CARIBBEAN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL Volume 4

CARIBBEAN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL

Volume 4 Number 1 April 2016

The University of the West Indies

Cave Hill Campus

School of Education


School of Education


Cave Hill Campus

Barbados

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Copyright ©2015 School of Education, The University of the West Indies Cave Hill Campus,

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Caribbean Educational Research Journal (ISSN: 1727-5512) is published twice a year in April and

September. The Journal publishes original articles which have undergone rigorous blind review.

Executive Editorial Board

Dr. Babalola J. Ogunkola Managing Editor & Director, School of Education

The University of the West Indies, Cave Hill

Campus, Barbados

Dr. Grace-Anne Jackman Associate Editor & Lecturer, School of Education

The University of the West Indies, Cave Hill

Campus, Barbados

Subscription Rates

Individuals BBD $100 USD $50

Institutions BBD $150 USD $75

Subscription requests, editorial correspondence and books for review should be sent to:

Dr. Babalola J. Ogunkola

Managing Editor

Caribbean Educational Research Journal

School of Education


Cave Hill Campus

Bridgetown, BB11000

Barbados

Reviewers’ Panel

Dr. Claudine Allen Dr. Keisha Evans

University of the West Indies (UWI), Mona, Jamaica UWI, Cave Hill, Barbados

Dr. John Andor Dr. Grace Fayombo

Accra Institute of Technology, Ghana UWI, Cave Hill, Barbados

Dr. Romona Archer-Bradshaw Dr. Anthony Felicien

Erdiston Teachers’ Training College, Barbados Sir Arthur Lewis Community College, St.

Lucia

Dr. Martin Baptiste Dr. Debra Ferdinand

Caribbean Development Bank, Barbados UWI St. Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago

Dr. Korah Belgrave Dr. Leah Garner-O’Neale

UWI, Cave Hill, Barbados UWI, Cave Hill, Barbados

Dr. Jacqueline Benn Dr. Stephen Geofroy

UWI, Cave Hill, Barbados UWI, St. Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago

Dr. Stacey Blackman Dr. Sylvia Henry

UWI, Cave Hill, Barbados UWI, Cave Hill, Barbados

Dr. Carmella Buddo Dr. Carol Hordatt-Gentles

UWI, Mona, Jamaica UWI, Mona, Jamaica

Dr. Sheron Burns Dr. Stephen Joseph

UWI, Cave Hill, Barbados The University of Trinidad & Tobago

Dr. Winston Campbell Dr. Janice Jules

Edward Manley College, Jamaica UWI, Cave Hill, Barbados

Dr. Ngoni Chipere Dr. Kadamawe K’nife

UWI, Open Campus, Cave Hill, Barbados UWI, Mona, Jamaica

Dr. Catherine Clifford Dr. Verna Knight

Sir Arthur Lewis Community College, St. Lucia UWI, Cave Hill, Barbados

Dr. Charmaine Crawford Dr. Yewande Lewis-Fokum

UWI, Cave Hill, Barbados UWI, Mona, Jamaica

Dr. Paula Daley-Morris Dr. Samuel Lochan

UWI, Mona, Jamaica UWI, St. Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago

Dr. Talia Esnard Dr. Ian Lubin

The University of Trinidad & Tobago UWI, Cave Hill, Barbados

Reviewers’ Panel (continued)

Professor Smail Mahdi Dr Ezra Mugisa

UWI, Cave Hill, Barbados UWI, Mona, Jamaica

Dr. Mark Malisa Dr. Mariette Newman

The College of St Rose, Albany, NY UWI, Mona, Jamaica

Dr. Beular Mitchell Dr. Sandra Robinson

UWI, St. Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago UWI, Cave Hill, Barbados

Dr. Permanand Mohan Dr. Allison Thompson

UWI, St. Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago Barbados Community College, Barbados

Dr. Charles Moses Dr. Jennifer Yamin-Ali

Clark Atlanta University, Atlanta UWI, St. Augustine, Trinidad & Tobago


Volume 4 Number 1 April 2016

Contents Editorial

Dr. Babalola J. Ogunkola ............................................................................................................................... 1

Articles

Getting STEM Right from the Start: Using the Project Approach in Early Childhood Settings

Sabeerah Abdul-Majied & Sandra Figaro-Henry ........................................................................................... 3

Education for Sustainable Development in the Caribbean: Demystifying the Concept to Enhance and

Broaden Practice

Therese Ferguson-Murray .......................................................................................................................... 19

E-orality, Language Development and Communicative Competence of a Yoruba Child: Issues and

Challenges

Azeez Akinwumi Sesan & Lucky Aikabeli .................................................................................................... 36

Curriculum Design and its Relationship to Marketing of the Visual Arts

Wendell R. Smith ......................................................................................................................................... 46

De-constructing Positionality in Academic Writing: A Reflexive Journey into Voice

Juliet D. Jones .............................................................................................................................................. 64

Understanding Entrepreneurial Attitudes, Intentions and Activity in Barbados

Paul Pounder & Dwayne Devonish ............................................................................................................. 77

Universalising Secondary Education in the Caribbean: Contrasting Perspectives

Verna Knight................................................................................................................................................ 95

Using Web 2.0 Technologies in a College Composition Classroom in the Caribbean: The Case of the

Electronic Dictionary of Bahamian English

Raymond Oenbring ................................................................................................................................... 113

Improving Caribbean Undergraduates’ Enjoyment, Engagement and Learning Using a 3D Role Playing

Game

Paul Walcott & Nadia Corbin-Babb…………………………………………………………………………………………..……......127

Factors Affecting the Implementation of the Programming Component of the Information Technology

Syllabus: Teachers’ Perceptions

Shirdi Ali & Debra Ferdinand-James ......................................................................................................... 142

Issues and Challenges in Programme Renewal: Faculty Perspectives

Jennifer Yamin-Ali ..................................................................................................................................... 157

Nigerian Pre-service Teachers’ Perceptions of Gender Roles and Stereotypes in Social Studies

Classrooms

Ayodeji Ifegbesan……………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………. 176

Notes for Contributors

The Caribbean Educational Research Journal (CERJ) is published twice a year (April and

September) by the School of Education of the University of the West Indies, Cave Hill Campus,

Barbados. The Journal seeks submission of original articles on topics covering all aspects of

education in the Caribbean and in the global community. Research or application-oriented articles

that describe, among others, curriculum, pedagogy, professional development or educational

facilities issues are considered for publication in this journal.

All articles are refereed by a rigorous review process involving at least two blind reviews by

qualified academic professionals. Submissions are judged by sustainability of the content, the

intellectual framework and significance to society in general.

CERJ solicits only original contributions that have not been previously published or submitted

elsewhere. An important criterion for acceptance of a manuscript for publication is the relevance

of the work to the educational/training environment and its potential usefulness for advancing the

quality of education at all levels.

CERJ only accepts electronic submission of manuscripts. Submit the manuscripts for review

process by sending an email with the paper as an attachment to [email protected] or

[email protected]. In the body of your email message, include the author(s),

name(s), contact information of the corresponding author and the title of your submission. Your

submission should be in a file format supported by Microsoft Word (PDF submission will not be

accepted). All submissions should be in English. The manuscript should be single-spaced, with a

single column, 11-point Arial Narrow justified font, and 1” margins on all sides. A summary

(Abstract) of between 150 and 200 words should be included in the first page of your submission.

Tables and figures should be included in the text, approximately where the author thinks that they

should appear. Manuscripts should be edited for spelling and grammar. Reference citation

ordering and format must follow APA style referencing. References must be complete. The paper

should not normally exceed 10 single-spaced pages, including all sections, figures, tables, etc.

However, long articles may be considered.

mailto:[email protected]


ERRATUM

In the Caribbean Educational Research Journal, Volume 3 (2), September 2015 issue, the author

order for the article, Reframing transformational leadership for education and nation building in

the Caribbean, pp. 76-89, was incorrectly listed. The correct author listing should have read:

Reframing transformational leadership for education and nation building in the Caribbean

Phillip A. Smith*(1), Dennis G. Francis(2) and André Harper(1)

Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, USA (1)

University College London, Institute of Education, London, UK(2)

The correct APA citation for this article is:

Smith, P. A., Francis, D. G. & Harper, A. (2015). Reframing transformational leadership for

education and nation building in the Caribbean. Caribbean Educational Research Journal, 3(2),

76-89.

The error has been corrected in the online version of the article. CERJ regrets the error.

Caribbean Educational Research Journal The University of the West Indies

Vol. 4, No. 1, April 2016, 1-2 Cave Hill Campus

ISSN 1727-5512

©School of Education, The University of the West Indies Cave Hill Campus

http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/fhe/hum/publications/EducationCERJ.htm

Editorial

The focus of the Caribbean Educational Research Journal (CERJ) is to broaden intellectual

discussion and to encourage the exchange of ideas among education professionals in order to

further the development of scholarly research. Therefore the journal provides a platform for

educators to benefit from regional and international discourse in education and related fields.

This current edition of CERJ has insightful and thought-provoking articles. Sabeerah Abdul-

Majied and Sandra Figaro-Henry report on a qualitative study of a year-long, in-service

professional development programme for Early Childhood teachers in Trinidad and Tobago. The

6study which used the project approach and integrated Science, Technology, Engineering and

Mathematics (STEM) teaching recommended improvements for Early Childhood teacher

professional development programmes. Writing on ‘Education for Sustainable Development in the

Caribbean: Demystifying the Concept to Enhance and Broaden Practice’, Therese Ferguson-

Murray presents the main tenets of education for sustainable development, and explores the

implications of this educational paradigm for practice and application within the Caribbean region.

The article by Azeez Akinwumi Sesan and Lucky Aikabeli addresses issues and challenges of E-

orality, language development and communicative competence of the Yoruba child in Nigeria.

Wendell R. Smith’s study focuses on the developments in Higher Education in the Visual Arts

programme at the St. Augustine campus of the University of the West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago.

The study highlighted the following two problems: (i) educators’ inability to craft curricula to meet

the growing demands of a competitive global culture, and (ii) the lack of implementation of

effective policy to reflect curriculum changes that can lead to greater participation in the global

market place. The article by Juliet D. Jones discusses the value of exploring positionality in

academic writing from a ‘de-constructive’ standpoint. The author presents the view that academic

writing is a reflexive, critical process that intentionally exposes the researcher’s philosophical

stance and is linked to the concept of ‘voice’ and its relevance to educational and social issues.

Paul Pounder and Dwayne Devonish’s research on ‘Understanding Entrepreneurial Attitudes,

Intentions and Activity in Barbados’ highlights the need for more focused entrepreneurship

educational training particularly for vulnerable groups such as women and youth. In addition, the

authors stress the need to develop entrepreneurship education programmes that inspire and trigger

entrepreneurial activity for all age groups. Verna Knight’s paper adds to a growing body of work

relevant to informing effective education planning and policy development at the regional and

international levels. Raymond Oenbring’s contribution ‘Using Web 2.0 Technologies in a College

Composition Classroom in the Caribbean: The Case of the Electronic Dictionary of Bahamian

English’ provides an example of how Wikis and other Web 2.0 technologies can play an important

role in building knowledge and conducting research in post-secondary English composition

classrooms in the Caribbean and other global academic sites.

The contribution of Paul A. Walcott and Nadia Corbin-Babb which focuses on ‘Improving

Caribbean undergraduates’ enjoyment, engagement and learning using a 3D role playing game’

investigated the use of a 3D role-playing game (RPG) to teach Caribbean Undergraduates about

the challenges of health management information systems. Shirdi Ali and Debra Ferdinand-James

in an article titled ‘Factors Affecting the Implementation of the Programming Component of the

Information Technology Syllabus: Teachers’ Perceptions’ examined Information Technology

2 Editorial

teachers’ perceptions of the problem solving, program design and implementation components of

the CSEC IT syllabus as well as the perceived inhibiting factors affecting teachers’

implementation of this syllabus. Finally, Jennifer Yamin-Ali focuses on faculty perspectives of

issues and challenges in programme renewal. The author’s findings reveal that the main challenges

for teacher educators could be categorised as: a lack of staff commitment, logistics, democratic

process, lack of staff understanding and an overall resistance to change.

I trust that this collection of articles inspires reflection and stimulates discussion in your

educational circles.

Dr. Babalola J. Ogunkola Managing Editor



*Corresponding Author. Email: [email protected]

ISSN 1727-5512



Getting STEM Right from the Start: Using the Project Approach in Early

Childhood Settings

Sabeerah Abdul-Majied* and Sandra Figaro-Henry

University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, Trinidad & Tobago

This paper reports on a qualitative study of a year-long in-service professional

development programme for Early Childhood teachers which used the project

approach and integrated Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics

(STEM) teaching. The views of nine teachers from five government and

government-assisted Early Childhood centres in North Trinidad were analysed to

answer the question: What are the benefits to teaching and learning of a STEM

professional development programme which used the project approach as a

teaching strategy? Gusky’s (2000) Model of Staff Development and Teacher

Change provided the theoretical framework. Findings are reported under three

themes: Teacher knowledge and skills development, Benefits to students and

Resulting changes in teacher beliefs and attitudes. A novel modification to Gusky’s

model resulted from teachers’ reflective practice. This modification is represented

as a recursive cycle of teacher motivating students and students motivating teacher

leading to transformation in teacher beliefs and attitudes. Recommendations for

improved Early Childhood teacher professional development programmes are

provided.

Keywords: STEM, early childhood education, the project approach, teacher

professional development

Introduction Today there is growing recognition of the benefits of high quality early education to children’s

development and learning. There is also the understanding that teachers play a critical role in the

success of any Early Childhood (EC) education initiative. The knowledge, skills and understanding

which teachers possess influence how effective they are in supporting young children’s

development and learning. Government in its attempt to make the EC sector a “relevant and quality

system capable of responding to the demands of the 21st century” has produced Early Childhood

Care and Education (ECCE) curriculum and standards of practice to assist teachers in providing

high quality services for children and their families.

In spite of these supports national reports have identified gaps in EC teacher effectiveness

in curriculum delivery. One report stated that early years practitioners lacked appropriate

qualifications and competencies (OAS Hemispheric ECCE Team, 2004). Similarly a more recent

report on the transition of children from ECCE to Primary Education, recommended that

professional development opportunities be provided to all teachers (ECCE and Primary) on a


4 S. Abdul-Majied & S. Figaro-Henry

regular basis in relation to the curriculum and methodology in the early years (Franklyn, 2010).

Additionally the report recommended that the ECCE Division develop project-based learning

activities to facilitate the acquisition of scientific and technological concepts. The goal is to foster,

“the development of inquiry processes and build awareness of the principles of science and

technology at an early age” (p. 32).

The recommendations of these reports suggest a need for teacher professional development

focusing on EC Curriculum and pedagogy. They also suggest that teachers need to develop

competencies in project-based learning and curriculum delivery to facilitate inquiry skills and

science and technology principles. Including the project approach in professional development

seemed like a logical response since it is a pedagogical strategy which involves children

conducting an in-depth investigation of a topic that is meaningful to them (Katz & Chard, 2000).

Additionally, using STEM as an approach to assist early childhood educators to focus and refine

children’s natural curiosity for learning seemed well suited to the professional development

innovation. STEM teaching allows for integrating knowledge and understanding connections

across the curriculum with a focus on the STEM disciplines.

This study is therefore timely and important in that it reports on a small scale qualitative

investigation of a STEM project conducted by researchers from the University of the West Indies,

St. Augustine. The five participating early childhood centres served children from disadvantaged

circumstances thereby providing an opportunity to include a diverse student population. Using

data from focus group interviews with nine teacher participants, as well as teachers’ online diary

entries and parent responses to questionnaires about children’s learning, the effectiveness of the

in-service programme was analysed to determine benefits to teaching and learning.

The following are definitions of key terms used in this paper.

STEM Education refers to the integrated teaching of Science, Technology, Engineering and

Mathematics which are viewed as critical for successful 21st Century learning. STEM education

was included as part of the intellectual stimulation on the curriculum alongside developing

children’s physical, social/emotional and aesthetic learning. It has the potential to significantly

improve student interest and achievement, particularly in Mathematics and Science.

Early Childhood Care and Education refers to the provision of experiences in group settings

designed to facilitate development and learning in children birth to eight years old. This study

addressed children in pre- primary schools ages 3-5years old.

The Project Approach is a pedagogical method which allows for in-depth investigation of a topic

of interest to children. It is classroom research designed to find answers to questions about a topic

posed by young students and/or their teacher. Children are intellectually stimulated and gain a

better understanding as they learn by doing, discussing in groups and revisiting ideas. Project work

formed part of the curriculum which included planned units of work, thematic teaching and direct

instruction.

Professional development as used in this paper refers to the in-service early childhood

teacher training programme designed to improve teaching practices in STEM Education and

project work ultimately leading to successful learning outcomes for students.

Background

The Caribbean Educational Research Journal 5

This study is set within the context of growing recognition of the benefits of ECCE to human

capital development. It also acknowledges STEM Education and project-based learning as 21st

century curriculum approaches for improving learning outcomes for children particularly the most

disadvantaged. The Caribbean Plan of Action for Early Childhood Care, Education and

Development followed by the Regional Early Childhood Action Plan 2002-2015, set the stage for

regional planning in Early Childhood Development (ECD). Further, recognition of the variety of

Early Childhood Services in the region led to the establishment of a Policy Forum (Caribbean

Policy Forum on Early Childhood Development, 2006). The aim was to sensitize policy makers to

the importance of investment in ECD. The outcome of these consultations is a shared philosophy

of learning. This philosophy informs policy guidelines, EC standards of practice and curriculum

expectations within the region. Regional governments have therefore committed resources to

transforming the EC sector from using traditional teacher-directed practices to more learner-

centred teaching approaches.

In Trinidad and Tobago the government is working towards transforming EC Education

away from traditional teaching which presented learning as “knowledge to be acquired or facts to

be stored” (Ministry of Education, 2005b, p. 2). Preferred is teaching focused on engaging children

in meaningful activities for developing the whole child. Towards making the EC sector a “relevant

and quality system capable of responding to the demands of the 21st century” the government has

introduced the National Early Childhood Care and Education Curriculum Guide for use by teachers

(Ministry of Education, 2005a, p. 5). This document along with Standards for Regulating ECCE

Services in Trinidad and Tobago (Ministry of Education, 2005b) as well as standardised forms for

recording activities at EC centres, are some of the measures introduced to provide equitable, high-

quality EC services starting with our youngest citizens. The EC curriculum focuses on five learning

and development goals or strands. These strands represent desired learning outcomes for children

in the areas of wellness, effective communication, citizenship, intellectual empowerment, and

aesthetic expression.

The goal is to achieve high quality, universal EC education by 2015 through developing a

strong foundation for continuous improvement starting at the early childhood level (Ministry of

Education, 2005a). The EC education system envisioned is one which provides high-quality

learning, caters to the diversity of learning needs, supports effective communication and

encourages parent/family partnerships with schools. The focus is to meaningfully transmit content

knowledge while equipping students with skills, attitudes and dispositions for learning.

The Harmonized Policy Framework for Teacher Education in the Caribbean acknowledges

that the role and function of the teacher has changed, however the teacher’s role remains critical

to achieving successful school outcomes. As a consequence, education reform must focus on

teacher education to achieve the desired quality of education for students (Ministry of Education,

2005c.). Emphasis should be placed on Science and Technology goals. This study therefore reports

on a teacher professional development programme which was aligned to those recommendations.

The programme aimed to support teachers’ understanding of how to use the project

approach for curriculum development, while incorporating new knowledge and pedagogy for

teaching STEM in their classrooms. Helm and Katz (2011) noted that there is increasing interest

in project work which is now, “included in recommendations for educational reform” (Helm &

Katz, 2011, p. 1). The project approach therefore facilitated the teaching of 21st century skills such

as critical and creative thinking as well as problem solving and effective communication, and

included the use of informational technology.


Additionally, since core understandings such as facilitating 21st century learning outcomes

are also at the heart of STEM education, integrating learning through STEM while incorporating

project work logically followed. The STEM Smart Brief provided further support for the

programme design when it stated that educator development is one critical area that may be

negatively affecting STEM learning in young children (Anonymous, 2013). The professional

development programme thus fulfilled an important goal in teacher education by facilitating

effective learning strategies for teachers in STEM education and developing confidence and

competence to teach STEM disciplines using the project approach.

A study by Williams, Walter, Henderson, and Beach (2015), demonstrated that STEM

integration complemented the project approach in laboratory, hybrid and online environments.

This finding was in keeping with Mendoza and Katz (2013) who described the value of using the

project approach in teaching Science and Nature Education. Further, the trend of uniting the

project approach and STEM integration in teacher professional development in the Mathematics

and Science disciplines proved advantageous when the strategies were merged.

As a consequence, the programme investigated used STEM integration and the project

approach. It lasted one year and involved nine preschool teachers from three government and two

government-assisted EC centres in Trinidad. It is noteworthy that although the project approach is

already an established teaching strategy in all government-affiliated early childhood centres in

Trinidad and Tobago, teachers in the study welcomed the opportunity to develop their skills and

gain confidence in doing project work.

Purpose of Study

This qualitative study was conducted to provide some insight into the views of nine early childhood

teachers from government and government-assisted early childhood centres, about the benefits

derived from integrating STEM disciplines in teaching 3-5 year old children using the project

approach. The study presents the views of participants and stakeholders about the benefits of a

professional development programme which used STEM and the project approach as a strategy

for teaching young students. Projects selected were integrated and in sync with the school

curriculum, for example, “the Dump Truck Project” fitted in with the theme of “Transportation”.

Teacher training for project work started with a focus group meeting with two mentors to

sensitise the schools and obtain “buy in” for the project. Another pre-activity was to identify

resources and facilities available at the schools. Upgrades needed included providing internet

access at all centres. A one-week training course was conducted at the University to teach critical

thinking skills and questioning techniques to teachers for imparting to their students. Teachers also

learnt about STEM teaching and discussed ideas for conducting STEM projects. They got internet

addresses, and learnt how to do blogs and wikis and to post reflective messages online. In the

routine planning of their units of work for the term, project work with a focus on STEM was

included. Later, a second week of training further explained the project approach. The training

matrix is represented in Table 1.

Table 1

The Matrix of Activities for the STEM project


Date Activities

January – February Pre-activity- gaining entry

March (1 week) Teacher training at the University in critical thinking skills and

questioning techniques and STEM teaching and projects. Also ICT

training.

April- June Period of classroom practicum, mentoring site visits were

conducted to observe teaching /planning and make

recommendations; ICT use was encouraged for blogging and

curriculum development.

August (1 week) Teacher training at the University on the project approach, unit

planning and integrated planning and developing STEM projects.

September - December Period of classroom practicum, mentoring, ICT use and developing

products for the child conference

January Child Conference, Student display of presentations

Teachers implemented what they learnt in two classroom practicum phases during April to June

and September to December. Research data were collected throughout the year-long programme.

Recommendations for the future use of the teacher education model as well as improvements

to support structures for future implementation are also included. Although the study was small

scale and generalizations cannot be made nevertheless the researchers suggest possible reforms to

the EC sector which may better facilitate using the project approach as a teaching strategy for

integrating STEM teaching in EC centres.

Methodology

A qualitative case study of the year-long professional development programme was conducted.

The professional development model involved:

Two weeks of teacher training programmes divided into two teacher training modules

Two terms of mentoring teachers’ practice in STEM teaching and using the project

approach to develop projects in classrooms,

A child conference where children showcased the products made from their projects

to their peers, family and community members.

Five early childhood centres - three government and two government-assisted centres from

north Trinidad, which participated in the professional development programme were the sites

studied in this investigation. Government-affiliated sites were selected instead of private centres

because those sites served some children from disadvantaged circumstances whom the researchers

wanted to benefit from the STEM programme. Additionally teachers at those centres (unlike the

private centres) were required to use the project approach as part of their curriculum. Some

teachers however admitted that they needed professional assistance to better understand how to

facilitate projects with young children.

A further basis for selecting government-affiliated sites as opposed to private sites was that

those centres were more likely than private centres to have structures in place to support the STEM

Projects. Those structures included: more highly trained teachers; smaller class sizes and higher

adult-to-child ratios; age-appropriate curricula and stimulating materials in a safe physical setting.


These structures were favourable for the success of the project as they represented some of the key

elements identified by a synthesis of international research on teacher education programmes for

improving learning and developmental outcomes for young children (Center on the Developing

Child, Harvard University, 2007).

Additionally, the centres represented three of the eight educational districts namely St

George East, Port-of Spain and Environs and Caroni Educational District. Students from those

centres reflected the diverse mix of students typically attending government EC centres in

Trinidad on the basis of socio economic status, gender and from urban and rural settings. The

centres were also selected for their proximity to the University, as ease-of-access for the two

facilitators assigned to site visits during the mentoring phase of the project was a consideration.

Eight of the nine participating teachers were trained to the certificate in ECCE level with

five having completed or nearing completion of the Bachelor of Education degree in ECCE. One

teacher from a government-assisted centre had received up to in-service EC teacher training.

The professional development programme involved attending face-to-face sessions where

teachers were introduced to teaching strategies for using the project approach with children. They

also engaged in mini projects such as constructing bridges, to hone the skills of problem solving

as well as critical and creative thinking which they learnt in classroom sessions. They were then

required to teach those skills to their children. Online support for the use of Information and

Communications Technologies (ICTs) was incorporated throughout as teachers were mentored to

use computers, cell phones, cameras, and computer tablets in developing and delivering teaching

units.

Although there were nine teachers, seven projects resulted since teachers were paired- off

to work on the “Car and Traffic Lights” project at one centre and the “Our Community” project at

another centre. The other five projects were: The Mosquito Project, The Bees, The Dump Truck,

The Compost Project and the Recycling Project. Even though project topics differed, they all

facilitated what was normally done in integrated curriculum planning using a thematic approach.

Teachers planned units of work to ensure learning experiences covered the five curriculum strands.

What was different was greater emphasis was placed on Mathematics and Science teaching and

the use of ICTs and engineering principles, wherever possible.

Students researched project ideas by listening to stories, viewing videos and discussing

ideas before drawing and making prototypes of their planned class projects. They worked with

their peers and more knowledgeable adults, which included teachers, parents and community

members, to develop a final product for the child conference. Students also rehearsed explaining

their products and the process involved in developing products. Additionally, they practiced

answering possible questions from conference visitors.

Data were collected from two focus group interviews with participants at the end of the

project. The focus group interviews were audio taped, transcribed and checked for accuracy.

Following guidelines by Creswell (2004) for qualitative data analysis the transcribed interviews

were coded and analysed to identify the benefits of the professional development programme.

Additionally teachers’ reflective online diary entries posted throughout the programme were

analysed. Triangulation was achieved by analysing parents’ and conference visitors’ responses to

a questionnaire about the project.

Analytical Framework

To determine the success of the professional development programme this study used Gusky’s

(2000) Model of Staff Development and Teacher Change (see Figure 1) as its


analytical framework. The model proposes that staff development which involves changes in

classroom practice is likely to result in real change in teacher beliefs and attitudes only after

teachers witness changes in student learning outcomes. Learning outcomes incorporate the

methods teachers use to judge the effectiveness of their teaching. They include cognitive and

affective variables such as motivation for learning and students' attitudes toward school. This

model therefore allowed for an analysis of teachers’ responses about how student learning

benefitted from the professional development programme.

Figure 1: Gusky’s (2000) model of staff development and teacher change

This study was designed to answer the question: What are the benefits to teaching and

learning of a STEM professional development programme which used the project approach as a

teaching strategy?

Findings

The data suggested that the programme provided benefits to both teachers and students. Challenges

related to planning Science and Mathematics lessons as well as using the project approach and

ICTs were overcome through support provided by mentors.

In developing the themes each data source was first coded using open-coding and then

axial-coding to develop themes. Three themes emerged from the data after line-by-line coding

using the constant comparative method (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Eleven sub-themes were

identified from the themes. Table 2 shows the themes and sub-themes.

Table 2

Themes and sub themes


Themes Sub-Themes

1. Teacher Knowledge and Skills

Development

Understanding STEM skills

Confidence in Teaching Science and

Mathematics

Understanding STEM Teaching through

Reflective

Practice

Skills in Research and Technology use

Challenges Encountered

2. Benefits to Students

Highly Motivated Students

Parent Involvement in Learning

Enhanced Communication Skills

3. Resulting Changes in Teacher

Beliefs and Attitudes

Teacher motivation to succeed

Building Teamwork and a Learning Community

Discovering Student Interest and Abilities

The following is an explanation and analysis of the themes. All names are pseudonyms.

1. Teacher Knowledge and Skills Development

Understanding STEM skills. A strong theme which emerged was that the programme

developed teachers’ skills for facilitating STEM integration using the project approach in a number

of ways. First of all, the professional development programme equipped teachers with skills for

teaching higher-order thinking skills. One teacher’s comments about her skills development were:

“The help that I got in the training sessions was … it highlighted different things that we could

have done with the children, and different skills that we could have enhanced, like the critical

thinking skills, and the creative thinking skills and all the different thinking skills that we could

have enhanced with the children.”

The reference was to the one-week training session in which teams of teachers engaged in

classroom exercises which included projects for example to design and construct strong paper

bridges. Teachers learnt about questioning techniques for eliciting critical thinking skills. They

also participated in activities to enhance their creative thinking, critical thinking and problem

solving skills in preparation for teaching the skills to their students. The idea expressed by the

teacher was that skills learnt during the professional development exercise were useful for teaching

intellectual skills to her students.

Another teacher, Anna, explained that she gained a better understanding of how to develop

children’s skills using the project approach. She remarked, “Yes, we do projects to a point, but I

don’t think in our classroom that we really endorsed those types of skills as how it supposed to be

endorsed. The STEM [training sessions] really help me to understand the whole idea.”

This new understanding and change in practice that resulted can be related to the change

in teachers’ classroom practice that is expected to result from professional development (Gusky,

2000). Parents and teachers attending the child conference also noted the new skills demonstrated


by the students. They were impressed by the “young age” of the students and how “brave and

knowledgeable” children were when they presented their projects on stage.

