museum8
5inear disposition
Exploratory disposition
isual orientation
(ction orientation "visitors predispose to touch and manipulate
exhi$its and ta!e part
in activities involving control, goal achievement, competition,
and challenge to s!ills#
*ocial orientation "visitors, usually in groups of / or , li!e
to tal!, perform, and
share social context that may directly or indirectly compete
with exhi$it activities.#
Time orientation physical and psychological fatigue, hunger,
other commitments
In addition to overall disposition, the participant's context
and history affect the level of
motivation, attention, and effort they exert at particular
exhi$it elements. =actors studied $y
*creven include8
Environmental motivating factors which facilitate or inhi$it
information processing
hether the attention they devote is passivecasual or active
"compare, as!
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interest, it might $e a single $loc! of time spent at a single
we$site, or else time spent using
the Internet in general. It could $e the cumulative set of time
spent using a single we$ site,
or a medium.
=rom the experience perspective, one can consider the total set
of experiences of all
participants who visited a particular museum or we$ site or T
show. Computers can store
data on every participant interaction, over time. That huge
flood of data is difficult to
analy%e. )eaningful patterns must $e defined, usually after some
exploration of the data
com$ined with $ehavioral expectations. =or example, wor!ing with
continuous data on T
viewership from a two way ca$le system, &eeler, D'(lessio,
+reen$erg, and )coy "12@B#
defined three modes of viewing $ehavior8 program viewing "at
least 10 minutes without
changing channels#, sampling " to 0 minute periods of channel
changes#, and extended
sampling "more than 0 minutes of fre
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experiences, and then added my own columns for nonmediated
experiences and for virtual
environments.
Table .# E/perience in T$ and Computers
Television Computers
*creen resolution "amount ofinformation displayed#
7elatively poor aries from mediumsi%edscreens to potentially
very largescreens
Input devices 7emote control and optionalwireless !ey$oard that
are $estfor small amounts of input and
user actions
)ouse and !ey$oard sitting ondes! in fixed positions leadingto
fast homing time for hands
iewing distance )any feet ( few inches
6ser posture 7elaxed, reclined 6pright, straight
7oom 5iving room, $edroom"am$iance and tradition
impliesrelaxation#
&ome office "paperwor!, taxreturns, etc., close $y;am$ience
implies wor!#
Integration opportunities
with other things on samedevice
arious $roadcast shows Productivity applications, user's
personal data, user's wor! data
9um$er of users *ocial8 )any people can seescreen "often,
several peoplewill $e in the room when the Tis on#
*olitary8 =ew people can see thescreen "user is usually
alonewhen computing#
6ser engagement Passive8 The viewer receiveswhatever the
networ!executives decide to put on
(ctive8 6ser issues commandsand the computer o$eys
7eality irtual Environments
*creen resolution "amount of
information displayed#
=ull human eye capacity D goggles, large screen
proection, or computer monitor
Input devices &ead and $ody movement,
tactile, sound, sight, smell,taste, wal!ing, running
)ouse and !ey$oard, head
trac!ing, glovegesture, wand
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iewing distance aries from inches away tomiles
( few inches to six feet
6ser posture aries from prone to sitting tostanding. *itting or
standing.
7oom (nywhere 7esearch la$oratory or gamingcenter.
Integration opportunitieswith other things on samedevice
(nything Can connect with physicaldevices, sensors, virtual
devices.
9um$er of users aries from solitary to largecrowd
*olitary or small group or masstheater audience.
6ser engagement aries from active to passive (ctive8 not much
happensunless the participant doessomething.
5et me conclude $y citing 9orman "122@# one last time for his
advice for new and improved
interactive interfaces. They should include8
( central role of language "as! for things even if not
visi$le#
7icher internal representation of data o$ects including user
history of interaction
with documents, applications, we$ pages
( more expressive interface
Designed for expert users optimi%e for people with decades of
computer experience
*hared control proactive computers and agents without human
commands.
Interactivity is situated in time and em$odied $y the
participant"s# in the world even when
the interaction is mediated through communication technology.
There may $e a second level
of virtual em$odiment within the communication technology, $ut
the physical $ody's role
remains part of the interaction. Interactivity re
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and secondary em$odiment of the participant, and creation of
affordances for interaction.
=ocussing on interactivity as o$serva$le and physicalexternal
separates the construct from
perception, motivation, emotions, and thoughts. Doing this gives
the term interactivity a
uni
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Cooper, (llen "1222#, The Inmates are 7unning the (sylum8 hy
hightech products drive us
cr%y and how to restore the sanity, Indianapolis8 *()*, a
division of )acmillan Computer
Pu$lishing.
C%i!s%entmihalyi, )ihaly "122A#, =low8 The Psychology of 4ptimal
Experience, 9ew Hor!8
&arper G 7ow, Pu$lishers.
Diet%, 7ichard and 5ang, (nnie "1222#, -(ffective agents8
Effects of agent affect on arousal,
attention, li!ing and learning, Conference Proceedings, Third
(nnual Cognitive Technology
Conference, 13/.
Evans, >ohn "1222#, -Challenges of the digital age,-
Proceedings of the Internet/ *ocio
technical *ummit, (nn (r$or, 1//A.
&anss, Ted "1222#, -(pplicationdriven technology,-
Proceedings of the Internet/ *ocio
technical *ummit, (nn (r$or, 1A111.
&eeter, Carrie "12@2#, -Implications of interactivity for
communication research,- in )edia
6se in the Information (ge8 Emerging Patterns of (doption and
Consumer 6se, >erry
*alvaggio and >ennings ?ryant, eds., 5awrence Erl$aum
(ssociates, /13/0.
&eeter, Carrie, D'(lessio, David, +reen$erg, ?radley, and
)coy, *teven "12@@#
-Ca$leviewing $ehaviors8 (n electronic assessment,- in
Ca$leviewing, Carrie &eeter and
?radley +reen$erg, eds., 9orwood, 9>8 ($lex Pu$lishing
Company, 01.
&eidegger, )artin "123/#, 4n Time and ?eing, 9ew Hor!8
&arper and 7ow.
5om$ard, )atthew "/AAA#, -7esources for the study of
presence,-
http8nim$us.temple.eduKmlom$ardPresenceexplicat.htm
)acann, Christopher "122#, =our Phenomenological Philosophers8
&usserl, &eidegger,
*atre, )erleauPonty, 5ondon an
(n 4fficial 4nline Pu$lication of the (merican (cademy of
(dvertisingL /AA@ >ournal of Interactive (dvertising
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