Confidence in teaching Science and Mathematics. Teachers initially expressed some

fear and uncertainty about not doing the “right thing” when they attempted to practice new

approaches learnt for integrating Mathematics and Science concepts in their teaching. They lacked

confidence to teach Mathematics and Science beyond topics traditionally taught. However with

support from mentors, teachers developed confidence to teach new concepts and skills and their

competence improved. Miss Amanda said, “While doing the STEM project, I was kinda worried

and concerned that, I wasn’t meeting the STEM part of it, but when the mentor came, and I showed

her what I had, she kinda give me assurance that, okay, I’m going on the right track: that I just

need to tweak it here and there, you know.”

Miss Amanda’s class worked on a Dump Truck Project. As children asked questions, she

listened, observed and extended children’s learning about Mathematics and Science concepts

through questioning and further inquiry activities. Her teaching confidence improved when the

mentor assured her that what she was doing with the children followed the professional

development guidelines given. Further, the project activities and experiences grew from the

children’s experiences and interest. She stated that children learnt about the windscreen and

hydraulic system on the dump truck. In addition to counting and number sequencing they did

geometry as they explored two - and three-dimensional shapes on the cabin. This type of incidental

learning seems to reflect teacher facilitation of intuitive mathematical knowledge processes

through informal everyday experiences (Copley, 2010).

Throughout, integrating Science and Mathematics concept teaching across the curriculum

was fundamental to lesson planning. Four-year old Kyle was keenly interested in the hydraulic

pistons that raised the back of the truck. To satisfy his curiosity and integrate STEM learning, the

class of 15 children was taken on a guided tour of a real dump truck owned by a community

member. The experience encouraged curiosity, questioning and taught them new concepts and

increased their vocabulary. An example of this was when four- year- old Mike asked, “Why can I

see you through the windscreen glass?” In explaining that concept, words like transparent and

opaque were studied.

The teacher provided names for the parts of the truck and their uses. She also had them

draw and make prototypes of miniature dump trucks from shoe boxes and a class dump truck from

a huge refrigerator box which later became the highest demanded outdoor play area for the

children. When they worked with their teacher and a community member to construct a model

dump truck, the children engaged in problem solving as they suggested and innovated to make a

hydraulic system. The experiences encouraged investigation and experimentation with

mathematical concepts deemed necessary (Copley, 2010). It also provided opportunities to

integrate hands-on and minds-on experiences necessary for supporting reflection, theory making,

and understanding in Science (Minner, Levy, & Century 2010).

Understanding STEM teaching through reflective practice. Teachers stated that the

professional development programme taught them about integrated teaching. Prior understandings

of STEM subjects were that they were separate disciplines. However new learning helped teachers

to understand new possibilities for teaching in an integrated way. One teacher stated, “My concept

of Science, Technology and Engineering and Maths, you know, these four areas were like totally

different areas, and wasn’t interrelated. But, you know, as you go through the process, this STEM


project, I understand that, each phase of the process, had different aspects of the STEM areas

coming out and it wasn’t something that was different and separated, it was something that is

interrelated.” Further, the notion that this learning influenced teachers’ attitudes and dispositions

was also evident when Ms. Riley stated, “In life now, I’m seeing and viewing that in life these

things happen every day, and…areas (Science and Mathematics concepts) come out in different

aspects. But you know, I was not really aware of it, but you know now I’ve taken a deeper look

and a reflective look at my practice. Now, I say that, you know, things are not separated, but

interrelated, and it have certain connections within everything that you do.”

The teacher’s explanation of her new learning seemed consistent with reflective practice

where self-reflection leads to higher forms of understanding. She explained the process of stepping

back and taking a “deeper look” at her understanding about integrated teaching and learning. Her

experiences in doing the project had brought about new knowledge about the interrelatedness of

integrated learning. Brockbank and McGill (2007) described this type of learning when they

explained that reflective learning is an intentional social process based on context and experience.

The benefit of reflective learning is that the learners experienced transformation which led to

improvement for the individual and the environment.

Skills in research and technology use. Teachers also developed research skills and

increased their knowledge base as they had to, “bring new information to the children”, one

teacher remarked. Similarly, to achieve technology goals they had to become more proficient in

the use of computers and other ICT devices often becoming innovative by using available

resources in new ways. They used their cell phones for peer messaging and recording videos of

student interactions for peer critiquing.

ICT use was facilitated by an ICT specialist who also provided ICT tools such as tablets

and cameras and introduced teachers to new ways of developing the curriculum using whatever

ICT tools were available at their schools. This support ranged from providing some teachers with

email addresses and creating blogs and wikis, to sharing reflections and exchanging ideas on

projects online. One teacher said that through the ICT support that they learnt about, “all the nice,

creative, technological tools” that could be used.

Challenges encountered. Due to limited Science and Mathematics knowledge and

understanding of the project approach, teachers experienced difficulties during planning and

implementation of the projects. Though mentoring helped, the frustration experienced with

planning sometimes threatened the success of the programme. One teacher stated about planning:

“Sometimes I did it over three times, in order to get the children involved. And then I had to change

some of it, the vocabulary had to change, so I had to go back and do research in order to bring it

to children, pre-schoolers, it was a bit difficult. But in the end, how we treated with it, they really,

really enjoyed it.”

Another challenge was that of the timing. The programme commenced at the start of the

first term when children are normally oriented into their new classes. Consequently there were

some difficulties with managing children’s behaviours and trying to meet the goals of project

deadlines. One teacher stated that “Being the first academic term, we had to focus a lot on

discipline and the different personalities of the children.” Teachers suggested that the programme

should have started in the middle of the first term or in the second term of the school year when

the children might have been more settled.


A third challenge for three teachers was the use of computer technology. Ms. Chadee said,

“One of the challenges that I had was in terms of technology. Yes I know how to go on the

computer, turn it on, type and stuff like that, but…when we did the training process, I don’t think

I got enough practice, so I was not able to communicate with my mentor to, you know, to get the

information to her, and to receive the information from her. But I’m thankful that she came in,

because I think if she didn’t come to visit us, I would have still been fidgeting around.” Though

each challenge was overcome, they provided some difficulties for teachers.

2. Benefits to Students

The following sub-themes emerged to explain how the project benefitted students by motivating

them to learn and fostering their interest. Student interest further motivated teachers, parents and

community members.

Highly motivated students. At all centres students became extremely interested in doing

STEM projects and learning. At one centre where students were learning about diseases spread by

mosquitoes and how to prevent mosquito breeding grounds, Ms. Prudent said, “Mikaila would say

every week, “Aunty, what are we going to do in STEM today?” Now, when you look at that little

face, you can’t just say, “Okay, I not doing anything.” You know, she was one of the motivators

for me….that’s what helped me along.”

Teachers benefitted most from the high level of student interest generated when they were

motivated to persevere in spite of difficulties experienced due to personal or work-related factors.

One teacher reflected that the students’ level of interest motivated her as project work took the

children’s “enthusiasm to another level.” Miss Tam said, “And then, the children’s motivation

level, it was like…”Oh my gosh!” “Ms. Tam, what we going and do today?” And, “We going and

make the machine today?” And you know, they want to do it, and that level of interest really pushed

me forward to finish the project.”

Miss Tam and her class developed a machine to sort waste produced by the class for

recycling. In the process children learnt about classification, developed numeracy skills and

produced engineering blueprints of the waste sorting machine. One child’s idea of what the

machine should look like was used as the prototype for developing the machine. Additionally the

project resulted in a reduction in waste generation by the highly motivated students. Ms. Tam said

this was highlighted after the Christmas party when the janitor remarked, “But we hardly have any

garbage bags to put out! Everything [seems to be] going for the recycle project.” So it had

impacted the centre generally.

Parent involvement in learning. Students’ high interest level inspired by the STEM

projects and new learning in Mathematics and Science achieved affective learning outcomes.

Parents attested to this. One parent at the centre where the recycling and compost projects were

done said, “My child is looking at every cartoon (box) and she is wondering and saying, “Mummy,

don’t throw this away! This could be recycled! And this (food item) could go for compost.”

As children learnt about recycling and composting at school they took the new knowledge

home. Parents said that they too were learning about things like the recycling symbol and becoming

more aware of the process involved in composting for reducing waste and enriching soil for plants.

One parent assisted the teacher and children in developing a tumbler for mixing the organic waste

produced with soil to produce compost. As parents became more interested and involved they

assisted with developing a small kitchen garden where the children grew lettuce and added their


compost to enrich the soil. Similar examples of parent involvement becoming more than attending

parent/teacher meetings but also including parent-initiated discussions and suggestions for

curriculum implementation were reported from each study site. Also at the child conference,

parents’ eagerness to participate was captured by one mother’s comment. She said that, “Based on

the high quality of the projects displayed, parents will be highly motivated to partner with the

school system.”

Enhanced communication skills. Children also developed a new repertoire of skills for

thinking and expressing their ideas. The following vignette illustrates one instance of a child’s

developing engineering design skills. Ms. Tam explained with excitement, “There was one

instance when it wasn’t a planned activity. A little girl, she came up to me and she said… “I want

the whiteboard.” I said, “What [do] you want the whiteboard for?” She say, “I want the

whiteboard and the marker… you know… the machine that we have to build, I want to draw it out

for you.” And I said, “Hold on, let me get…my (computer) tablet.” I put it on to videotape her and

I said, “Alright, let us draw.” And she started to draw it, and I didn’t even know she had that

ability. She actually drew a model that you could…actually see the whole…the different sections

and the different areas, and she actually drew out the recyclables and where it was supposed to

be in the big bin, and then she say, she said, “You know what, you have - it have a door here, and

you have to press the button-”, and I said, “But what happen when the button press?” She said,

“You know, the door does open, and the things does move, on something.” I said, “But what is

that called?” She didn’t know the name for it so I told her it was a conveyor belt.

This was an example of a child demonstrating new skills in engineering design. She used

information from a video on waste sorting at a dump site to draw a design for the class model of a

machine for sorting waste. The child’s interest and ability was discovered through the STEM

project. Furthermore the teacher admitted that she had underestimated the child’s ability.

Children’s language skills were also enhanced as their vocabulary increased. One teacher

stated that by encouraging students to verbalize their thoughts, children became more expressive.

She said, “It took them a while to be able to express what they wanted to say “with their vocabulary

and stuff.” Another teacher stated, “The children actually learnt the vocabulary. One day when we

had food time, a child said, “Miss, this apple - this apple is decaying.” When he bit into the apple,

it was really rotten, but he used the word, “decay”, and we were so (amazed and elated) … and I

ran up to him and I hugged him.

The teacher expressed her pride and amazement when she actually heard her pupil using

new vocabulary. Hart and Risley’s (2003) estimation that children from professional families are

exposed to about 42 million words by age 4 as compared to 13 million for the child from a poor

family can put the child’s vocabulary development in context. Further Nagy and Stahl (2006)

reported that the size of children’s vocabulary knowledge is strongly related to their understanding

of what they read. This was therefore an important outcome of the STEM programme particularly

for children with limited vocabulary exposure. An important learning outcome for early childhood

literacy development in the Caribbean identified by the Caricom Secretariat (2010) was thus being

facilitated.

3. Resulting Changes in Teacher Beliefs and Attitudes

Teacher motivation to succeed. Teachers also expressed the view that even though the

STEM project was challenging they nevertheless were committed to completing the programme.

This is supported by the fact that there was no attrition of teachers as 100% completed the seven

projects started. Also when there was difficulty understanding how to teach STEM concepts to


young children, teachers meticulously researched and planned until they got it right. One teacher

said, “In order to bring…the whole project to life, I had to do a lot of research. And in my research,

there were new terms not the terms that I started off using… I went back and I investigated and I

realized that I could use- “millipede” instead of the local name “congoree”- The whole aspect of

the Science first.

Discovering student interest and abilities. Through the STEM projects teachers gained

new knowledge about the interests and abilities of their students. Miss Tam explained that she

actually saw: “The different skills of the children, and interest areas which wasn’t highlighted

[previously]…through the… project approach. You see the different areas, like the skills, that the

STEM endorse, like the Science area, you’ll see who are the children who…more into Science,

who are the children more into Technology, who are the children more into Engineering, who are

the children more into the Math concepts and all these things. So you saw the different interest

areas with the children.”

Even beyond this understanding of students’ individual interests was that teachers

discovered that they had previously underestimated what students knew and were capable of

learning. Ms. Brown said, “I was amazed at the children’s previous knowledge, in terms of, they

knew the engine, they knew and could have recognized the seatbelt, the number plate; they were

actually able to name some of the parts of the car.” That discovery occurred at the centre that did

the Car Project. The students worked with their teacher and also in conjunction with personnel

from a community science centre to develop a model of a car and a traffic light. This discovery

has implications for teaching, as teachers are better able to plan for children’s learning when they

have an accurate understanding of children’s previous knowledge and potential for learning.

Another discovery was that children’s high motivation level, further motivated teachers.

Teachers explained that the students were bombarding them to do project work every day. That

level of student interest further motivated teachers to complete the project.

Building teamwork and a learning community. An affective outcome of the project was

that teamwork was built in the process. Miss Jamie remarked that they became a very strong team

by working together. She added that, “because each one of us has a different skill, when we

combined these skills, we became a perfect team.” Another affective outcome was that through

interacting with teachers from other centres a learning community was started. One teacher stated,

“I met a lot of new teachers, and some of them are within the environment (my community) that I

could go to now, so I think we actually building a learning community. That is one of the beneficial

aspects …of the STEM project.”

Summary

Though Gusky’s (2000) Model suggests a linear progression from professional development to

changes in teachers’ beliefs and practices this study found a recursive cycle being set in motion

along the way. Represented in Figure 2, the change in teachers’ classroom practices motivated

students. This led to positive change in student learning which in turn motivated teachers.

Ultimately change in teachers’ beliefs and attitudes resulted. The recursive cycle of motivation

discovered is superimposed on Gusky’s (2000) Model of change in Figure 2.

Motivated

STUDENTS


Figure 2. A modified version of Gusky’s model of staff development and teacher change

Ultimately teachers’ views of the benefits to student learning can be summed up using the

words of one teacher who exclaimed in amazement as she reflected, “I was watching the children

different with these skills and it was like, oh my God! Oh my God, [look] what STEM could do!”

Conclusion and Recommendations

The driving research question for this investigation was: What are the benefits to teaching and

learning of a STEM professional development programme which used the project approach as a

teaching strategy? Using Gusky’s Model (2000) of Staff Development and Teacher Change for

analysis, improvements to teachers’ classroom practices were observed. This positively influenced

student learning and assisted in changing teacher beliefs and attitudes towards teaching STEM.

The study revealed that the knowledge and skills teachers gained boosted their confidence

in STEM and in teaching Science and Mathematics, two subjects which EC teachers often

experience difficulty teaching. The STEM Smart Brief (Anonymous, 2013) highlighted that the

focus at the ECCE level has traditionally been on developing children’s language and literacy

skills. Further teachers often lack confidence and competence because teacher training did not

adequately prepare them to teach STEM disciplines. The programme however facilitated reflection

on new learning which resulted in greater understanding for STEM teaching. The programme also

encouraged teamwork at each centre and across centres as learning communities developed.

Teachers also learnt about the interests and abilities of their students. Additionally, teachers gained

skills in research and even though there were some challenges, gains were made in technology use.

Students benefitted as they were highly motivated to learn. This enthusiasm further

motivated teachers who became further motivated to meet student needs. In the process, teachers

made new and unexpected discoveries about students’ interests and abilities. Students’ thinking

and communication skills also developed.

Motivated

TEACHERS


The professional development programme was thus successful in facilitating teachers’

acquisition of knowledge and skills for motivating student learning through STEM. Teachers can

better understand integrated learning by planning and delivering STEM units. They however need

mentors to validate their teaching. Since ICT use was a challenge for some teachers, more careful

planning for this component would be beneficial. All students including those in disadvantaged

circumstances, who are often excluded, can benefit from projects which facilitate problem solving,

creative thinking and critical thinking skills development. Students’ vocabulary and

communication skills can be enhanced. Programmes such as these provide opportunities for

reflective practice which leads to new understandings and transformation in teaching and

ultimately student learning.

There are some limitations to this study. First of all, qualitative inquiry though well suited

to providing in-depth, rich understanding of early childhood phenomenon (Hatch, 1995), does not

provide findings which can be generalized. This research undertaking is therefore limited in that

it investigated a small-scale programme involving five ECCE centres and nine teachers from

government-assisted centres in north Trinidad. No private centres were included in the study. The

study can nevertheless provide some insight for planning similar professional development

programmes under similar circumstances.

The findings can also provide insights for realising national educational goals aimed at

high-quality EC education, and catering to diverse learning needs, supporting effective

communication and encouraging parent/family partnerships with schools. Further, the programme

provided an innovative model for introducing STEM in early education. Consequently this study

provides research-based findings for improving the quality of professional development

programmes which focus on integrating STEM disciplines and the project approach in ECCE.

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Email: [email protected]

ISSN 1727-5512



Education for Sustainable Development in the Caribbean: Demystifying the

Concept to Enhance and Broaden Practice

Therese Ferguson-Murray

The University of the West Indies, Mona Campus, Jamaica

Although promoted on a global scale through the recently-concluded Decade of

Education for Sustainable Development (DESD) (2005-2014), education for

sustainable development can be a fuzzy and complex concept to understand. This

may be due, somewhat, to the conceptual confusion which surrounds the concept

of sustainable development itself and, in part, by an inability to differentiate clearly

between environmental education and education for sustainable development.

Given the importance of education for sustainable development for the countries of

the Caribbean, this paper attempts to demystify the concept of education for

sustainable development, present its main tenets, and explore the implications of

this educational paradigm for practice and application within the region. This

discussion is particularly important in light of the new global Sustainable

Development Goals and the Global Action Programme for Education for

Sustainable Development meant to follow-on from the DESD, both of which

contribute to the post-2015 development and education agendas.

Keywords: Caribbean, education for sustainable development, environmental

education, sustainable development, Global Action Programme

Introduction

Whilst previous development models have been characterised by unsustainable growth and

consumption patterns and resultant environmental degradation, sustainable development is viewed

as an alternative development paradigm for the global community that does not necessitate a trade-

off between the economy and the environment. Rather, sustainable development emphasises three

main pillars: sustainable social development, which embodies aspects such as human rights and

gender equality; sustainable economic development, which focuses on issues such as poverty

reduction and corporate responsibility; and sustainable environmental development, which attends

to issues such as climate change and deforestation, and focuses on the enhancement of natural

resources and ecosystems in order that carrying capacity is not exceeded (Wals, 2009). Sachs

(2015, p. 6) neatly describes the concept as a “three-way” normative framework, embracing

economic development, social inclusion, and environmental sustainability.”

As the sustainable development discourse began to dominate the global agenda,

environmental education (EE) was twinned with the concept (Barraza, Bal, & Rebolledo, 2003;

Bonnett, 2003; Paden, 2000; Scott, 2002; Selby, 2006), subsequently leading to the promotion of


20 T. Ferguson-Murray

education for sustainable development1 (ESD) on global, regional, and national agendas by its lead

agency, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

For the countries of the Caribbean, this emphasis on sustainable development and, by

extension, ESD, is significant. The region is comprised of three main island groupings - the Greater

Antilles, the Lesser Antilles, and the islands of the Bahamas and Turks and Caicos archipelagos -

as well as coastal Belize and the Guianas (French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname) (Potter, Barker,

Conway, & Klak, 2004). Whilst variations exist in their physical and population sizes, landforms,

culture, political status, and other factors (ECLAC, 2010), the nations of the region are

characterised by specific geographical and socio-economic vulnerabilities which constrain their

development options. These include a dependency on limited natural resources, vulnerability to

natural disasters, high transportation and communication costs, small domestic markets, and

limited economic diversification (ECLAC, 2010; UN, 1994). Intensifying these vulnerabilities is

the global environmental problem of climate change and associated sea-level rise. Climate change

is predicted to increase both the frequency and intensity of natural disasters in the region, whilst

sea-level rise will exacerbate flood events, storm surges, coastal erosion, and other coastal hazards,

affect water resources and marine-based resources, and impact economic activities such as tourism

and agriculture (Barker, Dodman, & McGregor, 2009).

Additionally, these nations are dependent on their natural resource base for their main

economic activities, including tourism, agriculture, mining, and quarrying. Unsustainable

exploitation of these resources leads to a range of negative impacts on the physical environment,

including, improper waste management and sewage disposal practices, land and water pollution,

and destruction of ecosystems. These nations also are faced with challenges to societal

development such as rising rates of crime and violence (UNDP, 2012), high rates of HIV infection

(Jones, Modeste, Hopp Marshak, & Fox, 2013), and education-related issues such as increases in

the rates of secondary school dropouts (ECLAC, 2010).

Consequently, sustainable development, and education as a mechanism to pursue a sustainable

development path, becomes critical. As UNESCO states, “political agreements, financial

incentives or technological solutions alone do not suffice to grapple with the challenges of

sustainable development. It will require a wholesale change in the way we think and the way we

act … To create a world that is more just, peaceful and sustainable, all individuals and societies

must be equipped and empowered by knowledge, skills and values as well as be instilled with a

heightened awareness to drive such change” (UNESCO, 2014, p. 8).

Despite the significance of ESD and the heightened attention accorded to it during the

recently concluded Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD) from 2005-2014,

there has been relative unfamiliarity with the concept in the Caribbean (Down,2010) and lack of

clear consensus with respect to its meaning (Down & Nurse, 2007), mirroring the global situation

(Wals, 2009). Globally and regionally, the lack of agreement on ESD’s meaning and confusion

about the concept may be attributed in part to the fact that the sustainable development paradigm

itself within which it is embedded has various dimensions and meanings for different persons

(Bonnett, 2003; Dryzek, 1997; Haque, 2000; Harrison, 2000; Huckle, 1996; Pigozzi, 2003;

1 A caveat should be made that globally ESD is promulgated under various nomenclature including

EE itself (Wals, 2009). For instance, in South Africa, labels such as ‘environment and

sustainability education’ also are used interchangeably with education for sustainable development

(Lotz-Sisitka, 2011). In Jamaica, the term environmental education for sustainable development

(EESD) has been utilised nationally, for example, in the country’s National EESD Action Plan.


Redclift, 2002; Robinson, 2004). This undoubtedly leads to ambiguity with respect to its corollary

concept – ESD (Down & Nurse, 2007; Wals, 2009). This mystification is also caused by the

inability of some to clearly differentiate between EE and ESD.

The purpose of this paper then is to elucidate the concept of ESD and draw attention to

some of the implications of the concept for practice. I begin by offering an overview of the history

of EE and ESD in the Caribbean. I then move on to explore the concept of ESD, differentiating

between it and EE, tracing its development, and delving into its essence. I end by raising some of

the implications of ESD for educational practice in the region, making reference to ESD action in

Guyana and Jamaica to focus the discussion. It is hoped that this examination will contribute to

the intensified dialogue about ESD in the region as called for by Down and Nurse (2007), enhance

the effectiveness of ESD practice and advance its promotion in the Caribbean. This is particularly

important in light of the new global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Global Action

Programme (GAP) on ESD which is intended to follow-on from the DESD and contribute to the

post-2015 development and environment agendas.

EE and ESD in the Caribbean

Whilst ESD is relatively new to the region, there has been a long-time engagement with EE after

its importance was highlighted by various agencies of the United Nations (UN), such as UNESCO,

and after participation in several international conferences on the environment and on EE

specifically. Recommendations emanating from these conferences resulted in a series of sub-

regional workshops on EE organised in various Caribbean countries during the 1980s and national

workshops in Guyana and Jamaica in 1981 (Glasgow, 1989; Howell, 1994; Miller & Howell,

1989). The regional meetings had various emphases, including, sensitisation of policy- and

decision-makers, curriculum development, non-formal EE, and EE in industrial education. The

national workshops in Guyana and Jamaica in 1981 were aimed at curricula analysis and the

development of teaching materials. Additionally, in 1991, a regional meeting of environmental

educators was convened by the Caribbean Conservation Association and CARICOM in Trinidad,

and the 1994 UN Conference on Small Island Developing States (SIDS) held in Barbados also

recognised the importance of EE at all educational levels (UN, 1994).

Accompanying all of this, efforts have been made to include EE in national frameworks,

with Caribbean countries including elements such as environmental awareness, the involvement

of school children / formal teaching, the involvement of adults / non-formal teaching, and the use

of the mass media in their National Environmental Action Plans (NEAPs) (Bynoe & Hale, 1997).

Since its prioritisation on the world agenda, ESD too has become a principal focal point

around which many regional EE programmes (Bedasse, 2002) and initiatives converge (e.g., Down

&Nurse, 2007). In the Caribbean, at a meeting in 2000, Caribbean EE practitioners held a

consultation to develop and spearhead ESD in the region. Since then, other forums have been

convened, such as the DESD Monitoring and Evaluation: Processes and Learning for ESD

workshop in Jamaica in 2010 and the regional workshop on ESD in Trinidad in 2013.

Education for Sustainable Development: Exploring the Concept

EE and ESD on the Global Scene

One of the reasons for the conceptual confusion around ESD is the inability of some individuals

to differentiate between ESD and EE, so it will be useful to explore these two educational

imperatives.


Environmental education’s roots can be found in movements such as nature study, outdoor

education, and conservation education (McKeown & Hopkins, 2003; Stevenson, 1987), however,

its emergence on the global agenda is traced back to the latter part of the 20th century as a result of

the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment, and concern over global issues such as acid

rain (Gough 2002; Grün, 1996; Lucas, 1991; McKeown & Hopkins, 2003; Sterling, 1992).

Environmental education’s role in bringing about the attitudinal and behavioural changes

necessary to engender respect for nature and slow down environmental degradation

(IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1991; Martin, 1990; UNCED, 1992; UNESCO, 1997; 2002; WCED, 1987)

has been acknowledged on a widespread basis.

The 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) resulted in a

landmark global plan of action for sustainable development, known as Agenda 21, a 40-chapter

report which focuses on the social and economic dimensions of development; the conservation and

management of resources for development purposes; the role of major stakeholder groups; and

mechanisms of implementation of sustainable development. The goals, priorities for action and

follow-up programme outlined in Agenda 21 have since formed the basis of sustainable

development strategies at the national level.

Chapter 36 of Agenda 21 highlights the particular role of education in promoting

sustainable development, through the inculcation of awareness, values, attitudes, skills and

behaviour for sustainable development. As UNESCO has highlighted, “Seen as social learning for

sustainability, education can increase concern over unsustainable practices and increase our

capacity to confront and master change. Education not only informs people, it can change them”

(UNESCO, 2002, p. 8).

Since then, there have been various international forums and agreements which have promoted

ESD, including the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), from which

emanated the proposal for the DESD, the 2012 UN Conference on Sustainable Development, the

Muscat Agreement (Target 5) and the SDGs (Target 4.7). The GAP on ESD, a follow-up to the

DESD, seeks to advance ESD further on the global agenda. Additionally, Article 6 of the UN

Framework Convention on Climate Change, Article 13 of the Convention on Biological Diversity

and Priority Action Area Three of the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the

Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters all highlight the importance of public

education and awareness.

The DESD aimed “to integrate values inherent in sustainable development into all aspects

of learning to encourage changes in behaviour that allow for a more sustainable and just society

for all” (UNESCO, 2005, p. 6). The Decade envisioned “a world in which everyone has the

opportunity to benefit from education and learn the values, behaviours and lifestyles required for

a sustainable future and for positive societal transformation” (UNESCO, 2005, p. 5) and sought to

involve all stakeholder groups in its development and implementation globally, regionally,

nationally and locally. In 2009, the DESD reached its critical midway mark and the objectives

outlined in Agenda 21 were reemphasised during the DESD conference held in Bonn, Germany.

As an outcome, the Bonn Declaration recommended concrete steps to be taken at the policy and

practice levels and outlined an enhanced role for UNESCO as the lead agency for the Decade

(UNESCO, 2009). UNESCO also prioritised issues such as climate change, disaster risk reduction

and biodiversity as key themes for the second half of the Decade.


Does EE = ESD?

Environmental education and ESD are conceptualised in the following international documents as

such:

Environmental education should be included in and should run throughout the

other disciplines of the formal education curriculum at all levels – to foster a sense

of responsibility for the state of the environment and to teach students how to

monitor, protect, and improve it - Our Common Future (WCED, 1987, p. 113).

Children and adults should be schooled in the knowledge and values that will allow

them to live sustainably. This requires environmental education, linked to social

education. The former helps people to understand the natural world, and to live in

harmony with it. The latter imparts an understanding of human behaviour and an

appreciation of cultural diversity - Caring for the Earth (IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1991,

p. 53).

Education is critical for promoting sustainable development and improving the

capacity of the people to address environment and development issues … Both

formal and non-formal education are indispensable to changing people’s attitudes

so that they have the capacity to assess and address their sustainable development

concerns. It is also critical for achieving environmental and ethical awareness,

values and attitudes, skills and behaviour consistent with sustainable development

and for effective public participation in decision-making. To be effective,

environment and development education should deal with the dynamics of both the

physical/biological and socio-economic environment and human (which may

include spiritual) development, should be integrated in all disciplines, and should

employ formal and non-formal methods and effective means of communication -

Agenda 21, Chapter 36 (UNCED, 1992).

With the above conceptualisations in mind, the question remains as to whether EE and ESD

are in fact one and the same or whether they differ in their orientation. Sauvé (1996) finds that

elements of sustainable development were already included in the notion of EE. She points out

that the principles of EE outlined in one of the seminal EE documents - the Tbilisi Declaration -

include concerns of sustainable development. Robottom (2007) too states that the “language of

environmental education reveals that it is in fact clearly concerned with social, economic and

political dimensions of environmental issues” (Robottom, 2007, p. 93). UNESCO finds that EE

has pursued goals and outcomes similar to ESD, stating, “…environmental education has steadily

striven towards goals and outcomes similar and comparable to those inherent in the concept of

sustainability” (UNESCO, 1997, p. 27).

What does differ in the two notions is their emphases. The concept of ESD emerged

because,

“no doubt it was necessary to counter a certain conception that EE was focusing

too narrowly on the protection of natural environments (for their ecological,

economic or aesthetic values), without taking into account the needs and rights of

human populations associated with these same environments, as an integral part

of the ecosystem. Likewise, it was also necessary to update the EE discourse by


emphasizing aspects related to contemporary economic realities and by placing

greater emphasis on concerns for planetary solidarity” (Sauvé, 1996).

Those finding a difference between the two find that unlike EE, ESD focuses equally on

environmental, social and economic issues because of their interconnectivity and the necessity to

pursue all three to achieve sustainable development (Paden, 2000). Environmental education on

the other hand places more of an emphasis on environmental issues according to Paden: “Although

environmental educators are often concerned with poverty, equity, and economic issues, some

practitioners focus on the environment at the expense of social and economic objectives” (Paden,

2000, p. 1). McKeown and Hopkins (2003), through readings of the Belgrade Charter and the

Tbilisi Declaration, find that EE focuses more on the impact of humans on nature and contains less

of an emphasis on society and economics. In other words, the focus is on nature and the

environment, and not as much on people. They explain that:

The overall intent of environmental education at the time was to preserve the

natural environment and reduce human impacts. In order to protect the

environment, participants had to acknowledge social, economic, and political

concerns, but the overall goal remained environmental protection and improved

resource management (McKeown & Hopkins, 2003, p. 118).

Education for sustainable development, however, encompasses and addresses the

environment, society, and the economy (McKeown & Hopkins, 2003). McKeown and Hopkins

(2003) acknowledge that EE was “never devoid of social and economic concerns” but state that

there is a noticeable shift in emphasis in sustainable development (2003, p. 119). Robottom (2007)

explains that whilst the language of EE spoke to the social, economic and political dimensions of

environmental issues, critics challenge inadequacies in the practice of EE and whether it

sufficiently engages the social and economic dimensions which it purports.

To summarise, some theorists see a complete difference between the two notions, while

others find that elements of ESD were already implicitly included within EE. Education for

sustainable development, though, is viewed as more holistic, emphasising more than the natural

environment, and moving on to the explicit inclusion of human needs and rights.

Importantly as well, ESD focuses not only on education as an agent of change, but also as

the subject of change itself, with respect to its role in human development. In Our Common Future,

there is an emphasis on aspects such as, improved access to education, a close in the gap between

enrolment figures for males and females, improved literacy rates, and increased quality and locally

relevant education (WCED, 1987). In Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living,

there is a call for universal primary schooling for all children, an emphasis on attendance in schools

as the next step after enrolment, attempts to cut the levels of adult illiteracy, and attempts to bring

female and male literacy to the same levels (IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1991). As Hopkins and

McKeown (2001) point out, the qualitative aspects of education, such as its appropriateness and

relevance to the social, environmental and economic spheres of society, are integral to ESD as

issues such as access, length, and quality of basic education can negatively impede national plans

for a sustainable future.

Characteristics of ESD

With these conceptualisations and the differentiation between EE and ESD in mind, it is now time

to turn attention to the substantive defining goals and characteristics of ESD. Agenda 21 identifies

four goals of ESD: to promote and improve the quality of education, reorient the curricula, raise

public awareness of the concept of sustainable development, and train the workforce (see Box 1).


Box 1

Four Main Goals of ESD

Improving access and retention in quality basic education: Improving access to, enrolment

and retention amongst both boys and girls in quality basic education, and ensuring exposure to

the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values of sustainability.

Reorienting existing educational programmes to address sustainability: Rethought, revised

and reformed curricula at all levels, from early childhood to university levels to ensure

knowledge, skills, attitudes and values consistent with sustainable development.

Increasing public awareness and understanding of sustainability: Through lifelong public

and community education, enhanced public awareness and understanding of sustainable

development principles to ensure an informed citizenry empowered to contribute to sustainable

development.

Providing training: Vocational and professional training for public and private sector

employees, which is infused with sustainability principles.

Source: UNCED, 1992

Thus, as previously stated, both qualitative aspects pertaining to educational systems

themselves as well as widespread changes to content, pedagogy, and audience are involved in

ESD. Further to this, ESD has certain essential characteristics (see Box 2):

Box 2

Essential Characteristics of ESD

Is based on the principles and values that underlie sustainable;

Deals with the well-being of all three realms of sustainability – environment, society and

economy;

Promotes life-long learning;

Is locally relevant and culturally appropriate;

Is based on local needs, perceptions and conditions, but acknowledges that fulfilling local

needs often has international effects and consequences;

Engages formal, non-formal and informal education;

Accommodates the evolving nature of the concept of sustainability;

Addresses content, taking into account context, global issues and local priorities;

Builds civil capacity for community-based decision-making, social tolerance, environmental

stewardship, adaptable workforce and quality of life;

Is interdisciplinary: no one discipline can claim ESD for its own, but all disciplines can

contribute to ESD; and

Uses a variety of pedagogical techniques that promote participatory learning and higher-order

thinking skills.

Source: UNESCO, 2005

Based on the above, it is important to highlight certain aspects. Firstly, it must once again

be emphasised that ESD deals with all three pillars of sustainable development, the economy,


society, and the environment. Secondly, there are various critical dimensions of ESD, specifically,

the content of education (climate change, biodiversity); the pedagogy and learning environments

utilised (exploratory, action-oriented, transformative learning); the learning outcomes; and,

ultimately, individual and societal transformation (UNESCO, 2014).Thirdly, as outlined in Agenda

21, ESD focuses on the education system itself, engaging with it not only as an agent of change

but also as the subject of change. One of the two main goals of the GAP, the integration of

education into sustainable development (UNESCO, 2014), will most likely focus on qualitative

issues such as these in order to ensure that educational goals in advancement of sustainable

development are achieved.

Implications of ESD for Practice

With this theoretical orientation in place, it is now time to consider the implications of ESD for

practice, both with respect to the SDGs as well as the GAP on ESD. The seventeen SDGs, meant

to build on the Millennium Development Goals, are seen as crucial to achieving sustainable

development by the target year of 2030 (UN, 2015). Whilst ESD will, through its focus on

knowledge, skills, values, and behaviours work towards the advancement of all seventeen SDGs,

it is itself given particular attention in Target 4.7 under SDG 4 (Ensure inclusive and equitable

quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all): “By 2030 ensure all learners

acquire knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including among others

through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender

equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship, and appreciation of

cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development”. The GAP on ESD, a

follow-up to the DESD will further seek to advance ESD on the global agenda. Within the context

of the SDGs and the GAP, enhancing and broadening the practice of ESD becomes an even more

critical endeavour.

The GAP outlines five areas for priority action including:

1. the advancement of policy,

2. the transformation of learning and training environments,

3. capacity-building of educators and trainers,

4. the empowerment and mobilisation of youth, and

5. the acceleration of sustainable solutions at the local level (UNESCO, 2014).

These areas will be explored with respect to the implications of ESD practice in a

Caribbean context, with examples drawn from two countries in the region in order to focus and

deepen the discussion. The first country is Jamaica, one of the region’s island states with a

population of approximately 2.7 million, 52% of whom live in urban areas. The second is Guyana,

one of the region’s mainland countries with a population of approximately 770,000, 90% of whom

are concentrated in the country’s low-lying coastal plain region. The economies of both countries

are highly dependent on their rich natural resources with sectors such as agriculture, fisheries, and

mining contributing to Guyana’s economy, and industries such as tourism, agriculture, and mining

contributing to that of Jamaica.

Priority Area One of the GAP


Under this Priority Area, the integration of ESD into international and national education and

sustainable development policies is advocated. In both Jamaica and Guyana, ESD and/or elements

of ESD, are incorporated into such policies, both explicitly and implicitly. Firstly, EE, as a critical

aspect of ESD, has been incorporated into many of the region’s NEAPs (Bynoe & Hale, 1997),

including those in Jamaica and Guyana. Further, in Guyana, climate change education (CCE) has

been advanced a great deal given the vulnerabilities of the country’s low-lying coastal plain to

climate change and sea-level rise. The country’s Low Carbon Development Strategy speaks to the

development of a low carbon curriculum and its Climate Change Action Plan has a section on

education, training, and public awareness. Additionally, a Low Carbon Development Strategy

Awareness and Public Engagement plan has been developed and is currently being implemented

(Bynoe & Simmons, 2014). With respect to its education sector, the Guyana Education Sector

Plan 2014-2018 makes reference to elements such as the integration of climate change and disaster

risk reduction into the science curriculum, HIV/AIDS awareness, and the prioritisation of Health

and Family Life Education (Ministry of Education, 2014). Significantly as well, the development

of a national CCE policy has been recognised and advocated as a critical opportunity to avoid a

fragmented approach to CCE in Guyana (Bynoe & Simmons, 2014).

In Jamaica’s National Education Strategic Plan (NESP), the inculcation of core values

within learners, such as morals, ethics, tolerance, respect, national pride, and love and care, all of

which are ESD values, is called for by the Ministry of Education (Ministry of Education, 2012).

The NESP also speaks to aspects such as the infusion of citizenship education and values and

attitudes, components of ESD, into the curriculum. Jamaica’s sustainable development strategy,

Vision 2030 Jamaica, highlights the link between education and the commitment to a sustainable

lifestyle, and current and planned activities by the Ministry of Education such as the

implementation of programmes to address violence in schools, the promotion of core and

transformational values, the delivery of environmental education, the integration of hazard risk

reduction into education syllabuses, use of the media to promote climate change awareness, and

facilitating citizen participation in the sustainable management of local resources (PIOJ, 2009).

Significantly, it is important to mention that in Jamaica, a National Environmental

Education Action Plan for Sustainable Development was developed and implemented over a 12-

year period which ended in 2010. The Plan prioritised five programme areas: teacher professional

development, curriculum development and implementation, national public awareness,

community learning, and resources and practices. Although not mandatory, within the framework

of the plan, much headway was made in Jamaica in terms of advancing EESD thus highlighting

the importance of having a national framework in place.

To summarise, integration of elements of ESD, such as EE, values and attitudes, violence

prevention and mitigation, HFLE and HIV/AIDS awareness, and integration of climate change

and risk reduction into curricula, is evident in various education, environmental, and sustainable

development policies and plans in Jamaica and Guyana. At the regional and national levels, it is

recommended that an overarching ESD policy be drafted and implemented to provide a cohesive

and coordinated framework within which to integrate ESD into all national sectors and to avoid

the fragmented approach which can result from the absence of overall policy frameworks and

strategies (Bynoe & Simmons, 2014; Down & Nurse, 2007).

Priority Area Two of the GAP


Priority Area Two of the GAP calls for the transformation of learning and teaching environments,

specifically, the management of the physical facilities in a sustainable manner, as well as

integrating ESD into the ethos and governance structure of the institutions. This encompasses

various components. Firstly, sustainable development needs to be integrated into the curriculum

of schools and teachers’ colleges, universities, and other learning and teaching environments as

well as into their operational and management processes. Whole institution approaches are critical

in terms of the institutionalisation of sustainable development. In Jamaica, the Sustainable Teacher

Environmental Education Project (STEEP) stands as an illustration. The STEEP was implemented

by the Joint Board of Teacher Education (JBTE) and funded by the Environmental Action

Programme (ENACT) (Collins-Figueroa, Sanguinetti Phillips, Foster-Allen, & Falloon, 2008).

The programme began in October 2000 as a two-year pilot programme in two teachers’ colleges

and sought to “enhance the capacity of teachers’ colleges to integrate ecological, economic and

social considerations in their planning, staff development, curriculum development, teaching,

research and overall campus operations” (ENACT & JBTE, 2001, p. 1). The STEEP had six main

areas of focus, namely, environmental stewardship; capacity development; curriculum

development and implementation; research and evaluation; monitoring and influencing policy; and

networking and partnerships (Sustainable teacher, 2003). Amongst the positive results of the

STEEP were the reduced consumption of resources within the colleges and capacity-building in

the areas of grant-writing and action planning (Collins-Figueroa, Sanguinetti Phillips, Foster-

Allen, & Falloon, 2008). Approaches such as the STEEP are models that the wider Caribbean can

look to for adaptation and replication in the region.

Secondly, I believe that this Priority Area calls for more community- and service-based

learning. As Down (2010) posits, service-learning allows students to become more civic-minded,

more interested in community issues and solving social problems. As part of an ESD and Literature

course, Down incorporates a community action project and indicates that “in these projects,

students have become involved in waste management, recycling, planting vegetable gardens,

creating green spaces, creating peace through literacy, among others. This has allowed students to

re-connect with home, to realise how their education can bring direct benefit to the environment

and most important to learn that their success is related to their society’s progress” (Down, 2011,

p.14). The development of social responsibility and the preparation of students to be active citizens

on national and global levels are critical and can be engendered through environmental, peace,

human rights, and HIV/AIDS projects for example.

Thirdly, I believe that curricula in support of ESD are a critical foundation for the

development of knowledge, values, skills, and actions to support the transformation of these

learning and teaching environments. In Jamaica, EE, as one aspect of ESD, has been integrated

into the curriculum at all levels of the formal education sector. From Grades 1 to 3 of the primary

curriculum as an example, a thematic approach is taken, with a completely integrated curriculum

organised under the general theme ‘Me and My Environment’. There is a significant amount of

environmental content at this level, found in topics such as ‘Caring for My Environment’ and

‘Plants and Animals in My Community’. From Grades 4 to 6, environmental issues are primarily

found in subjects such as social studies and science, although interdisciplinary themes do facilitate

the exploration of environmental issues across other areas. EE also has been integrated into the

secondary level curriculum. At the tertiary level, integration of ESD has also taken place. In The

University of the West Indies (UWI) Mona Campus in Jamaica, for instance, aspects of ESD such

as sustainable development and climate change have been integrated into courses such as the

Literature and Education for Sustainable Development Master’s level course in the School of


Education. Courses on ESD-related areas such as EE and citizenship also exist, for instance, those

in the School of Education.

In Guyana, EE is being infused at the nursery, primary and secondary school levels (Bynoe

& Simmons, 2014). Climate change education is being infused into the primary school curricula

and locally relevant educational materials have been developed on climate change and biodiversity

awareness (Ministry of Education, 2014). Environmental education, climate change and disaster

risk management have also been integrated into undergraduate and postgraduate programmes at

the University of Guyana.

Under Priority Area Two of the GAP, several aspects are critical, including the infusion of

ESD into all subject areas in the formal education sector as a foundation for knowledge, skills, and

action consistent with sustainable development, the integration of community and service-based

learning into school programmes, and whole institution approaches to ESD. At the tertiary level,

the Mainstreaming Environment and Sustainability in Caribbean Universities (MESCA) Audit

offers a useful foundation on which to build and further curricula development and

institutionalisation of ESD within the region’s higher education institutions (UWI & UNEP, 2011).

These recommendations are made based on the fact that ESD within formal curricula will build

knowledge, skills, and action amongst learners at all levels. Additionally, whole-institution

approaches will ensure that ESD is not only taught but modelled and institutionalised as ESD

becomes part of the management and operational practices of schools.

Priority Area Three of the GAP

With reference to Priority Area Three, actions include the integration of ESD into pre-service and

in-service teacher education, and into TVET agencies, as well as capacity-building of Faculty in

higher education institutions. The abilities of educators and trainers must be enhanced to ensure

that those entering the classrooms of the formal education system and those involved in non-formal

education can teach, develop, and model ESD knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviours. This

encompasses several components. To begin, curricula in teachers’ colleges and universities must

have sustainable development topics infused. As an example, Down (2006; 2007) documents the

infusion of ESD in a Caribbean Literature course at teachers’ college in Jamaica, with a particular

focus on violence – its social/historical, economic, and environmental aspects, given the high

levels of violence in Jamaica. Students explored the concept of sustainable development through

various means such as lectures, videos, discussions, and research. The result of this effort was

positive as students reported an enhanced understanding of local and global issues with reference

to sustainable development and violence, and the exploration of alternatives to violence. Skills

such as problem-solving, action-planning, and conflict resolution were centralised in the approach

(Down, 2006; 2007).

Collins-Figueroa (2012) focuses on four case studies from a project aimed at integrating

biodiversity education into early childhood and primary teacher education programmes in Jamaica

in order to build capacity amongst educators. Whole-college involvement was promoted through

elements such as vegetable gardening and composting, and the sale and purchase of crops.

Environmental, social, and economic sustainability were successfully demonstrated in the

institutions. In Guyana, the Environmental Protection Agency has been collaborating with the

Cyril Potter College of Education since 2010 to infuse EE in teacher curricula. Under this Priority

Area, as has been the move in Jamaica and Guyana, it is recommended that the capacities of pre-

service and in-service teachers, as well as those involved in non-formal education, be supported

and developed to ensure enhanced capacities amongst educators.


Priority Area Four of the GAP

Priority Area Four calls for the empowerment and mobilisation of youth. Actions under this area

include enabling networking amongst youth and facilitating their use of Information and

Communication Technologies for ESD action. This focus on youth is important given the global

rhetoric surrounding children’s rights and participation in sustainable development (Matthews &

Limb, 1999; Matthews, Limb, & Taylor, 1999; UN, 1989; 1994; UNCED, 1992). In Jamaica, the

Schools Environment Programme (SEP), an initiative started in 1997 by two non-governmental

organisations – the Jamaica Environment Trust and the Jamaica Conservation and Development

Trust – has served to mobilise school children. Delivered in over 350 schools, the SEP requires

schools to undertake activities in four main areas: waste management, the greening of school

grounds, starting or strengthening an environmental club, and environmental research. Whilst the

programme is aimed at involving the entire school community, that is, students, teachers, staff,

parents, and the community in environmental awareness and protection, the involvement of

children is a crucial factor. Whilst an evaluation of the programme highlighted some weaknesses

and constraints, such as loss of momentum when teacher coordinators leave particular schools,

there is consensus that there have been improvements in the environments of schools, waste

management, and support for the programme by teachers (McCaulay, Falloon, Longman, Spence,

Curtis, Milbourn, & Singh, 2008).

Children and youth are the active agents and decision-makers of both the present and future. As a

result, mobilising youth through the formal school system as well as through community groups,

networks and other mechanisms is important.

Priority Area Five of the Gap

The acceleration of sustainable solutions at the local level is the focus of Priority Area Five. This

holds implications for localised action amongst community leaders, civil society, and the local

business sector through corporate social responsibility for instance. One of many successful

examples of this in Jamaica is the Bluefields Bay community in Westmoreland. The Bluefields

Bay Fishermen’s Friendly Society (BBFFS) manages a fish sanctuary, a protected area which

includes mangroves coral reefs and other ecosystems. As a local community-based organisation

(CBO), the BBFFS has spearheaded various environmental and socio-economic projects including

community-based tourism, organic farming, the improvement of basic schools, and environmental

education and awareness.

In Guyana, the Iwokrama International Centre for Forest Conservation and Development

in partnership with Conservation International has trained local communities and developed a

training manual to strengthen local communities’ capacities to facilitate climate change planning,

participation, and action amongst these communities. Another example is the Bina Hill Institute

for Research, Training and Development, which works in rural areas delivering environmental

education and offering skills training in environment-related fields (Hiebert, 2013).

Localised action in support of ESD is critical to ensure that ESD reaches local peoples and

communities, and is relevant and responsive to local contexts and conditions. As exemplified

through Jamaica and Guyana, NGOs and CBOs are well-placed to support localised action

amongst communities.

Conclusion


Led by agencies such as UNESCO, ESD has gained heightened status as a result of international

forums such as the 1992 UNCED, the 2002 WSSD, and, more recently, the 2014 UNESCO World

Conference on Education for Sustainable Development. Education for sustainable development

has been deemed so critical that the DESD was instituted, with the GAP on ESD emerging as a

follow-up programme. Yet, despite this extensive promotion, within the Caribbean, as is the case

globally, the concept is still very much a fuzzy one. The purpose of this paper then has been to

demystify the concept of ESD, differentiating between ESD and EE, and outlining some of the

defining concepts and characteristics of ESD. It is hoped that the discussion has helped to clarify

and elucidate the concept, and, by extension, will enhance and broaden its scope with respect to

implementation and institutionalisation.

Based on the examples of Jamaica and Guyana, one can surmise that much is being

undertaken in both formal and non-formal education with respect to ESD and related aspects such

as EE and CCE. In the formal sector, both students and teachers are targets of efforts, as are all

levels of the education system. Additionally, pedagogical approaches involve not only infusion

into curricula across various disciplines but aspects such as community-based learning and whole-

institution approaches. In non-formal education, NGOs, CBOs, and other independent learning

and resource facilities play a critical role in the delivery of ESD to groups including children,

youth, indigenous communities, and the general public. Providing a framework for efforts are

various educational, environmental, and development policies, plans, and strategies to direct

efforts, highlighting the role of the government as an important stakeholder.

Of course, both countries have had several challenges to the delivery and

institutionalisation of ESD nationally, including difficulties infusing ESD into already packed

curricula, insufficient locally relevant teaching and learning resources, the need to build capacity

of all sectors to deliver ESD, and the absence of overall ESD policy frameworks (Bynoe &

Simmons, 2014; Collins-Figueroa, Sanguinetti Phillips, Foster-Allen, & Falloon, 2008).

Notwithstanding these constraints, both countries have made significant strides in ESD. Based on

their experiences and the successes achieved thus far, recommendations for the wider Caribbean

include the development of a dedicated regional, as well as national, ESD policies to ensure a

harmonised and coherent approach to the integration of ESD into formal and non-formal

education; whole-institution approaches to ESD in schools, teachers’ colleges, universities and

other learning and teaching environments; the mobilisation of children and youth; and more

locally-based sustainability initiatives. There also must be continued incorporation of ESD into

pre-service and in-service teacher education and professional development. Finally, as a critical

foundation, ESD must be infused into curricula at all levels, including the tertiary level. At the

tertiary level, the findings of the MESCA audit can inform further efforts. These recommendations

are based on the priority areas outlined in the GAP and must be effected with reference to the

sustainable development realities of the region.

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ISSN 1727-5512



E-orality, Language Development and Communicative Competence of a

Yoruba Child: Issues and Challenges

Azeez Akinwumi Sesan* and Lucky Aikabeli

*Osun State University, Ikire Campus, Osun State, Nigeria

Moshood Abiola Polytechnic, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria

Linguists and other language experts have acknowledged that language is

primarily spoken before its secondary function of writing. The developmental

stages of a child are pre-dominated by speeches of the adults and other caregivers

in the child's environment. In the traditional Yoruba societies and before the

modern social structures, the child's language and speech development was

enhanced with series of oral performances. With the emergence of modern

technologies of communication such as radio, television and internet, there has

been a change in the psychodynamics of oral literature and hence, the phenomenon

of e-orality. This paper, therefore, seeks to examine and discuss the issues and

challenges of e-orality in the contemporary Yoruba societies and how this has

impacted on the language development and communicative competence of a child.

Data are gathered through unstructured interview at selected rural communities.

Presentation and analysis of data reveal that the natural “texture” of orality is not

felt in the contemporary stage of e-orality.

Keywords: E-orality, communicative competence, oral literature, language

development, modern technologies

Background

The primacy of speech in human communication cannot be disputed irrespective of culture, clime

and the speech community. This paper takes speech as words, oral expressions and other verbal

arts that have literary qualities. To this end, the view of Ong (1982) on the significance of words

in oral performance is corroborated:

Words acquire their meanings only from their always insistent actual habitat, which

is not, as in a dictionary, simply other words, but includes also gestures, vocal

reflections, facial expression, and the entire human existential setting in which the

real, spoken words always occur (p. 47).

The above opinion by Ong (1982) shows that words do not occur in a vacuum but rather,

they become a linguistic tool employed by oral performers and narrators to demonstrate their arts

and skills. Similarly, the view of Sesan (2014) on the nature of words in oral performance and

narrative is also corroborated:

During the performance of Yoruba folktales, words are not formless, baseless,

passive and void. They rather contribute to the full realization of the subject matter



and thematic significance of the folktales. The performer of folktales therefore

relies on the verbal and non-verbal gestures for the purpose-driven utilization of

words and language aesthetics during the performance. Words in the performance

of folktales therefore make use of psycho-stylistic devices for active participation

of the audience and the performer (p. 79). The harmonisation of the view of Ong (1982) and Sesan (2014) reveals the centrality of

words and the context in the performance of verbal arts and actions. The performer of a verbal art

or oral literature is expected to demonstrate a commendable degree of linguistic vibrancy,

particularly the creative use of words.

Appropriateness and adequacy of language for communicative purposes aid the attainment

of communicative competence in any speech encounter. In the context of this paper,

communicative competence involves the ability to identify and understand the denotative and

connotative meanings that are expressed within the context of verbal arts. With communicative

competence, children in the traditional Nigerian society are expected to know and understand what

is said and not said with verbal expressions and body movement such as eye movement, head

movement and gestures. Among the Yoruba of Western Nigeria, the significance of

communicative competence has been acknowledged with the expression "omo oju" (a child that

understands the non-verbal message with little or no stress) and "omo enu" (a child that

understands nothing but verbal expressions).

The nature and characteristics of human language demonstrate its survival in the context

of use either in the oral or written forms. The competence of the language use in human

communication can be best adjudged by how it is used to achieve the communicative ends in the

private and public domains as well as the formal and informal contexts. This success can be

measured by the mutual intelligibility between the speaker and the audience. Thus, the speaker

should share the same semantic orientation in communicative interactions as demonstrated in the

effect the speech has on the interlocutors.

In the context of this paper, speech/verbal art is classified into two categories: literary and

non-literary. A literary verbal art makes use of metaphoric and figurative expressions such as

hyperbole, allusion, alliteration, simile, irony and metonymy to make reference to and inference

from events and actions that are given in spoken expression, particularly in the genres of poetry

and prose narratives (myths, legends and folktales). The discourses on the literary speech or verbal

arts have crystallised into what is known today as oral literature or in a modernised expressions

orality/oracy. Orality foregrounds the presence of literature before the arrival of colonisers on the

shores of Nigeria and Africa, in general. It is therefore a misrepresentation of fact that literature

came with the presence of the colonisers in Africa. The fact of the matter is that Africa did not

come about literature or literary culture with the coming of the imperial government (Achebe 1978;

Idiga, 2008; Sesan, 2014). Before Afro-European contacts, the African continent had various

verbal arts that were narrated, performed and sung with a considerable degree of literariness. The

contacts between Africa and imperial government only offered a new mode of literary expression

in writing. These African literary verbal arts, in the course of presentation, recorded success with

the way language was used in contexts of performance to ensure that the audience made meaning

out of what was presented. The argument here, however, is that through the use of figurative

expressions such as irony and sarcasm, the communicative competence of a child may be

enhanced. This argument is made because the two figurative devices are meant to present

contradictions between what is meant and what is said. For elucidation, a scenario is presented

below:

38 A. Sesan & L. Aikabeli

There is a family of five: a father, a mother and three sons. These sons are wayward to the

extent that the parents have become tired of the complaints lodged against these sons by the

neighbours. One fateful day, the father is travelling and he instructs the children to take care of the

home and be of good character but this is done in ironical statements. He says: "I am travelling

now. You can do whatever you like with the food items available in the home - you can invite your

friends to hold a party and if they are not around, you can invite goats to feast on the food. I am

saying all this so that when I arrive from my journey, I can display my lunacy for you". The father

travels but before he returns the children have done exactly what their father "instructed" them to

do- the goats have been invited to eat all the food items. As soon their father arrives from his

journey, they tie him up with a strong rope claiming that they don't want him to disturb the

neighbourhood with his lunacy.

From the scenario presented above, what brings the problem to the father is the lack of

communicative competence on the part of the children. The father and the children do not share

the same semantic orientation and thus there is communication breakdown between them. In the

traditional Nigerian society, children were trained more in communicative competence in the

process of language development through literary verbal art. The children are encouraged to be

mindful of communicative competence, particularly in the mother tongue instead of the

grammatical competence that is being encouraged in the second language situation.

Another instance of literary verbal art (orality) that demonstrates some degree of

communicative competence in the traditional Yoruba society is the proverb. A case is made for

the proverb as an example of a literary verbal art because it makes use of metaphor, imagery,

allusion and symbolism to communicate meaning. To this end, the view of Finnegan (1968) on the

proverb is therefore corroborated that:

Proverbs are generally marked by terseness of expression, by a form different from

that of ordinary speech, and by a figurative mode of expression abounding in

metaphor. (p. 399)

The submission of Finnegan (1968) further confirms the literariness of proverbs as one of

the Yoruba verbal arts. The literariness of Yoruba proverbs makes it different from ordinary day-

to-day language and hence, it is regarded as the guide for ordinary words. As a literary verbal art,

the use of proverbs for communicative competence and efficiency require consideration for the

context of usage. Among the Yoruba, it is wrong for a child to use proverbs in the presence of an

adult without paying any homage. Any child, who does that is regarded as rude and uncultured. It

is therefore not enough to have the mastery of proverbs by children, they should also learn how

and when to use the proverbs for communicative effectiveness.

Non-literary verbal arts, on the other hand, are the expressions of day-to-day interactions.

Apart from being linguistic animals, humans are also social animals. The degree of the sociability

of humans is measured through the way language is used for social interactions. Ability to utilise

speech and engagement in face-to-face communication/ interaction are among the yardsticks that

are used to measure the socio-human relationship of individuals. Non-literary verbal art is used for

opinion formation and expression, which is the hallmark of social harmony and cohesion. The

deficiency in the use of language for day-to-day and face-to-face interaction can be linked to

psychological and sociological disorders in child's upbringing. With this deficiency, a child grows

to become introverted or withdrawn from others in social interactions. Thus, parents and other

caregivers are expected to be conscious of the linguistic, communicative and social development

of Yoruba children.


Review of Relevant Literature

Orality, E-orality and the Postmodernist Culture

This paper conceptualises oral literature as all forms of literary verbal arts such as folktales,

folksongs, oral poetry, festival dramas, etc. The nature of orality enhances communicative

competence and efficiency between the performer and the audience. This is because for every

session of oral performance, the performer and the audience utilise all the resources of language

(verbal and non-verbal) to ensure mutual intelligibility and communicative effectiveness. This

paper adopts the term oral literature because of its popularity in African literary discourses.

In the pristine orality, there used to be a physical, face-to-face relationship between the

performer and the audience with spontaneous response and reaction from the latter. The issue here

is that the response/reaction in the pristine orality is not delayed. The implication of this for

communicative competence of the children that may form part of the audience of oral performance

is that they will develop the ability to analyse and interpret the verbal clues within the context of

performance in order to understand the implied and the expressed messages of the performer.

Additionally, the audience and the performer learn role taking and role sharing in conversation. In

this instance, they learn when to take the floor of conversation/performance and when to give

another person an opportunity to take the floor.

The agrarian, traditional Yoruba setting provided a conducive literary atmosphere for the

performance/narration of oral literature owing to the factor of communalism. In the traditional

Yoruba society, folk performances were common because of their utilitarian functions such as

entertainment, education and socialisation in the service of the community. This arrangement of

the traditional Yoruba society gave way to [post] modernist culture that is characterised by

individualism. The impact of postmodernist culture on agrarian societies has been observed by

Sesan (2014), though in the context of the performance of Yoruba folktales. The critic raises the

issues of disruption of space and time of performance, distortion of psycho-social relationship

between the performer and the audience, as well as rupturing of cognition, retention and recall as

ways through which postmodernism has affected the naturalness of oral literature in its

performance and appreciation.

In the stage of e-orality, there is disruption of performance space and time. E-orality, in

this paper, is inclusive of the performance of orality through the media of radio, television, video

and in the recent time, the internet. Each of these media of e-orality has its individual nature and

psychodynamics. The medium of radio, for instance, only demonstrates oral-aural quality with

emphasis on moralisation and education of a Yoruba child. Thus, folksongs on radio and television,

apart from giving audience the much-needed entertainment and relaxation, also dwell on certain

aspects of morality and education (Akinyemi, 2011).

The performer and the audience relate with verbal arts without physical contact and any

visibility. In this situation, the audience is unable to access the non-verbal resources that may

contribute to the communicative competence and effectiveness of the messages. In the pristine

orality, the audience had the opportunity to access and evaluate the non-verbal resources for the

semantic interpretation of the literary verbal arts. The shortfall in the medium of radio motivated

the innovations in the making of television. The medium of television demonstrates two principal

means of perception and reception: audibility and visibility. This medium demonstrates oral-aural

and aural-visible sensibilities in the performance, interpretation and analysis of any literary verbal

arts. Despite that the audience of orality in the medium of television is able to see the performer

while at the same time listening to the performance, it lacks direct physical, face-to-face

interactions with the performer. In this regard, the response is delayed.


The understanding of the impact of [post] modernist culture on the nature and the

performance of oral literature makes it imperative to examine and discuss the nature and the

dimension of postmodernism in the cultural productions including verbal arts. The assumption of

postmodernism is that human society undergoes some inevitable changes owing to the factors of

technological advancement and innovations. This assumption connotes that human society is not

static but rather dynamic. The dynamism of human societies has precipitated the collapse and

recreation of boundaries. To this end, the view of Layiwola (2010) on the dynamism of human

society closely describes the tenets of postmodernism and its impact on cultural productions. The

critic is of the view:

The world around us is growing more complex by the day; reality is changing or mutating

at an amazing speed, such that the language and images to represent that reality must

continue to mutate with it. In the process, boundaries are bound to emerge and re-emerge.

(p. 17)

The deduction from the view of Layiwola (2010) is that human societies, across cultures

and climes, cannot afford to be static as a result of some economic and sociological variables. This

change when it occurs affects the cultural products and identity such as language and literature as

a means of communication of a people. Oral literature has also been caught in the web of

postmodernism as reflected in its narrative mode and language, performance space and audience

factor. The postmodernist culture has encouraged the use of English as the language of socio-

economic mobility as well as the language of wider communication (LWC). To this end, the

indigenous language, which is the linguistic medium of performance of oral literature is

endangered. The consequence of this situation on the competence and performance of children in

the indigenous language is that they become incompetent in the use of their indigenous languages

that can enhance native intelligence.

The complexity of the contemporary society makes social re-engineering inevitable. In the

process, the society is able to advance to the postmodernist culture that is characterised by modern

technologies, media of communication as against the traditional oral, face-to-face communication

and the information superhighway made possible by internet and information and communication

technologies. The knowledge of the characteristics of postmodernist culture makes it imperative

to examine previous views on the definitions and descriptions of postmodernism. The origin of the

postmodernist theory remains uncertain, though, often traced to Federico de Onis (Aliu, 2000).

Despite the uncertainty that surrounds the origin of postmodernist theory, some scholars and

theorists such as Iser (1980), Uche Mowah (1991) and Foucault (1974) have postulated on the

theorisation of postmodernist theory. The core lexical choice in the definition and the description

of postmodernism is "conversion", "advancement" and "change" as a result of improvement in

technological know-how and use. In this regard, the descriptions of postmodernism given by

Lyotard (1993) and Mowah (1991) are apt. For instance, Mowah (1991) is of the opinion that

postmodernism is an assumption that the world of today has already become post-contemporary

through overreaching itself techonologically and culturally. In a similar direction, Lyotard (1993)

avers that “the ‘post’ indicates something like a conversion: a new direction from the previous

one”. The inference that can be made from the views of Mowah (1991) and Lyotard (1993) is that

technology and innovation cannot be divorced from the realisation of postmodernist culture. Thus,

it can be said that postmodernist theory suggests that human society is not static as a result of

advancement in knowledge.


Statement of the Research Problem That human society is not static is an indisputable fact. With innovation and modern invention,

human society has been adapting to different stages of technological development. The dynamism

of technological development has affected almost all facets of cultural lives of individuals or

groups. Among the cultural lives of individuals that have been affected by technological

development are folk narratives and folk performances. These folk literatures are discussed under

a broader term of orality. Modern technologies have influenced the performance and appreciation

of oral literature. Today, the performance of orality is mediated. Thus, it does not enjoy immediacy

and spontaneity of performer-audience interaction. The situation becomes more worrisome based

on the fact that a Yoruba child, like his counterparts from other cultural groups, does not enjoy

communal and group socialisation that were in place during the pristine orality. Two of the

important aspects where a Yoruba child has been affected with e-orality are language development

and communicative competence. This is because during the performance of orality, a child

acquires some language and communicative skills such as being expressive and receptive.

Research Questions

The general objective of this study was to critique the state of e-orality and its impact on the

language development and communicative competence of a Yoruba child. The research questions

which guided the study were:

i. Does the contemporary stage of e-orality have an impact on the language development

and communicative competence of a Yoruba child?

ii. Has the evolutionary trend of modern means of literary expressions affected the

sustenance and survival of pristine orality?

iii. Has pristine orality stimulated and sustained language development and

communicative competence of a Yoruba child?

iv. Is there a generic interface between pristine orality and modern literature in any of the

media of new technologies in the promotion of language development and

communicative competence of a Yoruba child?

Research Methodology

This paper adopts two approaches. The first of the approaches is theoretical. Review of relevant

literature on oral literature, e-orality, language development and communicative competence was

done. With this, deductions and findings about the current state of orality in the era of new

technologies were made. The second approach is empirical. Data were gathered, through

unstructured interviews, in Olode and Pako rural communities to understand how the people of the

communities have been coping with the performance of oral literature in the age of modern

technologies. The data were also gathered to evaluate how the mediated performance of oral

literature in modern technologies has affected language development and communicative

competence of a Yoruba child. With the deductions from the review of literature as well as analysis

and discussion of the data gathered, some findings were made.

Presentation and Analysis of Data


The evolution of e-orality is sytematic and gradual and in this regard, different researchers, directly

or by implication, have discussed its evolution. For instance, Ong (1982) considers and discusses

two stages of orality as primary orality and second orality. In the opinion of the critic, primary

orality is purely verbal with no trace of writing and any other form of documentation. On the other

hand, secondary orality enjoys documentation in writing. These different stages of orality uphold

different psychodynamics in composition, preservation and appreciation. To this end, the view of

Osundare (1981) on the mode and quality of production, mode of reception, immediate impact on

receptor and basic linguistic elements between the oral and written texts is therefore corroborated

as shown in the table below.

Table 1

Psychodynamics of oral and written texts

Oral Written

Mode of Production Voice Hand

Quality of Production Utterance Text

Mode of Reception Ear Eye

Immediate Impact on Receptor Heard Seen

Basic Linguistic Elements Phoneme Grapheme

Table 1 shows the psychodynamics of the oral and written texts. At the stage of primary

orality, the performer relied solely on the voice and body to make his/her performance have impact

on the audience while at the stage of the secondary orality, the text is mediated with writing and

thus, there is a lack of immediacy and spontaneity between the performer and the audience. With

a further advancement in technology, there is a transition from secondary orality to what is termed

as "tertiary orality" by Ibitoye and Sesan (2007).

Discourse on "tertiary orality" as observed by Ibitoye and Sesan (2007) foregrounds a

response to the issue raised by Olorunyomi (2008) that:

While noting that contemporary society is far removed from the era of pristine orality as a

literary and human communicative mode, we posit that the concept of orality continues to

shape scholarly discourse besides informing creative production. How then do aspects of

the past inform the present, and also assist in better comprehension of this time interval in

aesthetic–epistemological terms? How do social and technology development affect

aesthetic and literary production and appreciation? (p. 190)

In some forms, technological development has affected the aesthetics of literary production

and appreciation, particularly in the choice and use of language. In the pristine orality, the language

of performance was the indigenous language of the performer and the audience. The performance

at this stage enjoys communicative competence because the participants (the performer and the

audience) enjoy mutual intelligibility. This mutual intelligibility is fostered by the fact that the

participants in the pristine orality share the same semantic orientation and demonstrate a

considerable degree of native intelligence.

Findings From the presentation and discussion of data on the current state of oral literature and technological

advancement, it can be said that "contemporary society is far removed from the era of pristine

orality as a literary and human communicative mode". E-orality evolved with the invention of


radio, television and in recent times, the emergence of the new media, such as digital

communication. The effectiveness and the efficiency of the internet in the propagation of e-orality

comes to realisation "with the latest technological revolution which brought into limelight the

introduction of World Wide Web" (Ibitoye and Sesan, 2007, p. 91). The implication of the World

Wide Web for communicative competence is due to the passivity between the performer and the

audience. There is hardly a face-to-face interaction between the performer and the audience. The

performance of e-orality is virtual and non-interactive, particularly through the internet.

The current state of the advancement in Information and Communication Technologies

provides the motivation for the use of internet for information and message dissemination to

heterogeneous audiences dispersed across the globe. In the instance of e-orality through the

medium of internet, "the audience is large, but often is larger than the one in primary orality,

sometimes numbering millions. This is an audience that would never be envisaged in the old

orality" (Onyando, 2004, p.6). The internet, as one of the media of e-orality, has gained

tremendously in the size and the largeness of its audience but is has not been effective in the

enhancement of communicative competence of the performer and the audience. Like in the media

of radio and television, the internet does not afford the audience the opportunity of analysing the

physical and cultural contexts of the performance. There is thus cultural and psychological distance

between the performer and the audience. The basic benefit of the internet as a medium of e-orality

is that it makes the literary verbal art of a culture or a people and makes them available to global

audience. With this, there is an interrelationship and interdependence of culture.

Among the challenges of e-orality are its availability, accessibility and affordability. The

media of e-orality are not evenly available to the generality of the audience. Human society is

stratified according to economic prowess and access to basic amenities of life, therefore residents

in urban centres are more likely to have the resources of internet readily available to them than

their counterparts in the rural centres. Besides, the residents in the urban centres may have access

to the facilities, such as electricity to power the media of e-orality (radio, television and internet)

while the residents in the rural centres may not always enjoy the same privilege. Even in the urban

centres, there may still be an issue of economic inequity which may prevent all of the residents

from acquiring e-orality resources.

In the discourse of the opportunities and challenges of e-orality, Onyando (2004) comments

on the shortcomings of the secondary orality in contrast to the primary orality. In his study,

Onyando (2004) emphasises the factors of audience audibility and visibility. He observes that:

The audiences in the new orality are invisible, sometimes inaudible. You may hear a radio

group, or a talk show audience but you may or may not see them. Certainly, you will not

interact with them as in a face-to-face situation. Secondly, orality may be immediate, but

the response may not be spontaneous, it makes time for people to respond. (p. 6)

The deduction from the opinion of Onyando (2004) is that the media of e-orality do not

offer utilitarian values to the audience of literary verbal arts. The moral of this situation is that each

of the media of orality has its own shortcomings.

E-orality does not stimulate language development and communicative competence as it

did at the stage of pristine orality. The audience, particularly children, used to engage in some

activities that stimulated language development and communicative competence at the pristine

orality. Among the activities were tongue twisters aimed at fluency, listening skills and speaking

skills. These language and communication skills were effective because the performance was not

mediated. The children responded spontaneously to the content of the performance. Besides,


pristine orality encouraged rote learning and the use of mnemonics for ease of language

development and communicative competence among the children.

There is a generic interface between pristine orality and modern literature in any of the

media of modern technologies. This is because modern writers make use of elements of orality

such as incantations, proverbs and local idioms in their texts. In the course of doing this, they blend

tradition with modernity. With this generic interface between pristine orality and modern

technologies of literary expression, it is upheld here that pristine orality can still survive the wave

of e-orality. Despite the challenges of e-orality in stimulating language development and

communicative competence of Yoruba children, it will assist in sustaining orality in the collective

consciousness of young children.

Conclusion

This paper discusses e-orality with its ability to improve the communicative competence of the

audience and the performer. Orality is discussed from the perspective of verbal art (literary and

non-literary). It is argued that the literary verbal art makes use of figurative and metaphorical

expressions. The orality is also put in three stages: primary, secondary and tertiary. In the primary

orality, it is argued that there is physical face-to-face interactions between the audience and the

performer while this situation is absent in the secondary and tertiary stages of orality. The literary

verbal art enhances communicative competence because it helps the audience and the performer

to know how to use language in conversation, particularly the convention of speech as it borders

on turn-taking devices in face-to-face conversation.

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The reader in the text: essays on audience and interpretation. New Jersey: Princeton

University Press.




ISSN 1727-5512



Curriculum Design and its Relationship to Marketing of the Visual Arts

Wendell R. Smith

The University of Phoenix, Arizona, USA

Graduates of the University of the West Indies (UWI, Trinidad and Tobago), in the

Department of Creative and Festival Arts, are often left with limited options in

which to make a living from their creative work. The purpose of this case study was

to examine the perceptions of stakeholders in the Arts in order to increase the

understanding of the ways in which the Visual Arts programme may contribute to

reform efforts so that graduates can engage in visual production both domestically

and globally. Data were collected from students, graduates, lecturers, artists, and

investors through a maximal variation sampling method. The multiple sources of

evidence were in the form of interviews, document analysis, and visual materials,

from which themes, patterns, and relationships emerged. The results indicated a

negative relationship between students’ understanding of the market and their

decision to engage in the market activity.

Keywords: Cultural industries, cultural policy, curriculum, market, Art,

stakeholders.

Introduction

This study focuses on the developments in higher education in the Arts at UWI, Trinidad and

Tobago with a specific reference to its Visual Arts programme. Two problems emerged from the

study: the educators’ ability to craft curricula to meet the growing demands of a competitive

global culture, and the implementation of effective policy so that curriculum change can lead to

greater participation in the global market place.

The Department of Creative and Festival Arts is located within the Humanities and

Education Department at University of the West Indies (UWI, Trinidad and Tobago). It offers

three undergraduate degrees, two postgraduate diplomas, and five certificates. In 1986, Creative

and Festival Arts was established to provide a quality education in the Arts that entails training

and practice that is both rewarding to the artist and a benefit to the community. The reward entails

the ability for artists to receive training within their own cultural community and articulate a

visual language that the society can understand. The department prides itself on engaging in

discussions and practices that make it internationally competitive. This competitive status is

important for students and society as a whole, because the university is part of the international

academic community. This global agenda necessitates that the department produces competent

individuals who are able to compete in a world economic market in the 21st century (Jules, 2010).

The problem addressed by this study is the perceived disconnect between the Visual Arts

curriculum offered by UWI and the demands of the market place as seen by stakeholders in the



Arts. This evidence is articulated in the available research on the issue, the statistical data

compiled by UNESCO on employment of artists in Trinidad and Tobago, and the position of

employers surveyed in the market. The larger context of this disconnect may be tied to policy

decisions on the part of the government, which, though keenly aware of the value of its cultural

assets, has not fully explored all the economic potential (Nurse & Nicholls, 2011). Additionally,

within the educational tradition, Art is not given as much emphasis as other subjects. This reality

has affected the infrastructure of educational institutions, signaling a need to improve art

education at the tertiary level by providing highly trained staff and professional development of

arts intermediaries (Murray, 2009).

Graduates from the Department of Creative and Festival Arts have many challenges as

they embark on creative careers in the arts (Nurse, 2006). UWI admission is based on a

meritorious system that was instituted at inception. This policy was a consequence of a limited

availability of instructors and so the subject areas were divided into divisions called faculties

(Campbell, 1997). This system still remains today and such polarities among disciplines do not

allow for any real experimentation and exploration of alternative ideas (Nettleford, 2006). Such

inflexibility presents significant challenges for the university as it prepares to integrate itself in

the global community. The core curriculum of the visual arts contains both theoretical and

practical courses. Students engage in studio practice - painting, drawing, and design - as well as

history of art from the Caribbean perspective. There is no emphasis on interdisciplinary studies

and the curriculum is specialized with no focus on market knowledge and art practice. Hence,

the educational training in the arts when evaluated within the context of the market is weak and

experts in various artistic disciplines such as curatorial experience and critical analysis of work

by critics are lacking (Minshall, 2010; Nurse, 2006).

Review of the Literature

A Global Perspective - Role of Effective Curriculum in Higher Education in the Arts

Gaztambide-Fernandez (2008) described the role of the artist in society as a construct of the public

imagination, and that such a perception presents challenges for curriculum formation in the

contemporary society. A gap in the literature was identified by Gaztambide-Fernandez (2008) who

believed that a robust approach to curriculum formation in the arts was important so that students

would see themselves as producers of cultural goods. A theory on curriculum is needed where the

activity of learning for students should be an effort to embrace their cultural heritage and see

themselves as cultural workers within their environment. This approach places the curriculum

within the context of contemporary society and so challenges its more traditional approaches. An

established theoretical curriculum model is important to meet the needs of an ever changing world.

Patesan and Bumbuc (2010) explored curriculum in higher education as crucial in not only

addressing the social ills within society, but also in preparing competent and functional citizens.

They contended that by changing the perception about learning, higher educational institutions

produce more innovative curricula. Furthermore, when problem-based courses are integrated into

programmes, learning becomes more experiential, corporative, and inquiry-based (Justice, Rice,

Roy, & Hudspith, 2009). This approach is relevant when addressing the complexities that

characterise our contemporary existence. Richmond (2009) examined the content of the Art

curriculum beyond postmodernism and posited no uniformed idea of Art education can exist.

Students of Art should engage unapologetically in any contemporary philosophical aesthetics and

art practice. However, as noted by Patesan and Bumbuc (2010), students must be conscious of

their immediate social realities. For Richmond (2009), students functioning within this postmodern

48 W. Smith

setting are keenly aware of the nuances of artistic engagement and freely question assumptions

about their creative work.

Zimmerman (2009) argued that it is essential to reshape how curriculum is viewed and to

institute a new vision for the future. In addition to stating the importance of creativity as central to

reforming curriculum in Art education, Zimmerman (2009) noted a need for a more direct focus

on creative exploration where the individual needs of the student are central and cultural practices

are informed. The absence of substantial scholarship is evident when discussing the concept of

creativity in the domain of art education. At the annual convention organized by the National Arts

Education Association, curriculum modification was discussed infrequently (Livingston, 2010).

Institutions should explore the idea of creativity and challenge traditional pedagogies. Failure to

find alternative pedagogical practices in contemporary educational settings can result in creative

inertia (Livingston, 2010). Freedman (2010) observed the historical shift in the idea of student

creativity now presented in art education with a deliberate attempt to remove creativity from the

language in educational policy. The creative process is defined as a reflective activity where

students are guided towards a discovery of their own creative interests (Freedman, 2010).

Creativity moves beyond the technical acquisition of skills to create art to encompass a wider array

of skills, such as the potential for cultural leaders to present new ideas to society.

Cunliffe (2008) explored the tension that exists between the understanding of knowledge

and creativity. Whereas Zimmerman (2009) argued for the need to identify and explore the idea of

creativity, Cunliffe (2008) examined the dichotomy that prevails in which less knowledge leads to

more effective creative practices. A paradigm shift is needed when examining this relationship

between knowledge and creativity so that the understanding of both elements is seen as a cognitive

process having the power to regulate one’s own creative practice as a form of self-assessment. Art

schools face a daunting task when establishing a curriculum that challenges the societal perception

of artists while equipping their graduates with practical skills to survive in the contemporary world.

Neher (2010) reviewed the economic returns on the investment for Art graduates in the United

States. Economic conditions have a tremendous impact on the success of artists, determining their

job prospects or their survival as independent artists in the economic society. Neher (2010) saw

the stark reality facing graduates of a dwindling collectors’ base, stemming from the downturn in

the economy. Despite these adverse findings, the need to shape curriculum in order to sustain

graduates is part of the larger global discussion. After studying visual cultural education in the

United Kingdom, Steers (2007) concluded that curriculum in the arts must give graduates a sense

of purpose and relevance while awakening their social conscious and sense of history. The

shortcomings of assessment practices are rigid and a more flexible model is needed with emphasis

on development and progress over time.

McDonald and Van Der Horst (2007) made the argument for the importance of curriculum

and assessment in higher education when they examined higher art education in South Africa.

They foresaw the growing demands that globalisation would place on world cultures. The need to

preserve history by integrating indigenous forms of culture with the practical demands of a global

curriculum is imperative. Educational management must be the priority in order to achieve an

effective educational system. Education aims to produce citizens who will become engaged in their

communities within the globalized economic system. Smith (2009) agreed with this assessment as

articulated by McDonald and Van Der Horst (2007) and introduced the concept of transformative

pedagogy. Within this framework, managers of art education design curricula that create a context

where sociopolitical issues are central to the lives of students. Making curriculum relevant not only

for society and its heritage, but for the individual student engaged in the experience of learning, is


an indication of sound educational practice. Bamford’s (2010) research established that any

experience of the arts for students must relate to their specific needs and be carefully constructed.

Art Entrepreneurship

Art Entrepreneurship is an emerging field in most institutions of higher learning. The common

structure is the alliance between Arts and Business schools in building Art Entrepreneurship

programmes. The programme of study focuses on the development of innovative ideas that

promote intellectual development and entrepreneurial behavior within the context of the arts (Arts

Entrepreneurship, 2010). Entrepreneurship education must move beyond business school models

to equip students for the changing dynamics of the labor markets (Shinnar, Pruett, & Toney, 2009).

Beckman (2007) revealed the need to incorporate Art Entrepreneurship into the curriculum in

colleges within the United States. The research demonstrated a lack of consensus regarding how

the subject matter should be taught. Beckman’s findings pointed to differences in teaching

philosophy and ideology, and in some cases, a generational divide among faculty members. In an

investigation of entrepreneurship, Shinnar et al. (2009) found that faculty perceived students as

less entrepreneurial than the students’ own self-perception. The researchers attributed this

difference to students’ optimism and the faculty projecting their values and expectations on them.

Emerging artists are thrust into a volatile market that is difficult to navigate (Wilmering, 2008). A

transformed view of artistic practice and the intricacies of market knowledge indicate the

importance for educational institutions to respond to the demands of the market into which

graduates will enter. It is widely accepted that a design education prepares talented designers to

engage in the economic and cultural development of society (Szeto, 2010). Despite these notions,

the number of U. S. institutions requiring a course in the business of Art is relatively low and the

data show that most artists outside the major market sell their work on their own (O’Neil, 2008).

Corris (2009) highlighted the paradoxical relationship between the economy and creativity

suggesting that practicing artists and graduates newly entering the art market possess sufficient

cunning to understand the changing dynamics of market forces and to survive in an ambivalent

market economy. This position resonates strongly with Beckman’s (2007) final observation of Art

Entrepreneurship education regarding the need to consolidate philosophical and ideological

differences in order to provide students with the succinct understanding of the concept of

entrepreneurship. This knowledge is crucial in order to function in the present market economy.

D’Intino, Ross, Byrd, and Weaver (2010) described the implementation of a general education

course on Entrepreneurship for undergraduate studies. The course was designed to develop

creative and innovative skills and equip learners with appropriate entrepreneurial behaviors. The

researchers observed that a course in entrepreneurial studies was relevant as students were opting

to establish themselves as entrepreneurs in the form of self-employment.

Brkic (2009) provided an overview looking at curricula in Arts Management at both the

undergraduate and graduate levels. An appeal was made for curricula to provide administrators

not only with an understanding of managerial concepts and economic knowledge, but with a direct

focus on the Arts. Like Beckman (2007) and Shinnar et al. (2009), who identified the different

ideological views regarding Art Entrepreneurship, Brkic (2009) pointed to the need to define the

field where Art is placed within its social context and understood as a creative and innovative

process. The individual entrepreneur in the Visual Arts integrates the artist with the Art manager.

This synthesis has important implication for the understanding of Arts Entrepreneurship as

management in the Arts is not exclusively the case of management, but posits Arts as its primary

focus. Brkic (2009) further advocated for Art Management programmes to be more

50 W. Smith

interdisciplinary and engage different intellectual analysis of the subject matter. Ultimately, Brkic

(2009) found that the teaching of Arts Management must be done within the same environment as

the teaching of students of Art.

Art, Aesthetics, and Market Value

The emergence of marketing of art, led to the formation of a theoretical concept that ignored the

fundamental needs of the sector; this included its philosophical and aesthetic underpinnings (Fillis,

2006). When examining the theory and practice of Art, there is a general consensus within the

creative industrial sector that the market structure is ill prepared for the creativity of the artist and

production of authentic work (Nikodijevic, 2010). Panero (2009) reviewed the characteristics of

the Art market and observed its inability to appreciate the range of artistic quality. Nikodijevic

(2010) saw Art and money as a speculative relationship in which money creates a dichotomy

between the self-sufficient enterprise of the Art world and the ongoing questions that accompany

the investment in art and the expected returns on that investment. This anxiety is further felt among

policy makers who must allocate funding towards the Arts given the reality of a dubious art market

(Klamer & Petrova, 2007).

Fillis (2006) extended the argument of the demarcation between philosophical idealism

and the realities of market demand. Many working in the creative sector see reputation as a more

significant factor where recognition supersedes economic gains. Art is driven entirely by taste and

therefore has less to do with performance. As gatekeepers, buyers and sellers together assess the

value based on their idea of what constitutes “good” art and “bad” art and this informs the market

(Currid, 2007). Nikodijevic (2010) explained this behavior in the market place as the effect of an

aesthetic syndrome; the world of creativity fears attaching monetary value to its product. Whereas

price represents the quantitative dimensions signifying profitable gains, a work of Art and its value

is a qualitative element with specific characteristics that defines its aesthetic worth. Observers of

such market behavior appealed to market researchers to identify a shift in the art market paradigm

because the theoretical and methodological precepts that have worked for other marketing domains

may not be applicable to the creative industry (“Producing and Consuming Arts,” 2009). Yogev

(2009) believed that any impact on the social definition of artistic quality and worth must entail an

active engagement in the market. The level of uncertainty remains high in the market place

regarding the value of cultural goods.

Harrison (2009) explored this issue of creativity, aesthetics, and the rationality

characteristic of the market. Creative products function outside the domains of the market and do

not adhere to the same rules as other consumer products. Schonfeld and Reinstaller (2007)

identified this distinction between consumption products and artistic work. Consumption products

are not objectively evaluated; instead, art and cultural goods are socially constructed and their

value, as pointed out by Yogev (2009), is determined by opinions of insiders (critics, museum

curators, and artists) of the art world. For Harrison (2009), this process of evaluating art can be

problematic in the traditional market environment. When Art becomes a commodity, it creates

ambiguity in the market place. The subjective nature of Art is not beholden to the same evaluative

schema predicated on economic theory as it is seen as being outside the rational framework of the

market.

Herrero (2010) looked at the sociology between art and economics and how art may be

calculated in the market place. The work of art is marketed through catalogues, in the case of

paintings, and the catalogues become an important promotional tool. The paintings in the catalogue

and their price offer buyers the opportunity to experience the work and ascertain its market value.


The catalogue serves as an important marketing device relegating the artwork into the sphere of

an economic good without the interaction of humans determining its value. Herrero (2010) saw

this approach as an opportunity to merge cultural and economic capital so that the aesthetic

experience is not reduced when negotiating price. The creative market enterprise is able to function

freely, maintaining the integrity of the cultural goods.

This idea of pricing is important in the market place when examining the investment in art

as a consumer good. The investment in art is an alternative during economic hardship (Kraeussl &

Logher, 2010). The investigators see this move as logical because the art market is perceived as a

place for the production of luxury goods and artworks are purchased during more economically

prosperous times. Investors see this as the opportunity to diversify their portfolios, but this decision

to invest in art is the result of the availability of price data where databases, indices, and market

reports become the tools to pursue analysis by investors, who can then evaluate their financial

performance in the market.

Despite this behaviour among investors, Kraeussl and Logher’s (2010) findings

demonstrate how ineffective this investment can be because artworks are seen as distinct from

other assets such as stocks, bonds, and real estate. The investment in art serves mainly for the

enjoyment of aesthetic pleasure and social status and does not translate easily into interests

received by stocks and bonds. Mandel (2009) agreed with this distinction between the investment

of art and other equities of investment. The real value of art is determined by the owner of the art

piece and the returns that come with its acquisition as a signal of wealth of ownership. Determining

the value of art and price remains a bit arbitrary and can be puzzling. The highest price for work

is paid when the artist is deceased; however, large amount have been paid for the works of living

artists (Goetzmann, Renneboog, & Spaenjers, 2011).

Support for the Arts and Implications for the Economy and Policy Makers

Many countries allocate a substantial amount of funding for the support of the Arts and corporate

funding for the Arts can yield benefits such as building corporate image (Erbschloe, 2009). Chong

and Bogan (2010) explored public funding for the Arts in the Canadian contemporary art market.

The researchers identified the various institutions receiving public funding for the Arts. Overall,

there has been a push by governmental agencies for institutions receiving funding to seek private

sponsorship in the forms of grants through businesses and corporations. Private sponsorship comes

with its own risk. The monies allocated for sponsorship by private organizations are cyclical and

dependent upon economic conditions; in times of financial hardship, funds are diminished

(Erbschloe, 2009). Dewey (2008) argued the need to engage in comparative policy research so as

to embark on an understanding of the concept from an international perspective. This is important

when formulating a context in which to examine the construction of local policy. For Dewey

(2008), an increasingly global universe has led to the formation of shared ideas surrounding policy

development in the arts.

Creative and Cultural Industries

It has been well established, that within this global market environment, artistic goods can play a

significant role in economic development is great (UNESCO, 2008b). Throsby (2008) examined

the concept of cultural industries and its application to a traditional industrial model. There is an

ongoing debate when seeking to define the culture industry and this speaks to the larger issue of

the industry’s complexity. The seemingly varied definitions among culture, creativity, and industry

account for the confusion and warrant a consistent understanding of the concepts. The researcher

52 W. Smith

pointed to the fact that the definition may be tied to political motivation when making policy

decisions for the sector. Cultural goods and services may be judged outside the purview of

traditional application of other goods and services because these goods’ values are determined

based on the worth that society attributes to them rather than any condition of their use and function

for consumption. Similarly, creative goods may be defined as efficient technological products that

may be labeled as creative endeavors. Throsby suggested that culture industries be a subset to the

wider creative industry in order to satisfy the industrial theoretical model. Dell’era (2010) looked

at the synthesis of both models, linking cultural goods to the creative industrial product sector.

More recently, there have been attempts to link art and business in order to enhance corporate

performance. Dell’era (2010) observed the impetus among corporations to collaborate with artists

on projects because it is assumed that this collaboration may help appeal to the emotional

sensibilities of consumers.

Throsby (2008), however, believed that there remained a clear distinction between goods

for commercial value and cultural goods that are imbued with a value that cannot be articulated in

measureable terms. Pratt (2008), in discussing cultural industries and the production process, saw

the dualism between culture and economy. A more conclusive definition of cultural industries,

beyond the general notion that the entire industrial sector is now being defined within the context

of culture, is needed. The researcher further underscored the tendency of observers to describe

culture in general terms, specifically in noneconomic language, when instituting public policy. A

distinction is necessary between an understanding of culture for instrumental purposes and culture

aimed at developing the industry. Seaman (2009) evaluated the developments of cultural

economics and noted the daunting challenges and similarities of researchers pioneering in other

fields of economics.

Despite these various understandings of the concept of cultural industries, the contribution

of the sector to the development of the overall national economy is manifested in the many studies

on the issue. The culture industry has the ability to create employment opportunities and boost

regional development (Leriche & Daviet, 2010). The role that culture now plays in the economic

life of society is a settled argument and it is no longer seen as an activity exclusively relegated to

the social life of community. This ideological shift in the synthesis between culture and economy

signals a change in the history of capitalism.

Regional Perspective - Visual Arts and the Market Economy in Trinidad and Tobago

The effects of globalisation, specifically as it relates to developing nations and the educational

initiatives, have been given priority by regional governments. The role of human capital

development as an engine of future economic growth has long been proven. Cohen and Soto (2007)

showed that when correcting for measurement error, human capital contributes more to economic

growth than physical capital. A highly productive trained workforce is an important production

factor that is complementary to technological capital and is fundamental to the adequate

functioning of the knowledge economy (Hunter & Lee, 2009). One of the most important roles for

higher education is to prepare its outgoing students for entry into the workplace. The present state

of the global economic system has made this connection more poignant.

The expansion of higher education in the Caribbean has seen the emergence of national

and private international institutions that have challenged the very existence of UWI as the main

provider of tertiary education (Ali, 2007). The relationship between curricula and instruction and

the knowledge, skills, and abilities of workers was the topic of many government meetings. In

April 2010, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and


the Institute for Higher Education in Latin America and the Caribbean (IESALC) organised the

Caribbean Conference on Higher Education. The objective of the conference was to foster greater

collaboration among regional states and to explore ideas that would solidify educational systems.

The region is faced with the demands of an emerging global economy for which participation

requires that all nations are competitive and that they establish a relevant voice in the global market

place (Wint, 2010).

The region’s educational objectives must include the awareness of economics and the role

of developing human resources. Schrouder (2008), in examining educational efficiency in the

Caribbean, drew a parallel between education and economics, arguing that one of the mandates of

education must be devoted to increasing the productivity of labor, which invariably improves a

nation’s ability to earn income. Many nations in the Caribbean suffer from high income inequality

and the economic volatility of the nation affects employment and income (Bourne, 2009). The

Gini coefficient is a statistic that measures the extent of income inequality among citizens in a

nation (World Bank, 2011). A value of one implies extreme inequality; a value of zero implies no

income inequality (World Bank, 2011). Coupled with relatively low per capita incomes, the World

Bank ranks many of the Caribbean nations as either low- or low middle-income (World Bank,

2011).

In this global environment, knowledge and the accessibility of information have formulated

a paradigm in which creativity and artistic goods can be used to promote economic growth and

development (UNESCO, 2008a). It is an inarguable fact that Caribbean cultural products have

established themselves firmly within the global market; however, this achievement has come with

little policy support at the regional and local levels of government (Burke, 2007). Nettleford

(2006), examining the Cultural Studies program at UWI, foresaw that the data retrieved from such

an initiative could be an important step towards framing a model for social and economic

development while informing policy decisions. The importance of culture and, by extension, the

arts as a conduit of economic and social development should resonate strongly within the region

because the Caribbean has long marketed itself as a cultural center. Policy makers in higher

education must formulate curricular in the arts in order to train nationals to create art sophisticated

enough to produce marketable cultural products (Nurse, 2006). To use the Arts as a possible

avenue towards social and economic development, a paradigm shift must occur in attitudes

towards the arts and its curriculum. UWI, charged with the responsibility of developing human

resources in the region, has the added task of providing future graduates with an understanding of

their cultural history and social heritage (Netttleford, 2006).

In today’s changing economic global environment, employers increasingly expect new

graduates to have key knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform in the market place. The

business community has concerns with respect to the viability of subjects taught in equipping

students to be productive in the job market (Caribbean Knowledge and Learning Network

[CKLN], 2006). Employers are interested in workers who can adapt to the changing global

environment that demands flexibility (CKLN, 2006). Consequently, tertiary education may

effectively respond to the labor market signals, producing a highly skilled and innovative labor

force that is dynamic and relevant to the social and economic needs of society (The Ministry of

Science, Technology and Tertiary Education [MSTTE], 2010). Technological changes within

individual business sectors have resulted in the demand for employees who can effectively

interface with the emerging technology (National Training Agency [NTA], 2012). Through

modifying its curriculum and policies, UWI can meet these challenges (Gordon, 2007).

54 W. Smith

There is an urgency to train journalists, critics, and historians to document the history of

art and inspire greater public debate on the arts (Murray, 2009). Survey results indicate that 74%

of employers believe that the university does a fairly good job when preparing graduates for the

workplace, with 22% disagreeing (CKLN, 2006). The findings suggest that there is disconnect

between universities and employers involving what is required in today’s labor market (CKLN,

2006). New emerging markets demand a new caliber of stakeholders as employees are expected

to be multi-skilled and competent in their respective fields (NTA, 2012).UWI must therefore

inform its teaching practices in response to the new demands of society, economy, and the

business environment (Gordon, 2007).

A new and innovative approach to curriculum that values creativity and adaptability of

workers while adopting an international model in learning and best practices is imperative for

the country to become a leading knowledge-based economy (MSTTE, 2010). Given these data,

with a small adjustment to the Visual Arts curriculum to reflect these changes, new graduates

can be better prepared to compete in the world of work and the global market environment. There

are negative consequences such as an inflexible curriculum when disciplines continue to be

specialized within academic communities (Yang, 2011). The university must establish a strong

reliance on market practice and less on theory for the Visual Arts degree and develop a strong

programme of study that will produce functioning artists in the society (Nurse, 2006).

University graduates are heavily recruited by employers in Trinidad and Tobago and

move into a range of work areas. For students in the visual arts, any attempt to produce work

with the aim of gaining access to the market economy is minimal and many artists cannot

financially provide for themselves from the sales of their visual work (Nurse, 2006). Despite

actively producing work, they must confront the lack of availability of exhibiting space for sale

of their work (Murray, 2009). The Trinidad and Tobago Ministry of Community Development,

Culture and the Arts conducted a survey of the culture industry and data within the visual art

sector showed that 77% of art galleries surveyed present fewer than twelve shows per year which

is the equivalent to one per month. Art galleries are generally privately owned and exhibit mainly

established artists. The large community of artists seeking exhibitions are excluded and lack the

connections to top galleries (Ministry of Community Development, Culture and the Arts

MCDCA, 2015). Consequently, graduates in the visual arts who become artists must seek other

gainful employment, with 60% to 70% having to combine jobs to survive or accept employment

in the teaching service, police service, and other public sector or unskilled jobs (UNESCO, 2007,

p.1). UWI has supported these data, reporting that a small percentage of graduates find

employment related to their degrees but many go into areas outside their discipline. This lack of

market access and the ability for self-sufficiency through the creation of art can have considerable

ramifications for the creative industry because the most talented artists migrate to more

developed economies (Burke, 2007). The creative industry receives very little support and is not

viewed as a viable economic sector (Nurse, 2009). As a result, the ineffective management and

organization of stakeholders continues to perpetuate itself within the region (Nurse, 2009;

UNESCO, 2008). This inadequacy is reflected in the lack of consistent economic data and the

existence of an efficient system in which to evaluate and track cultural activities (Nurse &

Nicholls, 2011). The national discussion on the creative industry in Trinidad and Tobago and the

larger Caribbean is gaining momentum because regional governments have begun to shift their

focus towards the arts and implement policy initiatives that would utilize the arts in order to

resolve economic challenges faced by states (Burke, 2007).


From an investor’s viewpoint, the risk of investing in art is exponentially high (Forrest

& Marshall, 2011). Visual artists face the high cost of producing work with very little hope of

economic return on this investment (Nurse, 2006). Less than 40% respondents in the Visual Arts

surveyed by the Ministry had exhibited in commercial galleries and 73% creative works were

included in public collections both domestically and aboard (MDCA, 2015). These data suggest

the difficulty of participating in the market because of the high cost of showing. As a result, the

graduates in the arts are at the mercy of government bureaucracy because no standard policy has

been adopted for the support and funding of the visual arts (Nurse, 2009). In 1997, the Artists

Coalition of Central Islands was formed to articulate the demands of the artists and to lobby for

policies and legislation that are sensitive toward the interest of artists functioning within the

marketplace (Artists Coalition of Trinidad and Tobago, ACTT, 2011); however, market

accessibility remains limited for visual artists in Central Islands because many market sectors are

highly concentrated (Nurse, 2009). Cultural entrepreneurs experience great difficulty when they

attempt to obtain financing from the traditional banking sector (Nurse, 2009). Currently, the

university system has begun to implement programs that may redress some of the issues of

cultural production and market participation. The postgraduate program in Creative Design:

Entrepreneurship is designed to produce practitioners knowledgeable in the area of market

activity and management. The Department of Creative and Festival Arts has also hosted a series

of symposia with the aim of creating a context in which art education in the Caribbean can be

articulated. In 1997 the department, in collaboration with UNESCO, hosted the Towards 2000

Arts in Education Symposium, entitled, “Who Are We?” This symposium was followed by

Declaration of the 2nd Caribbean International Arts Education Symposiumin June 2005. The

assembly of experts, practitioners in the arts and cultural stakeholders, all acknowledged that

progress has been made with respect to art education in the region. However, there remains

increasing evidence that the educational and occupational goals as defined within the context of

Caribbean arts fall short in meeting the agenda set forth by international and universal standards

of education (Gibbons & Lyndersay, 2007). Art education should be relevant to social and

educational institutions and the work environment (UNESCO, 2007a).

Despite these initiatives by the Department of Creative and Festival Arts, the role of the

arts and its assimilation into the core elements of society was a challenge for the arts education

symposium (Gibbons & Lyndersay, 2007). There was also no documentation of the visual culture

(Nurse, 2006). Peter Minshall (2010), one of the most significant and respected Central Islands

carnival artists of the 21st century, argued that the university must play an integral role in

engaging in critical analysis and forming a bridge between intellectual activities and the realities

of the social and cultural community.

Methodology

Qualitative data were used to identify the curriculum needs and attitudes towards the market as

articulated by students, graduates, and the business community and thus construct a viable

understanding of the phenomenon. Merriam (2009) posited that qualitative case study is often used

because of its ability to provide insight, discovery, and interpretation, rather than test hypotheses.

The study included twelve participants who were selected using maximal variation method based

on their knowledge and experience of the phenomenon. For this research study, two students were

selected based on their level of study in the programme, and two graduates of the program were

56 W. Smith

selected based on the date of their graduation. Lecturers were selected based on their work

experience and field of discipline. Three artists were selected based on the type of work they create

while two investors were chosen based on work typical of their investment.

The qualitative data were in the form of interviews, audio visual materials, and personal

documents. The interviews were conducted on one-on-one via email to gather the feelings and

reactions of the participants. The interview was asynchronous thereby giving participants the

opportunity to respond at their convenience. James (2007) explored email interviews as a

methodology in academic research with concluding evidence that email interviews produced

narratives representative of participants constructed lives, thinking, and reflections of experiences.

In addition, email interviews allow participants to retell their stories in a more structured way

revising information prior to sending. Electronic files can raise serious ethical concerns because

they are normally insecure (Parker, 2008). To counteract this problem the data were coded and a

computer file developed along with a password for access. Another source of information was in

the form of documents, in this case, private journals. Creswell (2008) articulated the advantages

of journals as presenting the considered thoughts of participants about the central experience of

the phenomenon. The journals were structured to ask broad general questions of the phenomenon

to which participants entered their thoughts freely. The audio visual material collected images of

creative work by the participants and a discussion of these works as cultural products within the

traditional market environment. These data gave the participants in this study the opportunity to

share their perceptions about the reality of market forces and how their work fit into this context

(Creswell, 2008). All respondents were given two weeks to complete the interview and visual

artifacts with an additional week to complete the electronic journal. Participants were made aware

that follow-up questions may be asked after their initial responses are recorded. They were notified

in advance when the follow-up will occur and the specific time frame for the responses.

These data were triangulated from the multiple sources and analysed for specific themes

and trends. Creswell (2008) described triangulation as the corroboration of all the evidence derived

from individuals, types of data and method of data collection in order to develop accurate and

credible findings.

Limitations of the Study

Although the study focus was policy implementation, general administrative aspects of higher

education were not specifically examined nor were any other aspects of curriculum except for its

ability to develop competency in market place. The focus is devoted to a single university in

Trinidad and Tobago with specific attention to its Visual Arts programme. Other artistic careers

were not studied and therefore the data were limited to the visual tradition excluding the carnival

arts and crafts. The findings may present different conclusions when compared to other artistic

disciplines and may not be generalized to the entire scope of artistic expressions within the

Trinidad and Tobago society. The study nonetheless provides an important context where students,

through modification of the curriculum, can compete successfully in the market.

Findings

Business Knowledge and the Art Curriculum

All stakeholders in the study unanimously agreed that there is a relationship between curriculum

and market activity. The pursuit of art as a career is often related to the promise of professional

and financial rewards as one graduate expressed: “When a person makes the decision in doing a

career in whatever field is because they picture themselves working and living out from it.” As


such, the training received ought to develop not only proficient studio practices but business

acumen among students. Both graduates and student participants discussed the relevance of

business knowledge to their programme and its value in their overall development as studio artists

including the ability to function in the market. Students are interested in obtaining robust training

that would inevitably prepare them for their career and give them an advantage in the market

place as one student noted, “I think it is important because it would allow a more practical

understanding of art and design as a commodity.” This relationship between the knowledge

obtained within the educational and the practical engagement with the world is substantiated by

Barnett (2009) who expressed the opinion that knowledge alone cannot produce any significant

change to the world but producing graduates with the needed skills who will actively engage with

the world.

The curriculum must address the core principles of marketing along with the succinct

understanding of artistic activity in order to gain sufficient relevance to would-be Visual Arts

graduates. Given this perception, it is imperative that a programme in Business become a core part

of the curriculum because artists must address the nuances of a complex art market. Students are

only exposed to market knowledge through the initiative of lecturers but this activity is not woven

into the structure of the curriculum framework. There is however some disparity between lecturers

and students regarding when this opportunity to fully engage students should occur as one lecturer

stated: “I am old fashioned-I ask students to seek the resolution of imagination, the marketing I

leave to the professionals in the field, indeed necessary for making one’s living from Visual Arts.”

Students and graduates, however, agreed that the rudiments of business knowledge and training in

marketing strategies are essential when formulating curriculum and these can be taught in addition

to studio practice. There is the definite need to institute managerial concepts and economic

knowledge in curricular but with a direct focus on the arts (Brkic, 2009).

Art and Market Activity

The data suggest that the market is narrowly structured in a way that caters for the select few. As

a result of this imbalance, artists can become a bit apathetic about achieving any real financial

success. The pool of investors in the country is relatively small and so artists are competing in a

market that is limited. This inequity makes it difficult for new artists to navigate as they have not

built up a reputation and clientele to support their creative efforts. The alternative to work of a full-

time artist is seeking employment in other areas of the job market as one student suggested:

“Making a living as an artist is crucial to being a good artist. If you cannot sell art you would

have to choose another career to survive and this would divert your attention elsewhere. When an

artist chooses another career years may go by and you do not paint.” The production of creative

work ceases when graduates are forced into other areas of employment and are unable to sustain

their creative careers. The initiation into market activity for the Visual Arts graduate comes with

other challenges beside market knowledge. They must be able to evaluate the market structure and

how it impacts their overall performance. The understanding that the art market may be

exclusionary and is an important factor when planning for active engagement and graduates must

use all the resources in which to survive and to broader their marketability to the wider market

community.

Any programme of study geared to preparing Visual Arts students for successful careers

within the traditional market structure must entail the University’s commitment to partnering with

the business community and other productive sectors. The lack of artistic appreciation may have

to do with an uninformed public regarding the role of the Arts and value attached to creative goods.

58 W. Smith

As a result, the imperative for Art education is directed not only within the institutional walls but

to the general public. This strategic approach was echoed by one lecturer in the study who believes

that students should be given opportunities to travel and collaborative projects with art designers

and manufacturers to “remove the specter of leisure and hobby that haunt Visual Arts education.”

This sentiment was also shared by a student who lamented that, “internships were not sourced or

made available for students, even as apprentices to artists.” This attempt to integrate art in the

public sphere through collaborative projects would indeed broaden the understanding of the Arts

and its relevance to societal developments. All participants in the study agree that the programme

structure must therefore facilitate these opportunities for students to become part of the work

experience so they have an advantage in the market. This view is held by one investor participant

who proposed: “Through employment opportunities—and through mentoring and having spaces

the artists can call their work-space.”

The awareness of the relevance of the Arts and its relationship to the community may help

broaden the market and present additional opportunities to emerging artists. Having access to the

market is important to all participants and this will give them some leverage to effectively negotiate

the value of their creative products within the market.

The Market Value and the Industry

The role that curriculum plays in producing artists knowledgeable about market behavior is

important because it helps them determine the value of their creative goods within the market

structure. The Art market industry is structured in a way that may make it difficult for new artists

to penetrate as one investor described the market as: “Elitist - mainly those of the intelligentsia

tend to be patrons of artists.” The predictability of the market being reserved for the select few

places tremendous pressure on emerging artists and this may inadvertently affect the value of their

work in the market place as underscored by one student: “Most students are expected to keep their

work at very low prices devaluing the quality of the work. The local art market is mostly interested

in investing only in established artist. The work an artist produces is not marketed well enough,

the artist do not know buyers.”

Graduates often times see themselves as experiencing loss by devaluing their products in

order to participate in a market that is for the most part exclusionary. This feeling of alienation

within the market structure has an impact on students’ decision to engage in its activity. As such,

students are forced to engage in a variety of activities and experiences that would add value to

what they do and bring respect to their creative efforts. The challenge to produce quality work is

important to attaining respect and creating value for the work in the market place, however, the

artists must carefully balance the expectations of the market attaching value to the work and their

own estimation of its worth.

The pressure to negotiate for less value is a common problem and artists participants in the

study related the virtue of having confidence in the value of their creative goods while

compromising the possibility of sales. The pricing of work for creative artists is not stipulated and

each artist has a set of criteria motivated by personal interests and reference drawn from other

works on sale. The market industry is slowly emerging in Trinidad and Tobago. Artists,

particularly emerging talent, are alienated within its structure with little incentives to promote their

creative products. The predictability of the market, as an exclusive place, makes it very difficult

to penetrate and achieve financial success. The conflict of attaching a price to work explains the

larger problem related to establishing value to creative work-one that is affected by personal

decision rather than an efficient market system.


Recommendations

The data provided overwhelming evidence that the existing curriculum does not adequately

prepare graduates in becoming successful employees or entrepreneurs in the market environment.

Several recommendations were developed based on the evidence from the investigation that will

be beneficial for UWI administrators and stakeholders.

The university should create changes at the administrative and policy level. This entails

restructuring the curriculum to include Business Studies and Marketing as a core part of its

undergraduate studies in the Visual Arts. Students in the Visual Arts should be given greater

flexibility within their program such as allowing them to combine course from other disciplines

and faculties deemed necessary for informing their creative work. Access to technology is critical

for visual art students and can be incorporated in the delivery of instruction. Students can also

make use of technology to engage in marketing and self-promotion for their artistic products. As

part of the larger global initiative, the university ought to seek partnership with international

institutions in order to foster student exchanges thereby providing students with the experience of

international markets. There is a need to partner with corporations including manufacturing

industries who can use the creative skills of Visual Arts graduates. As part of the cultural mandate,

the government should provide financial support for artists by utilising their talents during cultural

and national festivities.

Recommendations for Further Study

The research focused specifically on the Visual Arts department of UWI, Trinidad and Tobago.

The Department of the Festival Center in the Creative Arts is made up of other disciplines

including: Music, Theatre Arts, and Carnival Arts. Further research is needed to assess the impact

of these other artistic genres on economic activity in Trinidad and Tobago. The research collected

qualitative data regarding the perceptions of stakeholders in the Visual Arts programme. Though

these data gave an insight into the problems that exist with content of the curriculum and provide

a call for action on the part of educational developers and policy makers, quantitative researchers

can provide data that will measure the economic contribution the Visual Arts make from

graduates of UWI. Further research may look at the administrative structure of the University

with the aim of assessing policy implementation and the various strategies used to monitor

effectiveness. The research suggests that corporations can utilise the Arts within their

establishment but a demonstration of the ways in which the creative skills of artists can improve

product brands in the domestic market may be needed.

Conclusion

The study confirmed that curriculum is indeed a predictor of market behaviour by students and

graduates in the Visual Arts in this instance. By modifying the exciting curriculum, graduates may

be better prepared for the market place. The Arts have long been marginalised within Trinidad and

Tobago, placed outside the domains of any major economic activity. The support for artists is

minimal and this has had a direct impact on production of cultural goods. As the island integrates

into global economic systems, it must consider the potential of all its human capital. The Arts can

provide opportunities to diversify its economic portfolio and expand its cultural industrial sector.

An important revelation derived from this study is the emergence of the advocacy of

students and graduates. Despite the obstacles, there still exist artists creating work as an expression

of their cultural identity. Having observed the fundamental global developments in education,

60 W. Smith

students and graduates of UWI are able to critically analyse their current situation and apply the

relevant issues to their local context. The original mission of UWI to develop regional leaders is

reiterated within the contemporary educational setting with the added demand for more active

engagement in all sectors of the national economy. The impetus among students and graduates to

evaluate their educational environments, measure it against those frameworks of international

standards, and demand change is an important transformation in student behavior that educational

developers cannot ignore.

The findings from the study must signal to policy makers in the arts that a shift in

perceptions is necessary if there is going to be any meaningful contribution to the Arts. Educational

developers, particularly in higher education, have a key role to play in formulating curriculum and

designing educational policy that equip graduates with the entrepreneurial skills and knowledge

for self-promotion within the market structure.

Trinidad and Tobago is poised for development on both the regional and global stage.

Inclusion in the international network demands that participating nations recognise the full

potential of both their human and physical capital. Educational policy must align itself with the

changing demands of an increasingly globalized world. It is in the interest of regional

governments, like Trinidad and Tobago, to engage in diverse economic activity investing wisely

in the country’s available resources while securing a healthy financial future for all of its citizens.

The results from this research should be the catalyst in initiating some viable economic activity

for the nation.

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ISSN 1727-5512



De-constructing Positionality in Academic Writing: A Reflexive Journey into

Voice

Juliet D. Jones

University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield, United Kingdom

This article discusses the value of exploring positionality in academic writing from a ‘de-

constructive’ standpoint. It commences with an explanation of the concept of de-

constructing positionality and the relationship between this and the textual reporting of

research. Throughout the article, emphasis is placed on viewing academic writing as a

reflexive, critical process that intentionally exposes the researcher’s philosophical stance;

this is linked to the concept of ‘voice’ and its relevance to educational and social issues.

The discussion also includes reference to the author’s personal journey into ‘de-

constructing’ positionality as a doctoral student conducting/‘writing-up’ “A Narrative

Inquiry into Experiences and Perceptions of Creative Education in Caribbean/OAS

Contexts”. The argument then shifts to highlighting the influence of positionality on the

textual reporting of the researcher’s methodological approach. Finally, the article

discusses ‘de-constructing’ positionality in academic writing as an ethical concern. This

forms part of an overall effort to substantiate the case for ‘de-constructing’ positionality

in academic writing as a reflexive journey into ‘voice’.

Keywords: Positionality, ‘de-construction’, reflexivity, ethics, values, voice

Introduction Re-defining Deconstruction

The concept of deconstruction emphasises the “proliferation of meanings” in a text (Balkin, 1995-

1996, p.5). “The deconstructor looks for ways in which one term…has been “privileged” over

[another] in a text, argument, historical tradition or social practice….Something may also be

privileged because it is considered more true, more valuable, more important or more universal”

(Balkin, 1995-1996, p. 2). In this article, the concept of the researcher’s positionality being made

explicit in academic writing is privileged. Derrida (1997), major proponent of the concept of

deconstruction, explains deconstruction as:

…an analysis which tries to find out how[the academic writer’s] thinking works or

does not work, to find the tensions, the contradictions, the heterogeneity within their

own corpus….What is the law of this self-deconstruction, this “auto-

deconstruction”? Deconstruction is not a method or some tool that you might apply

to something from the outside….Deconstruction is something which happens from

the inside” (p. 9).

Derrida’s assertion provides a useful point of reference for exploring positionality in

research-based academic writing. This means that in this article, an extended parameter of

meaning is applied to Derrida’s notion of deconstruction as being internally-driven. I refer to this



extended use of the term as “de-construction” to distinguish between Derrida’s original concept

of deconstruction of texts and my application of that notion to the process of reflexivity as an

internally-focused, critical and “de-constructive” self-analysis in the writing of academic texts

about research conducted.

The process of “de-constructing” positionality in academic writing is not limited to the

interpretation of academic texts using literary/textual analysis; the meaning is extended, here, to

mean that the researcher utilises the medium of academic writing to interrogate his/her position;

this position, ineluctably, would be based on the researcher’s personal experience and perception

of issues (Barrow, 2011; Neckles, 2013; Owens, 2014). This would necessitate the researcher’s

adopting a critical approach to reflexively probing his/her “unsaid assumptions that challenge

singular meaning” (Stern, 1996, p. 61) in the process “de-constructing” positionality in academic

text.

To use a practical analogy: De-constructing a home can provide materials for building

something new; this involves a process of critical reasoning, decision-making, selection and

recycling of materials that can contribute to the creation of a new house or other structure. So too,

texts (and words) overflow with multiple meanings and conceptual boundaries that can be applied

in many different ways as they are inserted into new contexts of experience, perception and

judgement (see Balkin, 1995-1996, p. 3). Research contexts are characterised by socio-historical

and situational factors in terms of issues such as power relationships, inequity and political agendas

that impact social and educational structures. This assumes deeper meaning in light of postcolonial

realities in the Caribbean/OAS region and further substantiates the case for applying a “de-

construction-al” approach to exploring positionality in academic writing about research.

In my view, the core issue in academic writing is not about which model of writing to adopt

for example, whether classical versus generative. Writing in any form, patterned after any model,

is a positional, communicative activity that ought to invite dialogic feedback. Essentially, to be

positional is to be positioned in relation to another. Awareness of one’s positionality during the

process of academic writing may be seen to provide opportunity for one to articulate--to voice, in

relation to another who also has a voice. In articulating his positionality as a researcher/writer,

Bourke (2014) tells us that “not only was the product of [his] research mediated through [his]

positionality, but the participation of the students was also mediated through [his]

positionality….[His] positionality may have served to create spaces in which students of color had

a voice” (p. 5).

This is a crucial point for researchers/academic writers to acknowledge because they

“represent centers of power, privilege, and status within.…institutions [and] the production of

scientific knowledge itself….Researchers also may have power and privilege from their class,

education, racial/ethnic backgrounds, or other identity positions ….[This carries] the potential for

reproducing systemic…inequities (Muhammad et al., 2014, pp. 3-6); see also other scholars in the

field of qualitative inquiry (who speak about positionality concerns pertaining to values, ethics,

reflexivity and voice) for example, Denzin (2015); Denzin and Lincoln (2005); Greenbank (2003);

Sikes (2010); Sultana (2007).

I should add, here, that while this discussion refers to the (educational) researcher in a

general sense, the term “researcher” also means the researcher/author. Hence, I have included an

account of my own experience of “de-constructing” positionality as a doctoral student conducting

a “Narrative Inquiry into Experiences and Perceptions of Creative Education in Caribbean/OAS

Contexts”. Thirdly, the argument progresses to highlighting reflexivity as essential to “de-

constructing” positionality in the textual reporting of the researcher’s methodological approach.

66 J. Jones

Finally, the article examines “de-constructing” positionality in academic writing as an ethical

concern.

“De-constructive” Disclosure

As has already been pointed out in this article, the concept of ‘voice’ has been highlighted as a

salient dimension of the process of “de-constructing” positionality in academic writing. In my own

experience as a doctoral student and emerging academic, the journey towards understanding and

beginning to develop my own researcher ‘voice’ started with my introduction to the term

“positionality” during our first study school session. I gravitated towards this word, not quite

comprehending at the time the depth and range of meaning it could connote. As I began to dialogue

with my academic supervisor, colleagues and research participants, I came to the realisation that

dialogic interaction with others is as important to the process of “de-constructing” positionality in

the process of academic writing, as it is to singularly exploring my reflexive self.

This kind of “dialogy” takes into account “the [persons]-in-a situation” to whom the

research [is] directed because research, like education, “… is not carried on by “A” for “B” or by

“A” about “B”, but rather by “A” with “B,” mediated by the world - a world which impresses and

challenges both parties, giving rise to views or opinions about it” (Freire, 1996, pp.74-75). This

speaks compellingly to the concept of “voice…[which] defines its own boundaries, its own

surfaces and depths in terms of who can voice...and asserts existence and identity….Data has no

existence without the voice of the witness…..Without [research participants’] expressing

viewpoints from their perspectives to each other, data cannot be made publicly visible” (Schostak

& Schostak, 2008, p. 212). Additionally, Owens (2015) makes an interesting link between

reflexivity and voice with reference to his recent study about popular youth music and media as a

culturally-informative approach for addressing health education, media literacy and diversity in

school; he affirms that dialogue that emphasises critical thinking and self-reflection may be

particularly helpful in cultivating creativity, curiosity and agency (p. 121).

In light of the previous assertions, to faithfully scribble in my research diary was not

enough; in order to initiate the process of internal self-analysis and giving voice to the revealed

“self”, as well as to others, required a dialogic interaction which would be reflected within the

research text being constructed. This necessitated a “stepping back from my [research] passion for

creative pedagogy (generally understood as involving the arts) and becoming more analytical”

(Neckles, 2013, p. 29). As I became more analytical, I began to interrogate where I stood in relation

to what my participants were saying to me during the conduct of narrative interviews and how that

compared with theoretical perspectives about creative education. I also began to question where

the knowledge being constructed through the research endeavour was situated within a

postcolonial historical context and in what ways I could best re-present the data and represent the

participants in the academic writing product.

The creation of performance dialogue provided a re/presentational resolution to some of

the questions with which I was grappling. There is not space here, to elaborate. Suffice it to say,

however, that in my attempt to engage deeply in a process of “de-constructing” my positionality

in relation to my research focus, there emerged a creative way for me to re-present the data in

writing, and to privilege the participants without whom there would be no study. I must add,

though, that this was not easy for me to do as I had to first of all critically explore my understanding

of the field of creative education in relation to my own experiences. This exploration revealed

tensions in the field that I needed to comprehend by situating it within the body of relevant theory.

In this way, I was able to give ‘voice’ to my research participants and myself as researcher/writer,


attempting to visibilise my narrative data using dramatic text.

Moreover, learning to reflexively “de-construct” positionality facilitated my vicarious

experience of academic writing as a method of inquiry as posited by Richardson and St. Pierre

(2008) who assert that “researchers today have the advantage of operating in a postmodern context

in which there exist multitudinous approaches to acquiring and sharing knowledge [and they add

that] the [writing] product cannot be separated from the producer, the mode of production, or the

method of knowing” (pp. 476-478). In addition, “there are multiple social realities and ways of

seeing and making sense of the world…and the knowledge that one constructs [and disseminates

via academic writing], emanates from personal life stories and…subjective interpretations of the

situations and circumstances experienced” (Neckles, 2014, p. 29).

Reflexively Writing-up Methodology and Procedures

Reflexivity is integral to the process of “de-constructing” positionality in academic writing.

Neckles (2013) describes reflexivity as a “process of hermeneutic reflection” during which

experiences are being interpreted based on a heightened awareness of our personal responses to

those experiences and an evaluation of those responses against the influence of social and cultural

contexts (p. 35).

Contrary to the position of postmodern social science researchers who “attempt to expose

the role of the researcher as field-worker and minimise his role as author” (Denzin & Lincoln,

2005, p. 174), the deconstructionist perspective puts forward the idea that the influence of the

researcher is scrutinised vis a vis the textual reporting of research events and this is “de-

constructed” in order to expose authorial biases and notions (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005, p. 714).

Cunliffe (2003), furthermore, states that the deconstructionist approach regarding positionality is

one by which social science scholars have challenged conventional conceptions of social reality,

knowledge, and the validity of our methods of inquiry. Many have criticised the aim of mainstream

social science to provide an absolute, objective view of the world and have called for a reflexive

stance in which we recognize all social activity, including research itself, as “an ongoing

endogenous accomplishment”.

To “de-construct” positionality in academic writing about educational research also means

to set out to critically and inferentially explore the value-based assumptions that influence the

researcher’s methodology and methods (see Higgs, 2002, p. 170). Becker (1998), in “Tricks of the

Trade: How to Think about Your Research while Doing It”, asserts that the statements researchers

make may be regarded as a means of focusing on something the authors want everyone to see as

problematic (p. 162) because it is not possible to do research that is not inherently influenced by

personal and political sympathies. “In the greatest variety of subject matter and in work done by

all different methods at our disposal, we cannot avoid taking sides, for reasons firmly based in

social structure” (Becker, 1967, p. 239).

I am also challenged to look critically into how my methodological approach for my

“Narrative Inquiry into Experiences and Perceptions of Creative Education in Caribbean/OAS

Contexts” may be “de-constructed” in writing-up of the study; I must consider and make explicit,

what might be some of the underlying value-laden ontological assumptions impacting what I have

chosen to emphasise. These assumptions concerning the nature of reality in the research context

are situated within my interpretivist view of an educational world that has been “subjectively

experienced” (Sikes, 2004, p. 4) and politically impacted (also see Barrow, 2011; Freire, 1973,

1996; Halasz, 2003; Hall & Benn, 2000; Neave, 1979; Williams, 2012).

By reflexively looking into my own experience as a researcher, I can acknowledge the

68 J. Jones

previous assertion to be relevant to my research project which also included an auto/biographical

component. As a creative practitioner, I am interested in the distinction made by persons such as

Craft (2001), between creative teaching and teaching for creativity. I also believe in the notion-

expounded by people such as Robinson (1999) and Nettleford (2010), that creative approaches are

needed to foster creativity to help people/countries function as effectively as possible within the

current global, technologically-advancing climate.

Litchman’s (2010) earlier recommendation that it is important to remember that the

researcher is the primary instrument of data collection and analysis, and that in conducting

qualitative research, as it is in quantitative research, the researcher decides what information to

gather (and the means by which to gather it), reinforces the point that Sikes (2004) makes that

“researchers have to be able to justify and argue a methodological case for their reasons for

choosing a particular approach and specific procedures [since] methodology and procedures

determine the nature of the findings of the research (p. 2).

Briggs (2003) claims that research in the social sciences is “the bastion of the interview”

and the validity of much that we believe to be true depends on the feasibility of the interview as a

methodological strategy in that what is said is considered a reflection of “what is ‘out there’ rather

than an interpretation which is jointly produced by interviewer and respondent” (pp. 1-2). The

transactional nature of relationships will result in the information provided by [respondents] being

impacted by the researcher’s perspectives and attitudes (Kezar, 2003, p. 13). This serves to

reinforce the assertion that research methodology and methods cannot be value free.

Burke and Innes (2007) refer to the contemporary debate in the literature about

interviewing as a research method in terms of the extent to which the interviewer controls the range

of schema through determining the areas to be discussed. They also assert that “the range of the

interview schema, as derived from the interviewer’s research aims, actually determines the scope

of the interview and influences the range and type of subjective responses that an interviewee will

give”. They hasten to add, however, that “subjectivity derived from perspective and experience

need not be considered limiting, as the very act of interviewing acknowledges the importance of

perspective” (pp. 12-15).

Given my positional stance in which I acknowledge my cultural, artistic and professional

orientation towards narrative modes of expression, as well as my partiality to creative/arts-based

pedagogy, I set out to conduct research using the narrative interview as a primary method for

eliciting stories of experience about creative education--to not only gain insight into practices and

perceptions of this field, but to eventually advocate for the application of a hybrid model of creative

education that constitutes a critical-transformative, creativity-based approach to curriculum and

instruction (refer to Figure 1). I intentionally adopted a narrative-based approach to researching

experiences and perceptions of creative education within Caribbean/OAS as delineated in the

study. I am also driven by my experience of negative attitudes to creative approaches to instruction

held by some educators.


Jones, J. (2013): Contending for Creativity: Critical Considerations for Educational Development in the Caribbean Context - University of Sheffield

Figure 1. A Hybrid Model of Creative Education

Janesick (2003) points out that qualitative researchers accept that research is ideologically

driven—that there is no value-free or bias-free research design or writing, (by extension), and

further insists that the positivistic position that research is objective is a ‘myth’ simply because

“as we make sense of our social world and give meaning to what we do as researchers, we

continually raise awareness of our own beliefs”. There is no attempt to pretend that research is

value-free. Additionally, qualitative researchers believe that “rich descriptions of the social world

are valuable, whereas quantitative researchers with their etic, nomothetic commitments are less

concerned with such details” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005, pp. 10, 12). They go on to assert that this

is so because this kind of detail militates against generalisations being made and that researchers

who acknowledge that descriptions of the social world are important, emphasise the value-laden

nature of inquiry in that “personal, cultural, moral, or political values cannot be

eliminated….What social scientists choose to investigate...they investigate on the basis of values”

(see also De Beer, Petersen, & Dunbar-Krige (2012) & Priestly, Edwards & Miller (2012)).

According to Sikes (2004), engagement in research involves concern with epistemological

questions and issues, central to which is “the notion of ‘truth’: truth in terms of how the researcher

communicates and re-presents the knowledge they get from their research” (p. 5). Indeed, as Carter

and Little (2007) point out, “epistemology determines and is made visible through method…voice

and representation in analysis and writing....Method is constrained by and makes visible

methodological and epistemic choices”. Carter and Little (2007) further assert that “epistemology

guides methodological choices and is axiological”. That is to say that “the knowledge pool upon

which so many vital decisions are based, reflects the values that determine what kinds of

information are collected and put to use” (Eurich, 1974, p. 145).

Admittedly, one might present the philosophical argument that the whole issue of engaging

in discourse on values might lead to an infinite regress; “values are debatable and indeed are

debated...[but] qualitative researchers stress the socially constructed reality...[and] emphasize the

value-laden nature of inquiry” (Morrison, 1998. p. 10). In this regard, Litchman (2010) makes an

assertion that re-emphasises the de-constructive/positional focus of the discussion; he says that the

researcher plays a pivotal role in the qualitative research process in that he/she collects data, views

Creative Education for Sustainable

Development

Critical, Transformative

Pedagogy

Pedagogy for Creativity

Creative

Pedagogy

70 J. Jones

settings and constructs reality through his or her sensory input. Litchman (2010) further maintains

that the qualitative researcher--responsible for analysing the data through an iterative process

between the data collected and the data analysed--finally interprets and makes sense of the data (p.

16).

Sikes’s affirmation is useful with regard to the point being made: “…ALL research is

interpretative in that it can offer an interpretation, not an actual replica, of the world” (Sikes, 2004,

p.3). Randall, Cooper and Hite (1999) would add that “to a large degree, research...methodologies

[and methods] eventually become the arbitrators of which knowledge and truth claims are

considered acceptable within [the determined] parameters of inquiry” (p.4). The essential point to

note is that “it is impossible to engage in research and not be concerned with...how the

data/evidence that research procedures obtain corresponds to and reflects the knowledge it is

claimed that it does” (Sikes, 2004, p. 5).

Randall et al. (1999) also inform us that the critical theory movement and other postmodern

critiques have exposed the significant extent to which the entire research process is “value-laden,

deeply ideological, and hence thoroughly political…ranging from selecting and conceptualizing a

topic to funding, gaining access to and collecting data, measuring constructs, making meaning of

facts, disseminating the results, and using or misusing conclusion. Moreover, research methods

contain certain biases” (p. 5). This brings into focus what Tansey (2007) calls the “evidentiary

value of interview data” viewed against the relationship between the values of the interviewer and

the interviewee alike, impacting the interview construct. This only strengthens the argument

concerning the positional inevitability of research by further highlighting the “relations between

context, meaning and practice” (Lauder, Brown, Dillabough & Halsey, 2006, p. 753). With the

foregoing in mind, “de-constructing” researcher/writer positionality ought to be an integral

component in the process of creating academic text.

“De-constructing” Positionality in Academic Writing: Ethical Concerns

Indeed, academic writing, like research methodologies and methods cannot be value free because

regardless of the research methodology or method employed, “the ‘reality’ researched [and

reported] can never be independent of the person researching [and reporting] it” (Pring, 2000, p.

44). Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2009) and Carter (2007) also believe that a researcher/writer’s

philosophy contains important assumptions about their worldview. These assumptions, they posit,

will underpin the research strategy and the methods chosen (as was highlighted in the previous

section), as well as the textual product of the research project.

Sikes (2004) corroborates this view in asserting that “the most significant factor that

influences choice and use of methodology and procedures is ‘where the researcher is coming from’

in terms of their philosophical position and their fundamental assumptions concerning [their]

social reality…the nature of knowledge…human nature and agency… [and] their axiological

stance regarding the nature of values” (p. 3); see also Plowright & Barr (2012).

Allies (1999, p. 2) states that “researchers should take cognizance of personal,

philosophical, theoretical, ideological, cultural and practical positions arising out of

[their]…lived experiences, beliefs, attitudes, perceptions and assumptions”. Moreover, Sultana

(2007) argues for more attention being paid to the issues of positionality and power relations in

the field of research since negotiating educational research in differing contexts may be regarded

as fraught with the dilemma to have values, or not to have values. These values ultimately impact

what is eventually written. We simply cannot separate the researcher and his/her values, beliefs


and philosophical orientation from the research conducted and the research finally reported in

writing.

For Becker (1967), however, there is no dilemma where this is concerned. He states that

when educational researchers set out to investigate problems that have social relevance, although

some urge them to remain value free while “others tell them their work is…useless if it does not

express a deep commitment to a value position, the question is not whether we should take sides,

since we ineluctably will, but rather whose side we are on” (Becker, 1967, p. 239; see also Gough,

2012, p. 41; Hlebowitsh, 2012, pp. 3-9). From this perspective, we see that research and its written

product cannot be value free.

Young (2012) posits that researchers have been called upon to recognise and examine their

own multiple positionalities reflexively in order to ascertain the ways in which these differing

identities may influence and shape the encounters, processes and outcomes of their research (pp.

384-387); see also Huberman & Miles (2002) and McCaffrey, Raffin-Bouchal & Moules (2012).

Pring (2003) believes that there are principles governing rules for the conduct of research and that

these principles, in essence, “embody the values appealed to in the establishment of the rules” (pp.

142-143). For him, moral deliberation in the conduct of research in unavoidable because “on the

whole, we act from character or from our dispositions to see, value and behave in a certain way

(pp. 142-143);...how we see the world depends upon the concepts through which experience is

organized, objects identified as significant, descriptions applied and evaluations made” (p. 24).

Sikes (2004) states that “even if people do mix and match and triangulate procedures…it

is important for all researchers to spend some time thinking about how they are paradigmatically

and philosophically positioned and for them to be aware of how their positioning...might influence

their research related thinking and practice” (p. 4). Sikes (2004) goes on to state that to reveal

positional stance has to do with being “a reflexive and reflective and, therefore, rigorous

researchers who are able to present their findings and interpretations in the confidence that they

have acknowledged and be explicit about their stance and the influence it has had upon their

work...given that a major criticism of much educational research is that it is biased and partisan”

(p. 4).

This, yet again, underscores the absolute importance of positional disclosure and Hopkins

(1993) presents a recommendation similar to Sikes’ (2004): “Although researchers’ positionalities

is a subject matter for continued debate,...it is still a significant aspect of the ways in which

researchers are read and interpreted by research participants” (p. 386). He goes on to say that this

is an ethical consideration that requires reflection throughout the research process by which the

numerous intersecting ways in which our different positionalities are revealed, negotiated and

managed. He insists that this is crucial to the conduct of ethical research and adds that as far as is

possible, these issues ought to be conveyed throughout the research process; in this way,

researchers can demonstrate the various ways in which they seek to conduct ethical research (pp.

386-389). Sikes (2010), in writing about the ethics of life histories and narratives in educational

research, makes some salient points that are also applicable to the case for “de-constructing”

positionality in academic writing:

Writing is never neutral or innocent;…it is a social and political activity with

consequences….Writing about and representing lives carries a heavy ethical

burden;…writers have considerable power to create versions of reality [especially] when

they are writing under the heading of ‘research’.…A piece of writing has temporal

permanence….People trust us to write ethically and responsibly about them;…we as

academic writers of scholarship,…have an obligation to take responsibility for [our]

72 J. Jones

interpretations as conveyed through our re-presentations….Ethical research practice

demands authorial honesty. (pp. 2-4, 7)

Ethical theory presents the academic writer/researcher with a plethora of perspectives from

which to draw. Sikes (2010) presents us with some examples: (Kantian) deontological concerns

with the duties and responsibilities of researchers; consequentialist concerns specific to the effects

of a research project; (Aristotelian) virtue ethics that is concerned with promoting the general

good; situational and contextual awareness related to ethical concerns and a (Buberian)

relational ethics that is interpersonal and promotes connectedness and care for others. This

prompts us to consider Denzin’s (in press) call for a dialogic text that indorses a dialogical ethic

that goes beyond empathy to interrogate, criticise, empower and create languages of resistance—

“an ethic that honors the essential human freedoms” (n.p.).

In light of these convictions, the matter of “de-constructing” positionality in academic

writing may be further extended to mean that the reflexive engagement by the academic writer

must also interrogate his/her motive in “apposition” to the well-being of others connected to the

research text being constructed. Clearly, the moral values of researchers have a crucial role in

determining their research ethics (Greenbank, 2003, p. 797). From my personal involvement in

research, I understand that this level of critical introspection is no simple matter. One must

continually be making decisions to write or not to write about certain aspects of one’s research.

My own experience when applying for ethical clearance to embark on my research project

was elucidatory: I became pre-occupied with trying to convince the ethical review panel that I

could guarantee anonymity to my participants. Eventually, I learned that given the relatively small

geographical space within which I was conducting my research, and given the professional, public

and international profiles of some of my participants, I could not in good faith make such a claim.

I was, nevertheless obligated to inform all participants concerning this, prior to requesting their

consent to participate in my narrative inquiry into their experiences and perceptions of creative

education in Caribbean/OAS contexts.

Inarguably, there are unavoidable dilemmas to be negotiated while engaging the reflexive

process of “de-constructing” positionality during the process of academic writing. Greenbank

(2003) admits to being conscious that while reflexivity is being encouraged on one hand, it has

been suggested that value statements and reflexive accounts can also be used to reinforce the

researcher/academic writer’s argument. So we have come full circle to Derrida’s (1997) notion of

deconstruction as:

…an analysis which tries to find out how [the academic writer’s] thinking works or does

not work, to find the [tensions, the contradictions], the heterogeneity within their own

corpus….What is the law of this self-deconstruction, this “auto-deconstruction”?

Deconstruction is not a method or some tool that you might apply to something from the

outside….Deconstruction is something which happens from the inside” (p. 9).

For me, engaging in the research process and the writing-up phase of that process meant

that I had to move beyond mere reflection to begin to probe deeply in order to begin to engage “in

a reflexive process that would allow me to gain critical insights into, and to illuminate how I came

to understand what I know, how this knowledge is produced and how it impacts on how the social

world operates (Neckles, 2013, p. 36). In my opinion, this ought to signify a level of deeply

critical/ “de-constructional” consciousness that denotes an ethical, moral positioning. This

understanding helped me to begin to advance out of my initial “herding cats” situation as I

struggled to clarify my ideas concerning the research project and to begin to develop a coherent

‘voice’ in my writing. The metaphor of a journey, often characterised by unexpected twists, turns,


and eventful experiences and discoveries may, therefore be considered apt.

Conclusion

In this article, I discussed the value of exploring positionality in academic writing by applying

Derrida’s (1997) notion of deconstruction to the process of reflexive engagement by the

researcher/academic writer. I situated the discourse in the qualitative paradigm. After initially

explaining the way in which I re-interpreted the concept, key ideas relative to methodological and

ethical concerns were developed. Throughout the article, drawing on the writings of a range of

educational scholars, I emphasised that “de-constructing” positionality in academic writing should

be construed and practised as a reflexive, critical process that intentionally exposes the researcher’s

philosophical stance. This was linked to the concept of “voice” and its relevance to educational

and social-historical issues in postcolonial contexts of research and writing. Additionally, I

introduced into the “conversation” the concepts of dialogic interaction and writing as a method of

inquiry in addition to elaborating on the ethical points having to do with moral and relational

aspects that can influence the process of “de-constructing” positionality in academic writing.

Finally, the discussion also included auto/biographical references to my personal

experience of “de-constructing” positionality as a doctoral student conducting/writing-up “A

Narrative Inquiry into Experiences and Perceptions of Creative Education in Caribbean/OAS

Contexts”. This represented my positional disclosure and provided opportunity for me to illustrate

one of the products my personal journey into reflexivity and developing voice as an emerging

academic (i.e. my proposed hybrid model of creative education). In sum, this forms part of an

overall effort to substantiate the case for “de-constructing” positionality in academic writing as a

reflexive journeying into “voice”.

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ISSN 1727-5512



Understanding Entrepreneurial Attitudes, Intentions and Activity in Barbados

Paul Pounder* and Dwayne Devonish

University of the West Indies, Cave Hill Campus, Barbados

While the entrepreneurial capability of Barbados is growing, the attributes

contributing to this growth are under-researched. Compared to other developed

and developing nations, the entrepreneurial population of Barbados has a low fear

of failure rate which has lead to further investigating the benefits of entrepreneurial

attitudes, intentions and activities. The research questions of this article are to

explain these attributes. Based on the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM)

data set, a theoretical framework and expert interviews; an explanation linked to

understanding attitudes grouped by age distribution, stage of economic

development, gender and education levels is investigated. Overall, the findings

established a positive relationship between entrepreneurial attitudes and actual

entrepreneurial activity measured by total early-stage activity (TEA). The main

points argued in the conclusion of this article are that males and those in the

youngest age groups showed the most positive entrepreneurial attitudes and highest

TEA rates, and that TEA rates were positively related to educational attainment,

with those in the highest educational category (post-secondary level)

demonstrating the highest TEA. The implications of the research highlight that

more focused entrepreneurship educational training is required for vulnerable

groups like women and youth. Also, decision makers need to develop

entrepreneurship education programs that inspire and trigger entrepreneurial

activity for all age groups.

Keywords: Entrepreneurship, education, attitude, intention, activity, GEM, Barbados

Introduction

Barbados is a developed country in the Eastern Caribbean and enjoys one of the highest per capita

incomes in the Caribbean and Latin America. Though it has a small population of approximately

275,000 it is one of the efficiency-driven economies in the world, ranking 18th in Latin America

and Caribbean countries. Several approaches have been utilised to facilitate the Barbados economy

to prevail over the problem of unemployment and to stabilise financial and economic growth.

Some of these include encouragement of foreign investments, through the offering of special

incentives, especially in tourism industry and offshore business sector. Advancement of

entrepreneurship and business development through initiatives support training and access to

technology, export markets and financing. Further, many of the Barbados’ rules are on par with

international standards and policies; while laws are transparent and encourage fair competition.


78 P. Pounder & D. Devonish

In Barbados, Entrepreneurship programmes are offered at the UWI Cave Hill campus

through the Bsc in Entrepreneurship, the MBA in Entrepreneurship at the Cave Hill School of

Business and Entrepreneurship courses at the Barbados Community College and the Technical and

Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Council, while entrepreneurial development training

seminars are facilitated for Micro, Small and Medium-sized enterprises are offered by the

Barbados Youth Business Trust, the Small Business Association, the Barbados Manufacturers

Association and the Youth Entrepreneurship Scheme.

Understanding entrepreneurship and small businesses started to emerge as a major theme

in the Caribbean during the economic recession which started in 2001. Some other major external

factors such as the September 11th tragedy (9/11) and the financial crisis of 2007-2008 which were

marked by increased unemployment, decline in real GDP, the stock market crash and increased

uncertainty also sought to engage practitioners and academics alike in understanding

entrepreneurship attitude and activity. The overarching thought is that the government of

Barbados, through its offices needs to develop policies that create an economy open to trade and

allow for financial investment with the rest of the world; and entrepreneurship is seen as a medium

for such enterprising. Therefore, as entrepreneurship education has proven to be a powerful means

for countries to promote economic growth, development, and poverty reduction, it makes sense

for the government of Barbados to understand the impact of entrepreneurship education on

entrepreneurial attitudes, intentions and activity. Though there are studies which speak to

entrepreneurial attitude and activity in other regions, what is missing thus far is the understanding

of entrepreneurial attitudes, intentions and activity among small island developing states (SIDS)

like the islands in the Caribbean.

The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) international datasets are used to provide

detailed information on entrepreneurial attitudes, intentions and activity. GEM is viewed as a key

source of consistent annual data that identifies those active in establishing businesses, denoting the

type of businesses formed, and the growth aspirations of the entrepreneur. GEM provides data on

the entrepreneurial profile based on attitudes, aspirations and activity. The GEM national surveys

encompass 70 economies, cover three quarters of the world's population and 90% of the world's

GDP. The annual GEM report consistently states that the highest number of entrepreneurs can be

found in the 25-34 age group. The headline measure in the GEM dataset is the number of people

in the early stage of setting up their own business (the GEM Total early-stage Entrepreneurial

Activity index – the TEA index). The index uses the following approach: the TEA index is the

sum of those respondents classified as nascent entrepreneurs and new-firm entrepreneurs. The

TEA index does not measure all entrepreneurial activity and is not based on a survey of business

entities. It indicates the characteristics of entrepreneurial individuals and the types of entities they

establish. As such it is a unique and internationally comparative measure of the cultural propensity

of a nation, or region, to be entrepreneurial.

In examining the early-stage entrepreneurial activity in Barbados it can be seen that the

majority (58%) of activity in Barbados is driven by the desire to capitalize on an opportunity that

is present rather than the individual being forced into it out of necessity (5%) (GEM Caribbean

Report, 2011).

In 2011, the level of TEA in Barbados (12.6%) was below the global average for efficiency

driven economies (14.1%). During this time, it was also noted that there was a high level of people

starting businesses to take advantage of perceived opportunities rather than out of necessity; while

there was a very low rate of businesses surviving past the start-up phase. This can be explained by

the challenges faced in accessing adequate amounts of capital and lack of planning on the


entrepreneur’s part. With respect to gender, the GEM data show that more men than women

become entrepreneurs and that gender attitudes are different towards entrepreneurship; both of

which are consistent with Barbados. The view here is that males are more confident in taking a

leap into entrepreneurship as they believe they possess adequate knowledge, networking resources

and experience.

Further, GEM, a comparative international study assessing entrepreneurship’s importance

to economies worldwide concluded that the correlation between the level of entrepreneurial

activity and economic growth is greater than 70% worldwide and nations with high levels of

entrepreneurial activity have above-average rates of economic growth.

The purpose of this paper is to develop an understanding for entrepreneurship attitudes,

intentions and activity in Barbados. It recognizes entrepreneurial intentions as a dimension of the

impact of entrepreneurship education. The focus reflects the challenges attributed to size and

resource base, which act both as advantages and disadvantages. The paper is exploratory in nature

and presents a correlational examination of the relationships among entrepreneurial attitudes,

intentions and activity among individuals in a small island territory in the Caribbean. It does not

intend to test a conceptual model but simply seeks to set a context for further empirical work in

the same area.

Literature Review

Defining the Entrepreneur and Approaches to Entrepreneurship

In order to investigate entrepreneurial attitudes, intentions and activity, the research starts with a

definition for entrepreneurs that highlights, in principle, a relationship to behaviour, conduct, and

action. Entrepreneurs are described as people who are creative and ingenious in finding ways to

become more successful, powerful and prestigious (Douglas & Shepherd, 2002). Entrepreneurship

however, is often difficult to define and as such conceptualising a general framework in this field

of study (Shane & Venkataraman, 2000) has proven tedious. Seemingly, previous researchers have

defined entrepreneurship solely by an opportunity-based perspective (Shane & Venkataraman,

2000). Further, the characteristics of the entrepreneur and their role (Venkataraman, 1997) have

been explored by researchers. The latter approach fails to incorporate the nuclei of two phenomena

- the lucrative presentation of opportunity and individuals who are innovative and resourceful

(Shane & Venkataraman, 2000).

The cognitive approach to entrepreneurship seeks to explain how entrepreneurs think and

why they do the things they do in the ways that they do them (Mitchell et al., 2002). Researchers

in this approach believe that entrepreneurs piece together things that were previously unconnected.

As such this helps them to invent new products and/or services and assemble whatever resources

are necessary for developing and growing new businesses (Mitchell et al., 2002). Cognitive

processes are said to contribute immensely to social behaviors and thought (Bandura, 2001;

Krueger, 2005). Thus, when relating this theoretical approach to studies of entrepreneurship,

Krueger (2005) notes that in order to fully grasp the core concepts of entrepreneurship – what is

involved and how it emerges, an understanding of entrepreneurial cognition is important (Esnard-

Flavius, 2010).

Recognizing that cognition plays an important role, some researchers have placed emphasis

on perceived self-efficacy in relation to entrepreneurial attitudes (Bandura, 2001; Chen, Greene,

& Crick, 1998; Krueger, 2007). Bandura defines perceived self-efficacy within the structure of a

person’s own judgment of their abilities to organize and carry out specific tasks (Bandura, 1989).

This definition of self-efficacy highlights the link between knowledge and human action (Esnard-


Flavius, 2010). A correlation between entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions

was found by early researchers (Esnard-Flavius, 2010). As a result, entrepreneurial self-efficacy

and entrepreneurial intentions developed early in an individual’s career eventually lead to high

probabilities for entrepreneurial activity in life (Boyd &Vozikis, 1994). According to studies

conducted more recently, individuals with higher entrepreneurial self-efficacy have higher

entrepreneurial intentions (Krueger, 2007).

According to trait theory, an entrepreneur is assumed to possess a particular personality

type – a set way of being (Carland, Carland, & Hoy, 2002). Thus if an individual possesses these

traits, they are likely to be entrepreneurial in nature (Carland et al., 2002). However, further

research has shown that traits alone are not sufficient when it comes to running businesses (Poon,

Ainuddin, & Junit, 2006). At the heart of entrepreneurship is recognizing there is an opportunity

(Nybakk & Hansen, 2008). Researchers have identified two different views of entrepreneurship –

the outcome of entrepreneurship; that is the creation of worth (Nybakk & Hansen, 2008), and the

traits of entrepreneurship (Nybakk & Hansen, 2008) which refers to innovativeness.

The behavioural approach sees many factors influencing the creation of an organisation

(Gartner, 1989). The entrepreneur is only a part of the complicated process of the creation of the

organisation (Gartner, 1989). The behavioural approach to entrepreneurship treats the organisation

as the primary entity viewing the individual as a subsidiary in terms of the activities he/she

performs to enable the organisation into existence (Gartner, 1989). The entrepreneur’s personal

characteristics are secondary to the behaviours that drive the creation of the organisation (Gartner,

1989). According to Cole, the entrepreneur is the adhesive that binds all the entrepreneurial

processes together. Thus, the entrepreneur is the labourer utilising the capital of others and

eventually benefiting from the production through means of profit (Cole, 1946). This paper focuses

on the understanding entrepreneurial attitudes, intentions and activity in Barbados. By

entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions, we are discussing the character formed and the impact

observed through entrepreneurship education that leads to the desires to own or start a business;

while activity speaks to the entrepreneurial practice.

Profiling the Attributes of the Entrepreneurship Process

This section of the literature review aims at defining the process of early stage entrepreneurship as

well as the factors that influence the decision of whether to engage in venture creation. In doing

so it will follow the GEM methodology where early stage entrepreneurship and the factors driving

it are reviewed along two major dimensions. Firstly, an individual’s attitude towards

entrepreneurship includes his/her perception of business opportunities, trust in his/her knowledge,

skills and abilities for entrepreneurial activity, entrepreneurial capability, fear of failure and

intention to start a new business. Secondly, entrepreneurial activity measures the percentage of the

population aged 18-64 involved in any of the phases of the entrepreneurial process (TEA – nascent

plus new entrepreneurs, and established business owners). It also tracks the degree to which

entrepreneurial activities are driven by opportunity and necessity.

Entrepreneurial Attitudes and Intentions

From an entrepreneurial attitude perspective, a considerable factor in the formation of the

attitude relates to the desires of the entrepreneur. It can be argued that once an opportunity is

viewed, the intention to act on it depends on desirability and feasibility (McMullen & Shepherd,

2006). Fiet (2001) suggests that the objective of entrepreneurship theory is to help entrepreneurs

to understand the consequences of their decisions and this could be done through education. Also,


the risk factor associated with becoming an entrepreneur influences the individual’s final decision

(Caliendo, Fossen, & Kritikos, 2009). Caliendo et al. (2009) posit that the risk associated with

making certain decisions may vary from person to person. Persons working in the area that they

want to become self employed in, may feel less pressured because they have the experience and

skill in that area compared to someone starting out in the area as a self- employed person (Caliendo

et al., 2009). Thus, the perceived risk to the experienced person is lower. Further, the availability

of what can be considered good jobs, perceptions of others and culture can influence those

considering self employment (Xavier et al., 2013).

In addition researchers have assessed the relationship between entrepreneurial intentions

and entrepreneurship education (Dickson, Solomon, & Weaver, 2008; Galloway & Brown, 2002;

Peterman & Kennedy, 2003; Pittaway & Cope, 2007). Research has revealed that entrepreneurship

education courses contribute to the development of entrepreneurial intentions (Fayolle et al., 2006;

Lüthje & Franke, 2003; Peterman & Kennedy, 2003). Supporting research has been done on self

efficacy and intentions as elements of entrepreneurship education Chen, (2010), (Zhao, Seibert, &

Hills, (2005). Other highlights of research have shown that entrepreneurship education is

particularly concerned with attitudes, intentions, and the firm creation process (Liñán, 2008).

Others have cited knowledge, habits, social and personality attributes as factors influencing

entrepreneurial intentions (Unger, Rauch, Frese, & Rosenbusch, 2011). Holmgren et al., (2004)

suggest that entrepreneurship education is mainly about the development of certain beliefs, values

and attitudes. In this research, the concept of entrepreneurial intentions is used as a supporting

concept that is useful in highlighting the impact of entrepreneurship education.

Due to diverse entrepreneurs having different attitudes and intentions, we look at the nature

of these variations. This suggests the following research question, as a dimension of measuring the

impact of entrepreneurship education:

RQ1: What is the nature of entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions in Barbados?

Entrepreneurial Activity

The importance of entrepreneurial activity for economic development is established in

GEM Report (2008). From the perspective of entrepreneurial activity, the research assesses the

literature using varying perspectives (Xavier et al., 2013). Several authors have conducted country

studies linking economic and entrepreneurial activity with business dynamism in terms of new

venture creation and the closure of businesses (Dumas, 2001; Osborne, Falcone & Nagendra, 2000;

and McLarty, 2005). Picot et al. (1998) highlight that new firms enhance employment levels by

stimulating economic activity and job creation. While Renolds et al. (1994) allude to the fact that

unemployment leads to individuals seeking self employment, thus stimulating entrepreneurial

activity. Henry, Hill and Leitch (2005) suggest that entrepreneurship education should be aimed

at providing an opportunity to learn about the conditions favoring entrepreneurial activity and new

venture creation. Further, Audretsch and Thurik (2000) state that change in business ownership is

a causal factor in change in unemployment rate and stimulating entrepreneurial and economic

activity. According to the GEMS 2013 report, the payment of wages is the best approach for

universal comparisons. As such, GEMS takes the payment of wages for more than three months

as the beginning event which constitutes a firm (Xavier et al., 2013). Entrepreneurial activity has

many subsets in accordance to stage or owner/co-owner’s input. For example, individuals who are

actively investing resources in starting a business in hopes of owning or co-owning but have not

yet started yielding wages are referred to as nascent entrepreneurs (Xavier et al., 2013). Individuals


who have passed the wages stage but have been in operation for less than 42 months are considered

owner-managers according to GEM.

While business ownership can be used as a measure for business stock it is hardly a measure

for entrepreneurial activity as it does not take into consideration new start ups. Though these two

may correlate in first-world countries, this is not the case in SID countries – such as Barbados

where start-up activity is more unpredictable and the impact of entrepreneurship education maybe

long-term (Olomi et al. 2009; Galloway and Brown 2002).This concern leads to next research

question:

RQ2: What is the nature of entrepreneurial activity in Barbados?

Relationship between Total Early-Stage Entrepreneurial Activity and Attitudes

Entrepreneurial attitudes and entrepreneurial activity are closely related, but there are

forces in between (Grilo & Irigoyen, 2006). Linking entrepreneurial attitudes to entrepreneurial

activity leads to obvious results: people who are involved in entrepreneurial activity are likely to

exhibit positive attitudes to entrepreneurial activity, and people who lack positive attitudes are

almost certain not to be involved in entrepreneurial activity.

To understand the relation between entrepreneurship attitudes and entrepreneurship

activity, close attention must be given to both the micro and macro phenomena that are intertwined

and at play (Bosma & Schutjens, 2011). Individuals are guided by their own set of principles,

values and preferences - they assess their own ability, which is conditioned and based on their

unique personality (Bosma & Schutjens, 2011). In addition, and at the microcosmic level is the

availability of business properties and regional market growth (Bosma & Schutjens, 2011).

Essentially, at the micro level, a number of individual and perceptual factors influence the decision

to become an entrepreneur (North, 1998).

At the macro level, socio-cultural attitudes towards the ownership of firms and regulatory

hindrances must be considered (Bosma & Schutjens, 2011). Additionally, a distinction must be

made between formal institutions and informal institutions with respect to how the two could

impact attitude and therefore activity (Bosma & Schutjens, 2011). For example, an individual may

feel restricted because of the existing regulatory laws which govern the registration of new firms;

hence the individual may be deterred even at the thought of registering a new entity (Bosma &

Schutjens, 2011).

Despite not being a clear-cut relationship, entrepreneurial attitudes are linked to

entrepreneurial activities (Bosma & Schutjens, 2011). The strength of the relationship is made

stronger or weakened by influences at the supra-national, national and regional levels (Bosma &

Schutjens, 2011). In relation to entrepreneurial activity, regional forces will affect the process

before the start up of the firm. This leads to a variation regionally with respect to the prevalence

of early stage entrepreneurial activities (Bosma & Schutjens, 2011).

To further understand the connection among attitudes, intentions and activities in the

entrepreneurship literature, two major theoretical models are worthy of discussion. Firstly,

Reynolds et al. (2004) suggest that the GEMS theoretical model of entrepreneurial activity is a

very useful model for testing entrepreneurial activity on the basis of entrepreneurial intentions and

attitudes such as perceived capability, perceived opportunities, self-efficacy and other

psychological and sociological factors which are consistent with the present study. The model

also looked at demographic factors such as educational status and level of training/experience, as

key predictors of entrepreneurial venture creation and economic growth. The research has shown

that the literature on entrepreneurship education and training provides evidence demonstrating the


influence of entrepreneurship education and training on entrepreneurial activity exists but

understanding the level of influence is still lacking (Béchard and Grégoire, 2005). Greater

appreciation is required in understanding best practices in entrepreneurship programmes and

learning techniques to enhance skills that are geared towards new venture creation (Garavan &

O’Cinneide, 1994). Martínez, Levie, Kelley, Sæmundsson and Schøtt (2010) in a special GEM

report highlighted:

Attitudes and intentions are important in boosting the chance individuals will

attempt an entrepreneurial endeavor at some point in their lives (Souitaris et al.,

2007). Studies on the influence of education and training on attitudes have found a

positive link to interest in entrepreneurship, attitudes toward entrepreneurship and

perception of the feasibility of starting a business. Examples include post-

secondary education in Northern Ireland (Hegarty, 2006), university students in

England (Souitaris et al., 2007) and Germany (Walter and Dohse, 2009) and

secondary school pupils enrolled in an entrepreneurship program in Australia

(Peterman and Kennedy, 2003). However, other studies have observed a decrease

in intentions after entrepreneurship education programs, for example, in a Dutch

school (Oosterbeek et al., 2009) and a German university (Weber et al., 2009).

Other studies show that prior exposure to entrepreneurship and prior intentions can

change the effect of entrepreneurship training programs (e.g., Fayolle et al., 2006).

(p. 15)

Another model, the Entrepreneurial Intentions Model (Krueger & Brazeal, 1994), based on

institutional economic theory discusses the role of social psychological factors in the prediction of

economic growth and venture creation potential. The model was developed based on Ajzen's

(1991) model of planned behaviour and the Shapiro model of entrepreneurial intentions. Both

models combined suggest that entrepreneurial activity is influenced by an individual's perceived

desirability (attitudes) and perceived feasibility (self-efficacy, perceived behavioural control and

perceived opportunities) and entrepreneurial experience. These models are closely tied to the

focus of this present study.

An empirical study (Coduras et al., 2008) that assessed the relationship between these

variables revealed that there was no relationship between supportive attitudes of university faculty

and entrepreneurial activity but there was a significant relationship between entrepreneurial

intentions and attitudes among the university students, demonstrating the importance of higher

education. Some literature exists to support universities being part of the entrepreneurial ecosystem

and their contribution to the entrepreneurial transformation process; however its mainly based in

developed countries (North America: Link & Scott, 2005; O’Shea et al., 2007; and Europe:

Guerrero & Urbano, 2012; Kirby, 2006; Wright et al., 2007). However, Bosma and Schutjens

(2009) revealed a significant relationship between entrepreneurial attitudes and entrepreneurial

activity but no relationship between these attitudes and economic development for 18 European

countries. Moreover, Bygrave et al. (2010) also revealed that, among a sample of 29 countries,

opportunity-pull entrepreneurial activity was positively correlated with entrepreneurial capacity

and perceptions of entrepreneurial opportunities, whereas necessity-driven entrepreneurship had

no correlates. This brings us to the third research question:

RQ3: What is the relationship between total early stage entrepreneurial activity and

attitudes?


Research Method and Material

Entrepreneurship education, particularly in small island developing states (SIDS), deserves

attention, in order to access an underutilised resource and increase economic growth. Thus in order

to understand entrepreneurship education, attitude and activity in SIDS and in light of insufficient

studies tackling this issue, the authours opted to carry out exploratory research; this type of

research is conducted when there are very few studies to which we can refer for information about

the issue or problem; and this type of research is the most productive since it yields a large number

of ideas (Zikmund et al., 2010).

This research was correlation in nature and used a mixed-method approach which

combines both the secondary and primary sources of information retrieval. In order to provide a

solid foundation for this research, secondary data were sourced from related literature, journals,

the internet, and other publications, while the primary data retrieval was sourced by semi-

structured questionnaire either via e-mail or face-to-face interviews. Questionnaires, the main

primary data-collection tools, were carried out with 2,355 Barbadian residents (aged between 18

and 64) across the various urban and rural areas of the island. This sample size was deemed

appropriate for the population of Barbados (estimated at 270,000 persons) and represented a

margin of error of about 2.5%. In 2010 the Cave Hill School of Business in Barbados lead a

research team to collect information on a nationally representative minimum sample of 2000

people through the use of a questionnaire about entrepreneurial activity, aspirations and attitudes.

The aim of the survey was to collect information about the attitudes and behaviours leading to the

creation of entrepreneurial activities, along with a set of socio-demographic and economic

variables. Data have been collected on a single sample of the population with an age comprised

between 18 and 64 years. Individuals have been randomly selected from a data-base and interviews

are conducted using fixed line telephone, face to face interviews and on-line surveys. Sampling

was done at the household unit level, and random selection procedures for selecting persons from

households. The questionnaire was the based on Adult Population Questionnaire (APQ) used by

GEMS to collect entrepreneurial attitude and intentions data and related subjective indicators of

entrepreneurship, which are described in the next section.

The author combined a review of the literature pertinent to entrepreneurship education,

attitude and activity with the results of the adult population survey (APS), which is the main tool

of data collection used by the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM).

The rationale for this combination is to provide a fuller picture of entrepreneurship

attitudes, intentions and activity in Barbados. The validity and reliability of the results were based

on the relationship between these factors and conclusions were made with a good sense of

judgment and analysis from the respondents’ point of view.

The analyses were broken into different segments. Firstly, the extent and nature of

entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions were assessed in the total sample, followed by the same

assessment broken down by gender and age. Secondly, entrepreneurial activity, measured by total

stage-entrepreneurship (TEA), was examined as a composite (and by its individual dimensions of

nascent entrepreneurial activity and new business ownership). The assessment of TEA was also

broken down by gender, age, and educational attainment. Finally, the relationship between

entrepreneurial attitudes, intentions, and TEA was examined using Phi coefficients as effect sizes

(measures of association). All variables were categorical (and dichotomous) in nature (e.g. yes or

no).

Results


This section presents the main findings associated with entrepreneurial education, attitudes and

activity within a survey of approximately 2,355 individuals in Barbados. Of these individuals, 57

percent were female, and 43 percent were male. The mean age of the sample was 39 years (SD =

12.9), ranging from 18 to 64 years. The majority of participants completed secondary (42%) or

post-secondary education (40%). Just over 20 percent indicated that they own or manage a new

business, with an average size of five employees.

Entrepreneurial Attitudes and Intentions in Barbados

This section addresses the first research question on the nature of entrepreneurial attitudes and

intentions in Barbados. Ferreira et. al. (2012) stated that personal attitude, subjective norms and

perceived behavioral control are included in behavioral approach of entrepreneurial intention. It

was necessary to examine the nature of entrepreneurial attitudes in Barbados across a number of

GEM indicators including entrepreneurial intention, entrepreneurship as a desirable career

choice, fear of the failure rate, high status successful entrepreneurship, know startup entrepreneur

rate, media attention for entrepreneurship, perceived capabilities, and perceived opportunities

(see Table 1 for results and definitions).


Table 1

Entrepreneurial Attitudes and Gender Distribution

Table 1 revealed that although a third of the respondents (33%) reported that they personally knew

someone who started a business in the past two years, approximately a quarter of the respondents

(23%) reported positive intentions to start a business within the next 3 years. Moreover, although

close to half of the respondents (45%) saw good opportunities to start a business in the area where

they live, approximately a quarter of them (23%) confirmed that fear of failure is still a deterrent

factor for their starting a business.

However, it was interesting to note that more than half of the respondents reported that: (1)

entrepreneurship is seen as a desirable career choice (68%), (2) the media highlight stories of

successful new businesses (63%), (3) they [respondents] have the requisite capabilities to start a

business (75%), and (4) successful entrepreneurs receive high status and respect (73%).

In terms of gender distribution (see Table 1), the findings showed that males generally

demonstrated more positive entrepreneurial attitudes than females, especially regarding their

perceptions of facilitating opportunities and self-capabilities. Moreover, females were more likely

than males to report that fear of failure was a deterrent to starting a business. These findings based

on gender were significant based on Chi-square analyses (all ps< .05).

ATTITUDES Total

Percentage

(%)

Male

%

Female

%

Entrepreneurial intention Rate

(% who intend to start business within three years) 23 27 19

Entrepreneurship as Desirable Career Choice

(i.e. perceived that entrepreneurship is a good

career choice)

68 69 67

Fear of Failure Rate*

(i.e. perceived fear of failure will prevent self from

starting business)

23 19 27

High Status Successful Entrepreneurship

(i.e. perceived that successful entrepreneurs enjoy

a high status)

73 73 72

Know Startup Entrepreneur Rate (i.e. personally knew someone who has started a

business)

33 34 32

Media Attention for Entrepreneurship

(i.e. perceived that the media often highlights

stories of new successful businesses)

63 61 64

Perceived Capabilities*

(i.e. perceived skills, knowledge and experience in

entrepreneurship)

75 80 69

Perceived Opportunities* (i.e. perceived good opportunities in next six

months)

45 51 39


In terms of age distribution (see Table 2), respondents in the youngest age groups (i.e.. 18-

34 years) demonstrated the most positive attitudes with respect to perceived entrepreneurial

capabilities as well as the highest entrepreneurial intentions compared to those in the older

categories (i.e., 44-54 years). These respondents were also more likely than those in the oldest age

category to have some personal knowledge of someone who had started their own business. These

findings based on age were significant based on Chi-square analyses (all ps< .05)

Table 2

Entrepreneurial Attitudes and Age Distribution (%)

ATTITUDES Under

18

18-24 25-34 35-44 44-54 55-64

Entrepreneurial intention Rate* 38 36 29 21 11 -

(% who intend to start business within

three years)

Entrepreneurship as Desirable

Career Choice

79 63 68 61 69 -

(i.e. perceived that entrepreneurship

is a good career choice)

Fear of Failure Rate 15 27 19 17 9 -

(i.e. perceived fear of failure will

prevent self from starting business)

High Status Successful

Entrepreneurship

71 64 70 67 80 -

(i.e. perceived that successful

entrepreneurs enjoy a high status)

Know Startup Entrepreneur Rate* 35 42 31 28 17 -

(i.e. personally knew someone who

has started a business)

Media Attention for

Entrepreneurship

71 66 55 59 68 -

(i.e. perceived that the media often

highlights stories of new successful

businesses)

Perceived Capabilities* 79 73 75 75 53 -

(i.e. perceived skills, knowledge and

experience in entrepreneurship)

Perceived Opportunities 41 41 38 46 32 -

(i.e. perceived good opportunities in

next six months)


Entrepreneurial Activity in Barbados

This section addresses the second research question on the nature of entrepreneurial activity in

Barbados. Entrepreneurial activity is often measured using total-early stage entrepreneurial

activity (TEA) which is a popular measurement indicator used in the GEM studies. This metric is

defined as the percentage of the 18-64 population who are either nascent entrepreneurs or owners-

managers of a new business (i.e. new business ownership rate). Roughly equal proportions of

nascent entrepreneurial activity (11%) and new business ownership (10%) were observed for

Barbados. These proportions resulted in a combined TEA index of 21%. In terms of gender,

statistical analyses revealed that a significantly higher proportion of males (23%) are involved in

TEA compared to females (19%). In terms of age range, TEA index was highest among those in

the ‘below 18’ age group (32%), followed by those in 25-34 age group (23%). These results

suggest that significant entrepreneurial activity exists among the younger age groups compared to

those in the older groups such as the ‘45-55’ and ‘55-64’ age groups. With respect to educational

attainment, TEA was positively related to educational attainment, with those in the highest

educational category (i.e. post-secondary level) exhibiting the highest TEA index (52%). These

findings were all significant based on Chi-square analyses (all ps< .05).


This section addresses the third research question on the nature of the relationship between

entrepreneurial activity, entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions in Barbados. It was necessary to

examine how entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions (assessed earlier) were related to TEA using

phi coefficients (based on Chi-square tests). Phi correlation coefficients or effect sizes are used to

examine the strength of correlations between dichotomous variables (i.e. yes/no). Small, medium

and large effects are represented as .1, .3 and .5, respectively. Tests were carried out at the 5%

level of significance.

Table 3 revealed that several attitudinal variables were significant correlates of TEA (based

on chi-square analyses where all ps< .05). Phi effect sizes were reported in parentheses. Together

with personal knowledge of entrepreneurial startups and entrepreneurial intentions, perceived

capabilities (or the belief that one has the necessary capabilities to become an entrepreneur) had

the strongest positive correlation with TEA (phi=.21), suggesting that the majority of those

individuals with strong beliefs in their capabilities were among those involved in TEA. Moreover,

the majority of those who personally knew someone who started a business (phi=.21) and those

who perceived good opportunities for entrepreneurship (phi=.20) were also among those involved

in TEA. Fear of failure had a significant negative correlation with TEA (phi=-.11), suggesting

those who perceived that fear of failure is a deterrent to starting a business were less likely to be

involved in TEA. This finding then highlights that the majority of those who did not perceive any

fear of failure were among those involved in TEA. Entrepreneurial intentions were also positively

related to TEA (phi=.21), suggesting that individuals who had higher intentions to start their

business were more likely to be involved in TEA. Overall, these findings suggest a clear link

between entrepreneurial attitudes and actual entrepreneurial activity in Barbados. Liñán (2008)

highlights that such attitudes and intentions are concerned with entrepreneurship education and the

firm creation process.

It is highly likely that the correlations will be significant given the large sample size,

therefore it may be more effective to interpret the significance in terms of effect sizes.


Table 3

Phi Correlations between Attitudes and TEA

Discussion and Conclusion

Entrepreneurial Attitudes and Intentions in Barbados

A review of the literature and an analysis of the GEM’s findings show that although most

respondents in Barbados demonstrated strong positive attitudes towards entrepreneurship as a

career choice and positive perceptions of their capabilities to start a business, a relatively modest

percentage (23%) expressed intentions to start a business within the next three years. This was

divergent to the finding that only a quarter of the respondents expressed fear of failure as a

deterrent factor for starting a business in Barbados. It is thought that the high level of education of

the population has pushed persons towards a risk-averse form of generating income; the higher the

level of education, the less likely a person will start a new venture and the more likely they will

join an existing work force, especially if the availability of good jobs exists (Xavier et al., 2013).

The finding also goes against the typical GEM results as GEM also argues that the higher the

education attainment, the more likely the success and growth of the venture into a high growth

entity. Though Barbadians are viewed to have relatively higher levels of education compared to

other nationals, the success and growth of the venture into a high-growth entity does not bear out

in the findings in terms of attitude, activities and educational attainment as the Barbadian culture

is not one for aggressive independent new venture creation which is required for high growth entity

success.

ATTITUDES

Phi Correlations

with TEA

Entrepreneurial intention Rate

(% who intend to start business within three years) .21

Entrepreneurship as Desirable Career Choice

(i.e. perceived that entrepreneurship is a good career choice) 0.04

Fear of Failure Rate

(i.e. perceived fear of failure will prevent self from starting business) -0.11

High Status Successful Entrepreneurship

(i.e. perceived that successful entrepreneurs enjoy a high status) -0.01

Know Startup Entrepreneur Rate

(i.e. personally knew someone who has started a business) .21*

Media Attention for Entrepreneurship

(i.e. perceived that the media often highlights stories of new successful

businesses) 0.02

Perceived Capabilities

(i.e. perceived skills, knowledge and experience in entrepreneurship) .21*

Perceived Opportunities

(i.e. perceived good opportunities in next six months) .20*


Entrepreneurial Activity in Barbados

The Barbadian population placed less emphasis on ownership of a business and more emphasis on

seeking employment in the later stages of life (45-55 and 55-64 age group). Barbadians choosing

to set up new ventures at an early age as opposed to later years as seen in other countries can be

linked to a shrinking employable market on the island, which has forced more young people into

new venture creation. This supports Renolds et al. (1994) suggestion that unemployment leads to

individuals seeking self employment, thus stimulating entrepreneurial activity. There is also a

general feeling that new venture start-up is now more socially acceptable than in the previous

decade. Further, there was a significant difference in TEA index for gender as males in all age

groups were more inclined to start new ventures. Given that the ownership dimension relates to

the utility to network and ones perception of their capabilities, it was expected that all else being

equal, males should have higher intentions to be self employed, while females would have a

preference for employment. With twice as many females than males seeking higher education, the

expectation based on the literature is for females to join an existing work force. The rationale for

joining the work force is linked to the risk factor associated with becoming an entrepreneur

(Caliendo, Fossen, & Kritikos, 2009). Due to the limits on the job market, the importance of

entrepreneurship as a source of employment for women in the Caribbean is high as in other

developing countries (Acs & Storey, 2004); especially as women are more vulnerable than men.


The research has highlighted that entrepreneurial attitudes have a specific effect on entrepreneurial

activity. The research shows that there is relevance in distinguishing between components of

entrepreneurial attitudes, i.e. fear of failure in starting business, perceptions on start-up

opportunities and self-assessment of personal capabilities to start a firm. The findings show that

there are different determinants of these components, and this suggests that they reflect different

aspects of entrepreneurial attitude in TEA which proved relevant for this explanatory study. This

means that at different stages of entrepreneurship, it is paramount to understand the requisite

entrepreneurial attitudes that drive activity. Based on the literature, despite not being a clear-cut

relationship, entrepreneurial attitudes are linked to entrepreneurial activities (Bosma & Schutjens,

2011). The two pointers of entrepreneurial attitudes, perceived capabilities and high entrepreneur

status positively influence entrepreneurship in general in this study. While the fear of failure

indicator is low for both males and females, this finding significantly opposes what the literature

suggests. The research also showed that males and those in the youngest age groups demonstrated

the most positive entrepreneurial attitudes and highest TEA rates. Additionally, TEA rates were

positively related to educational attainment, with those in the highest educational category (post-

secondary level) demonstrating the highest TEA. Though exploratory, the research lends to the

fact that the positive relation between strong entrepreneurial attitudes and subsequent

entrepreneurial activity is not straightforward. However, entrepreneurship education positively

influences attitude and activity.

It is recognised that this exploratory study has its limitations. Moreover, the research was

meant to be correlational as it focused simply on exploring relationships among variables and not

on causal model testing (e.g. structural equation modelling and longitudinal data analysis). In

future research on explaining entrepreneurial activity it is suggested that researchers undertake to

unravel the methodological problem of distinguishing the effect of entrepreneurial attitudes from

other determinants, as the latter also impacts entrepreneurial attitudes. It is also hoped that future

research adopts more rigorous analyses and methods to estimate causality.


Implications

Based on the conclusions, the authors would like to suggest a few implications for entrepreneurs,

academics and policy makers.

The relatively modest percentage (23%) expressing intentions to start a business within the

next three years is a reason for concern for policy makers and entrepreneurs alike.

Entrepreneurship training should not be limited to those engaged only in long-term programmes.

Currently the entrepreneurial development training seminars facilitated for Micro, Small and

Medium-sized enterprises at the Barbados Youth Business Trust, the Small Business Association,

the Barbados Manufacturers Association and the Youth Entrepreneurship Scheme are necessary

but not sufficient to groom the population size. More is required where vulnerable groups like

women and youth are sidelined, deliberate efforts at engendering the entrepreneurial spirit among

women remains critical.

The Barbadian population placed less emphasis on ownership of a business and more

emphasis on seeking employment in the later stages of life (45-55 and 55-64 age group). This

analysis suggests that entrepreneurship self-efficacy, start-up skills, and entrepreneurial intentions

seem to diminish in later years as opportunity recognition becomes harder and the need to take risk

is reduced. On the contrary, the GEM research suggests that persons step into entrepreneurship

around 40-45. There is a need for more research to be done in this area to create a better

understanding of the phenomenon as this may be a culturally-bound difference that needs more

consideration. Identifying the necessary type of entrepreneurship training required at this stage is

paramount. This would enable entrepreneurship to be considered as a viable option throughout all

the stages of life and an informed career option for everyone.

The research shows that at different stages of entrepreneurship, it is paramount to

understand the requisite entrepreneurial attitudes that drive activity. By building networks and

addressing the delivery and advancement of entrepreneurial education, it is envisioned that the

spirit of entrepreneurship will thrive. Further, the promotion of entrepreneurial activities in

Barbados through media blitz, and having entrepreneurs championed in the education system

would create a buzz that will drive entrepreneurial activity.

Suggestions for future Research

Further research might help explain the types of entrepreneurship training required at the various

stages of the entrepreneur’s life cycle. This could be done as a motion to enhance self-efficacy,

attitude, entrepreneurial intentions, and activity. There is also a need for an in-depth recommended

approach to support entrepreneurship education, which reduces the fear of failure and uptake of

business startups across all demography regardless of gender. The duration of entrepreneurship

education is a gap in the area of entrepreneurship research, an understanding of this area can be

effectively utilised to assist with resource allocation. Finally, as the duration of entrepreneurship

training programs can vary widely, one may need to investigate the different impacts for attitudes,

intentions and activities towards entrepreneurship.

Limitations

Though the study contributes to the field of entrepreneurship, some limitations hinder its impact.

The sample only consisted of one Caribbean island and its population, as such; the validity of its

claims cannot be generalized to all Caribbean territories, but surely some parts can inform decision


making in similar-sized economies. In addition, The GEM data set was collected by another source

and any inherent errors would have been passed on from the source.

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ISSN 1727-5512



Universalising Secondary Education in the Caribbean: Contrasting

Perspectives

Verna Knight


Having adopted a regional conceptualisation of basic education as being

necessarily inclusive of secondary level schooling, emerging research on

Caribbean countries’ experiences with Universal Secondary Education (USE)

highlight a plethora of concerns which have implications for educational quality

at the secondary level (Knight, 2014; Knight & Obidah, 2014; Marks, 2009;

Thompson, 2009). Such concerns mandate a re-examination of national

justifications and extent of support for USE. As such, this paper discusses the

national justifications for USE, and uses data collected from students, teachers,

principals and ministry officials as a basis for an evaluation of stakeholder

reactions and support USE in the tri-island state of Grenada. The findings show

that students strongly support being granted the opportunity for a secondary

education, and share a belief in a direct relationship between completion of

secondary schooling and improved life prospects. Principals and teachers

however, have concerns that USE may have limited secondary schools’ capacity

to provide a quality education for every child. Given new global support for USE

as a post-2015 education goal (UNESCO/UNICEF, 2013; UIS/UNICEF, 2015)

this paper adds to a growing body of work relevant to informing effective

education planning and policy development at the regional and international

levels.

Keywords: Caribbean Education, Universal Secondary Education, Secondary

Education

Introduction

“Education represents the hopes, dreams and aspirations of children, families,

communities and nations around the world – the most reliable route out of poverty and a

critical pathway towards healthier, more productive citizens and stronger societies.”

(UNESCO/UNICEF, 2015, p. 03)

Increasing demand for secondary education during the post-emancipation and post-

independence era in the Caribbean evidences the high value attached to secondary education by

Caribbean nationals. Secondary education was accepted as being the most productive route to

social mobility as it facilitates access to both university-level study as well as careers in various

professional fields (DeLisle, 2012). The limited number of school places and the high demand in

these early years necessitated a selection mechanism, and so two decades after its introduction in


96 V. Knight

England in 1944, the Eleven Plus examination was introduced into the Caribbean as a means for

selecting the highest performing students for free secondary level study.

This approach was challenged at the beginning of the 21st century by both the Education

For All Initiative (EFA) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) initiative which

compelled world countries into action towards the provision of what became known as Universal

Basic Education by 2015. Being signatory to the goals of these initiatives, and having adopted a

definition of compulsory education as being from ages five to sixteen, most Caribbean countries

re-doubled their efforts towards pursuing not only universalised access to primary education, but

also increased access to secondary education. This emphasis on increasing access was evident in

overt changes in education policies and plans across the region. Some countries took a

comprehensive education-reform approach (such as Bahamas, Barbados, the countries of the

Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), and Trinidad and Tobago), and others took a

project-driven approach (such as Belize, Guyana, Jamaica, and the Turks and Caicos Islands)

(Miller, 2000).

Key to note at this stage is that prior to 2015, the international EFA and MDG initiatives

had been careful to emphasise the goal of universal education access as being necessarily

inclusive of access to primary education, and as far as possible access to the lower levels of

secondary schooling. Therefore, while for other developing countries in areas such as Pakistan,

South and West Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa, the EFA/MDG struggle was mostly limited to a

focus on achieving universal primary education, in most Caribbean countries the focus had moved

on to universal secondary education (Cohen, 2006; Cohen & Bloom, 2005; Latif, 2009; Omotayo,

Ihebereme & Maduewesi, 2008; Sperling, 2005; Uko-Aviomoh, Okoh & Omatseye, 2007).

Although there had been improvements in access to secondary education in the Caribbean

during the 1980’s, at the end of that decade, student access to education at that level remained

highly restricted and limited to the number of school places available, and students’ academic

ability. A sub-regional assessment of the status of education in the OECS in 1989 revealed that

the provision of educational access at the primary level was generally satisfactory (with the

exception of students with disabilities who still faced challenges to access). The vast majority of

students who entered primary schools were generally being promoted annually, remaining in

school, and completing the primary cycle in the prescribed time, and so the system was deemed

efficient. With efficient completion rates at the primary level, the limitations in access to the

secondary level then became a major concern. A decision was therefore taken to expand, re-

conceptualize and improve secondary education across the sub-region (Miller, 1991).

The Plan for Restructuring Secondary Education in the OECS

OECS member-states agreed that secondary education would be restructured to include the

following key features as presented in Table 1.

Table 1


Summary of the Key Features of Planned OECS Restructure for Secondary Education 1991-2000

All OECS member states agreed to work towards the following reforms in education at

the secondary level:

Provision of secondary schooling to all children up to the age of 16 years;

The transfer of all children who were not developmentally disabled;

Provision of special schooling for the developmentally disabled up to age 16;

Ensuring that the transfer from primary to secondary schooling be based on satisfying

functional standards of literacy and numeracy at the primary level, and that this would

lead to the phasing out of the Common Entrance Examinations overtime;

That the age of transfer would be allowed to vary between 10-13;

That secondary education would provide a general education through a common

curriculum at the lower secondary level, followed by two years of broad specialization

at the upper secondary level.

Improving the quality of secondary education through comprehensive training for

school principals and teachers , strengthening of foreign language teaching, and

lengthening of school days to five and one half hours of instruction;

Articulate secondary schooling with upper primary grades; tertiary programs;

continuing education; and regional, sub-regional, and national TVET programs;

Strengthen support services at the secondary level in areas such as guidance and

counseling; social welfare; and libraries and learning resources.

Adapted from “Foundations for the Future: The OECS Education Reform Strategy” (Miller et al.,

1991).

The general consensus was that secondary education was to be provided for all students

in both regular and special education institutions until the age of 16, but that the transition would

be dependent on students’ achievement of the functional standards of literacy and numeracy at

the primary level.

In 1998, an assessment of the status of progress on the secondary education strategies

reported moderate to low implementation. The same strategies were therefore retained in the

revised regional education reform strategy (Miller et al., 2000) with a few adaptations as evident

in Table 2.

Table 2

98 V. Knight

Adaptations to the Planned Strategies for Restructuring Secondary Education in the OECS Sub-

Region 2000-2010

The following are some additions and clarifications included in the revised plan for

restructuring secondary education 2000-2010:

Provide secondary education for all children whose developmental status and level of

educational attainment permit their acquisition of this level of education;

Students meeting the functional literacy and numeracy standards at the primary level

should receive certification of their achievement in the form of a primary school

certificate;

The age of transfer from the primary to the secondary education programme should be

allowed to vary from 10 to 15 years.

All students transferred to secondary education should be guaranteed five years of

secondary schooling from the time of their transfer.

At the upper secondary level, all students should be required to take English

Language, Mathematics, a foreign language, a Science and a Technology subject as

the core of their programme of study, to which would be added any other interested

areas of study.

Source: “Pillars for Partnership and Progress: The OECS Education Reform Strategy” (Miller et

al., 2000)

Specific mention must be made of the variation period provided for students in

transferring to the secondary level – the age of transfer was allowed to vary from 10-15 years,

and all students who transferred to the secondary level were to be guaranteed five years of

secondary schooling from the time of transfer. Upon completion of secondary school all students

were expected to sit a minimum core of five subjects certified by the CXC (Caribbean

Examination Council) level (English language, Mathematics, a foreign language, a science and a

technology subject).

The Reality of the Implementation of USE in the OECS Sub-Region

The reality of the implementation of USE in member states however tells a different story to that

which was agreed in the conceptualised OECS Plan for restructuring secondary education.

Reports and research on the reality of the implementation of the policy of universalised secondary

education in St. Vincent and Grenada for example (Marks, 2009; Knight, 2014; Knight & Obidah,

2014) make several areas of concerns immediately apparent. The general areas of concern

included: an elimination of functional literacy and numeracy standards as a basis for facilitating

student transfer to the secondary level; limited variations in the age criterion for transfer;

inadequate training of secondary teachers for addressing literacy and numeracy deficiencies;

inadequate teacher training in differentiated instruction; increased disciplinary concerns; and the

absence of differentiated pathways for upper secondary education.

CSEC level certifications of students upon completion of secondary schooling

The CSEC certification results for students on completion of secondary education raised further

concerns. CSEC reports on secondary students’ performance in English A and Mathematics over

the period 2006 – 2014, for example, show a dismal picture as upon completion of the secondary

level less than half of the student population were able to obtain CSEC certification in these

foundational areas (CXC Subject Reports, 2006-2014). CXC’s CSEC regional performance


reviews also showed that generally less than one quarter of the cohort of students sitting CSEC

examinations obtain acceptable grades in five or more subjects. In 2009 for example, only 21

percent of the students sitting CSEC received five or more passes. Fifty-two percent of the

candidates either did not pass any subject, or received acceptable grades in only one subject (Jules,

2010). Such outcomes present a threat to the ultimate goals of universalised access to education.

Research Questions

The significance of the above concerns for educational quality at the secondary level (Knight,

2014; Knight & Obidah, 2014; Marks, 2009; Thompson, 2009) mandate a re-examination of

national justifications and extent of support for USE. As such, this paper specifically addresses

the following research questions:

1. What were the national justifications for pursuing USE in Grenada?

2. What was the reaction of principals toward USE?

3. What were the reactions of teachers and students toward USE?

The contrasting perspectives of these three groups of stakeholders are then used as a basis

for a general evaluation of stakeholder reactions and support USE in the tri-island state of

Grenada.

The Background to USE in Grenada

An analysis of the tri-island state’s struggle towards universalised access to secondary education

as presented in Knight (2014) was characterised by the full implementation of USE on the sister

isles in 1997/1998, and a gradual phasing in of the policy on the mainland. Given the small

population of 6,000 inhabitants on the sister isles (Government of Grenada, 2013) and the

availability of school places, the directive was given that all students sitting the CEE would be

offered a place at the secondary level despite their performance at the beginning of the 1997/1998

school year. The traditional procedure remained for students attending schools on the mainland

of Grenada; places were offered for the highest performing eleven to twelve year old students.

However, a second directive was given relating to students on the mainland – that space would

be reserved for all students sitting the CEE who were aged thirteen-plus, and for whom it would

have been their final attempt at the CEE. This was intended to ensure that these students

transitioned to the secondary level and were not left behind at the primary level (therefore being

at risk to eventually dropping out).

To accommodate the increased student enrollment, classroom space was expanded in

secondary schools throughout the tri-island state. Only one new school was built. Given that

current and projected birth-rate patterns predicted reduced students enrollment figures within the

coming years, the decision was made to pursue a phased approach (as space allowed). Full

transition was achieved in 2012.

Literacy and Numeracy Levels in Grenada

Table 3 provides insight into student performance in literacy and numeracy across Grenada for

the years 2000-2013. This is a useful backdrop for understanding the perspectives shared by the

various stakeholders as it relates to universalising secondary education in the way that it has been

achieved in Grenada.

100 V. Knight

Table 3

National Mean Performance in Grade 4 Minimum Competency Test 2000 – 2013 (English and

Mathematics)

Years National Mean for English

Language

National Mean for

Mathematics

2000 31.7 25.2

2001 34.2 36.1

2002 44.3 38.1

2003 52.6 39.4

2004 Not Available Not Available


2006 58.0 24.9

2007 47.5 41.2

2008 52.4 47.9

2009 55.2 43.7


2011 55.1 49.2

2012 58.8 56.2

2013 59.7 43.2

Source: Education Statistical Digest (Ministry of Education – Grenada, 2014)

The data show that for over the last decade and a half, the mean student performance in

the subject of English Language has ranged between 31 percent to 59 percent; for the area of

Mathematics it is lower – 24 percent to 56 percent. This is indicative of student performance in

Grade 4 at the primary level and shows significant gaps in the minimum competencies that

students should have already attained at that level, and is indicative of the gaps they later have

when transferred to the secondary level. This paper seeks to contribute to the growing debate on

universalising access to quality education at the sub-regional, regional and international levels,

through an interrogation of the multiple perspectives of ministry officials, principals, teachers and

students towards universalised access at the secondary level.

Given limited finances for education development in developing countries, global efforts

aimed at improving education quality have resulted in many premature and ad-hoc adoption and

implementation of policies and programmes promoted by international donor agencies. This has

implications for the overall effectiveness of such policies and programmes, and the ultimate

success of these in achieving positive student outcomes (Anderson & Mundy, 2014; Creemers &

Reezigt, 2005).


The conceptual framework for this paper is informed by the dual fields of school

effectiveness and school improvement research which emphasise that there is a direct relationship

between school processes and student outcomes, and that system-level changes which target

schools should ensure that schools have first been strengthened for managing the change, and that

ultimately all changes should enhance student outcomes. Such studies are supportive of a mandate

for schools to produce students for future societal effectiveness, and therefore underscore the need

for greater accountability to the public for education quality (Cheng & Mok, 2008; Schereens,

2013).

Methodology

Design

This study utilised a mixed-method design. Mixed-methods research is now viewed as the third

methodological movement and an approach that has much value to education research. Its

emergence has been in response to the limitations of the sole use of either quantitative or

qualitative methods and it is considered by many to be a legitimate alternative to these two

research traditions (Creswell, 2015; Johnson & Christensen, 2014). A QUAN-QUAL mixed

method design was used; specifically what Leech and Onwuegbuzie (2009) refer to as a “partially

mixed concurrent equal status design” (p. 268).

The contrasting perspectives presented in this paper were obtained from data collected

from a larger mixed–method study of USE in Grenada. Table 4 provides a summary of the

composition of the purposive research sample from which the data was collected to inform the

development of this paper.

Table 4

Demographic Composition of Research Participants

Research Participant

Groups

Numbers of Participants Data Collection Mechanism

Ministry Officials Three (3) Interviews

Principals Eight (8) Face-to-Face Interviews

Teachers Three hundred and Eleven

(311)

Questionnaire Survey

Students Eight (8) Groups

Focus group Sessions

Three ministry officials were interviewed (two former Chief Education Officers, and one former

area education officer for the sister islands). Each principal from the eight selected schools was

interviewed. Questionnaires were also distributed to all teachers in the eight selected schools, and

one student focus group session was held per selected school. Each focus group was comprised

of ten (10) students per school. The students were selected from all five class levels at the

secondary schools. The students selected all volunteered to be part of the group session and

102 V. Knight

represented a range of mixed ability levels. The schools targeted were the two secondary schools

on the sister isles, and six of the lowest performing secondary schools on the mainland to which

most lower performing students were being allocated since the policy of USE was implemented.

Data Analysis

While descriptive statistical procedures were used to analyse the quantitative data from both

teachers and student surveys, thematic analysis was used to analyze the qualitative data. The

qualitative data analysis was also aided by a Daily Interpretive Analysis (DIA) (Claudet, 1999)

which was conducted after each interview and focus group session, and aided in identifying

emerging themes from the data. In the use of this QUAN-QUAL design, the data were not mixed

across phases but rather each was analysed separately and mixed at the data interpretation stage

(Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2009).

Findings

Examining the justifications for the implementation of the policy of universalized access to

Secondary Education in Grenada

Principals and teachers revealed a lack of knowledge as it relates to the national justifications for

the government’s determination to pursue the policy of universalised access to secondary

education. Two principals interviewed were aware of the exact year when the policy of USE

began affecting their school; however the others reported that they became aware of the policy

after noticing a gradual increase in student enrollment at their schools, especially the placement

of an increased number of students lacking basic skills for successfully engaging at the secondary

level. As principals and teachers began to raise questions regarding the weak basic skills of

increasing numbers of students being transferred to the secondary level, ministry officials

confirmed that a policy of USE was being pursued, and was thus affecting their schools. Schools

were therefore not prepared for the move towards universalised access.

Interestingly, when the question of consultations with key educational stakeholders was

raised in interviews with ministry officials, they insisted that educational stakeholders were

consulted regarding the implementation of USE, but not directly. The consultations were

described as having taken place at the Teachers’ Union level given their involvement in

consultations towards the development of the Strategic Plan for Educational Enhancement and

Development (SPEED II) which included the goal of pursuing universalized secondary access.

As was explained:

“The Grenada Union of Teachers and the National Parent Teacher Association were part

of the preparation of SPEED I and SPEED II, and increasing access to secondary

education was highlighted then as one of governments’ plans for the coming years.”

(Ministry Official #3)

The consultations therefore were not necessarily held with schools directly, or even the

Union directly. The result was a disconnect between the policy dictated from the central

administrative level (Ministry of Education and Human Resource Development) and the reality

being experienced at the school level.

Ministry officials were therefore the only group who was able to present insight into the national

justifications for the implementation of universalised access to secondary education in Grenada.

All three ministry officials interviewed explained that the policy was basically linked to capacity.

The following three key points were presented by all three Ministry officials as justifications for

pursuing USE:


1. That one of the goals of education was always to provide a secondary education for

every child;

2. That the inability to previously provide a place at the secondary level for each child

had been traditionally limited by capacity not students’ ability; and

3. USE was a goal being pursued by other Caribbean countries at the regional level

(OECS), and Grenada was lagging in implementation.

Generally, access at the primary and secondary levels was considered to comprise a basic

education, and the inability to provide a place for every child had simply been previously limited

by capacity, that is the number of physical places available for enrolling students at the secondary

level, rather than an issue of students’ ability or readiness for secondary education. As a result

when the opportunity allowed for increased enrolments, it was taken.

It was also explained that increased motivation came in the form of regional emphasis on

achieving USE which had been achieved or was at the time being aggressively pursued by other

neighbouring Caribbean countries and therefore USE was included in the national education

policy as a goal of education. This allowed for increased emphasis to be placed on the

achievement of USE as an educational attainment.

Mixed Reactions toward USE

Principals, teachers and students provided insight into the question of support for the policy of

USE.

Principals

Dissatisfaction with policy of USE

All eight (8) principals expressed dissatisfaction with the policy of USE. The overall feeling was

that there was an increased number of students being transferred from the primary school level to

the secondary level, who were unprepared for successfully engaging with learning at the

secondary level, and additionally they were being transferred to the care of teachers who lacked

the skills to help them succeed. Principals explained that while the idea of everyone being given

a secondary education was good, the challenges it has brought to the secondary education system

were affecting the quality of education being provided at that level. The principals asserted that

increased numbers of students were being sent to their schools even though the schools were not

prepared to receive them.

Challenges due to the policy of USE

For all schools, the years since the government began its aggressive implementation of USE

(1997-present) have been fraught with struggles to expand school facilities, and teaching capacity

to match increased numbers. Even with the additional provision of literacy coordinators and

school counselors to secondary schools, the challenges remain. The principals highlighted the

following as critical challenges: students with significant weaknesses in the basic areas of

language and numeracy; inability of teachers to provide differentiated instruction in all

classrooms; the predominantly academic orientation of the secondary school curriculum; and a

general fear that USE was compromising the quality of education being provided at the secondary

level.

Teachers

USE perceived to be impacting teaching Quality

104 V. Knight

At the point of the study being conducted, most teachers (88%) in the selected schools were aware

that the policy of USE was in effect. In fact, most teachers blamed USE for what they perceived

as being falling standards in teaching and learning at the secondary level. Ninety eight percent

(98%) of the teachers reported an increase in the number of students facing academic challenges

in the classroom. Seventy-three percent (73%) of them believed that the policy of USE was

responsible for falling standards in teaching and learning. This they believed was as a result of

students lacking the basic skills for secondary level education (73%); overcrowded classrooms

(42%), lack of appropriate resources to address students’ needs (56%); inadequate curriculum

(55%); and teachers’ lack of appropriate training to meet the current student needs (40%). These

results are depicted in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Teacher-Identified USE-Motivated Factors Affecting Quality of Education

Teachers were of the view that universalised access had contributed to an increase in the

following problems at the secondary level: students with poor literacy skills; insufficient teaching

and learning resources to adequately teach all students; an inadequate curriculum which was no

longer suitable for meeting all students’ needs; overcrowded classrooms which made teaching

difficult, and inadequacies in teacher training as the traditional training which was suited for

teaching at the secondary level was now revealed as being no longer adequate. Teachers therefore

saw the policy of USE as having aggravated negative conditions at the secondary level which

now threatened their delivery of quality teaching and learning.

Teacher-recommended actions for addressing USE-related challenges

From a list of research-supported educational interventions for improving educational

quality, teachers indicated their greatest support for providing alternative secondary schools

(76%), improved professional development training jointly collaborated among schools (75%),

peer assessment for developmental purposes (61%), and the joint educational programmes

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Poor LiteracySkills

InsufficentResources

InadequateCurriculum

OvercrowdedClassrooms

InadequateTeacherTraining

Percentage (%)


among/between schools (60%). They exhibited mixed reactions regarding teacher exchange

programmes (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Level of Teachers’ Support for Five Optional Educational Interventions for

Improving Secondary Schooling

Students

Students’ perception regarding current Education Quality

Seventy-five percent (75%) of the students generally genuinely believed that they were being

afforded a good quality education at their schools even though there were areas in which they

were aware that improvements were needed. A significant twenty-four percent (24%) however

disagreed. This is evident in Figure 3.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Supportive (%)

Non Supportive (%)

106 V. Knight

Figure 3: Students Perceptions Regarding the Quality of Their Secondary Education

Students’ feelings were in direct contrast to those of their teachers, while at the same time

showing evidence of their awareness of the new context of education within which they were

being taught. They were generally of the belief that a good education was necessary for success

in adult life. They saw schools as being the providers of the enabling foundations for obtaining a

good job, and subsequently a successful life, and were willing to pursue secondary schooling for

this reason; this was true even for the students with weak reading and writing skills.

“You need a good education to get a good job…[students] struggle through even if they

are having problems, because they want to get a good education…to get a good job”

(Group #1)

Students’ feelings regarding the policy of USE

Most students had never heard the term ‘Universal Secondary Education’ nor were they

aware that it was a policy informing their transfer to the secondary level. Most students on the

sister isles of Grenada (attending the two secondary schools on the Carriacou) were however

familiar with the term, having heard it being used but unsure as to what it really meant.

These students from schools on Carriacou were however very aware that they no longer

needed to ‘pass’ the CEE to be placed at a secondary school on the island of Carriacou, while the

students from the secondary schools on mainland Grenada were still generally of the belief that

they had all been awarded a place because they had ‘passed’ the CEE.

In order to obtain students’ views on the policy of USE, the concept was subsequently explained

to them during the focus group discussion, and general feelings were shared by students as they

made the connections between the policy and their current secondary schooling experience. The

students who were part of the focus groups on the sister isles were the most vocal about their

feelings regarding USE.

“Some [students] are not ready for secondary school but are given a free pass, and then

they can’t do the work…lots of them get teased because they can’t speak well, read well

or write well…these students misbehave and distract class” (Group #1).

“It is not a completely good policy; not if some students lack the basic skills…those

lacking skills are sent to secondary school and they give more trouble than anything else”

(Group #2).

75%

24%

1%

YES NO NR


Overall, all eight groups of students were generally supportive of the plan to afford every

child a secondary education, but had some reservations about the impact this would have on

schools. The general feeling was that the opportunity should only be given when a student has

obtained the basic skills to enable them to complete the level of work necessary at the secondary

level.

“It is a good policy but only for those who are ready and able to do the work. Some

students cannot do the work and need help to learn to read and write well first” (Group

#8).

“It is a good policy. Everyone needs a good education, but [there needs to be] more help

for the slower students” (Group # 4).

“Students should earn the right to a secondary education. It should not be a free pass.

Those who are not ready should remain at the primary school level until they are ready…It

makes no sense to give them a free pass if they cannot do the work…because those students

are the main ones who come to school and give teachers a lot of trouble and cause

distractions in the class” (Group # 7).

“Some students are not performing good because they don’t have the skills they need to

understand and do well in the different subjects and so they get left behind” (Group #2).

“Students who can’t read and write don’t do well on exams” (Group #3).

The dominant feeling of most students was that while a secondary education was valuable

and critical to every student’s future, students should only be transferred from the primary to the

secondary level when they have obtained the necessary skills (basic reading, writing and

numeracy skills) needed for successful engagement with the curriculum.

Students’ recommendations for addressing current problems in Secondary Education

A recommendation from the students as it regards improving secondary education was that

secondary schools needed to obtain more trained teachers to help those students who were

struggling:

“They [School authorities] need more trained teachers to help those who are weak and

struggling…teachers who care. ...those [students] who are weak in their main subjects

want to at least learn a skill before leaving secondary school, since they won’t be able to

go any further …like college” (Group #8).

Students also recommended that a skills training programme be part of the curriculum or

programme options at the secondary level to present an alternative educational pathway for some

students who are unable to successfully engage with the dominantly academic nature of the

current secondary school curriculum.

Discussion

Examining justifications for USE

108 V. Knight

Firstly, the insight provided by the research findings as it relates to justifications for pursuing

USE shows evidence of two deep concerns: lack of clarity at the school level as it relates to

national justifications for pursuing USE, and a disparity between education administrators’ stated

reasons for pursuing USE, and the national conceptualisation of secondary education as

articulated in education policy plans for Grenada.

While education administrators at the ministry level were able to articulate their

perceptions regarding what they believed to be the justifications for pursuing universalised access

to secondary education, this clarity was glaringly absent at the school level. Both principals and

teachers revealed this in their responses. There are strong indications that this lack of clarity

regarding the justifications for the implementation of USE may have contributed to the high level

of concerns expressed by both principals and teachers regarding the policy’s perceived negative

impact on education quality. This is obviously a critical factor to be addressed in planning for

implementation of USE at the school level.

The effort made by the Ministry of Education to engage stakeholder consultations is evidence

of a basic awareness of the importance of stakeholder consultations to effecting successful policy

implementation. However the limitations of this consultation to the union level rather than

engaging schools directly may have been a weakness as it relates to planning for implementation.

The aspect of the tale as it relates to justifications could therefore only be articulated at the

ministry level through the voice of educational administrators and not at the school level through

the voices of principals and teachers.

Secondly, analysis of the administrators’ responses regarding the justifications for USE

in Grenada provides insight into two perceived main drivers for USE: a belief in the provision of

secondary education for every child, and a desire to fulfill external education policy commitments

regarding the provision of basic education. This first justification while evident at the sub-regional

level (Miller et al., 2000) is however not directly evident in the education strategic plan for

Grenada – SPEED II. While establishing that “every individual has the right to access to education

for lifelong learning” (SPEED II, 2005, p. 08), as it relates to secondary education SPEED II

clearly articulates the following:

a) Secondary education should be premised upon the attainment of the goals of primary

education,

b) Secondary education should provide a foundation for access to and successful

completion of tertiary education,

c) Completion of secondary education is seen as the minimum standard for basic

preparation for the world of work.

Local administrators’ justification that the inability to previously provide a place at the

secondary level for every child had been traditionally limited by school capacity and academic

merit is supported and explained by the findings of Knight (2014) as it relates to the

implementation of USE in Grenada. Knight (2014) in outlining the implementation process

provided insight into the policies which guided the transfer process. The Ministry’s policy

informing the transfer process was the practice of awarding a place at the secondary level for the

best performing 11-12 year old students who would have attained the desired ‘pass mark’ on the

basis of having completed the CEE. The pass mark however was not a fixed performance grade

to be attained by students, but rather a flexible performance score that was dependent each year

on the number of classroom places available for facilitating student transfer. This number of

places available was affected in any given year by a number of factors inclusive of classroom

expansion, and student retention levels at the secondary schools.


The second driver for USE in Grenada appears to be its regional educational

commitments. As one of the nine member states of the sub-regional Organization of Eastern

Caribbean States, Grenada was committed to a harmonised sub-regional education policy

framework which highlighted universalised access to education as a regional goal to be pursued

and achieved by 2015. This sub-regional policy framework was developed by all nine member

states with deliberate alignment to the international EFA and MDG educational targets to which

the wider Caribbean region was also signatory as members of the Caribbean Community

(CARICOM) Miller et al., 2000; UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs/UN (UNESCO,

2000; Department of Public Information, 2005). This sub-regional agenda feeds into broader

regional and international commitments to EFA and MDG’s goals.

Shared Concerns for Educational Quality

The global post-2015 education and developmental agenda has taken a more direct

approach to shaping secondary education by highlighting the goal of the pursuit of universalised

access to basic education as not being limited to the primary level but necessarily inclusive also

of secondary level schooling (UIS/UNICEF, 2015; UNESCO/UNICEF, 2013). Unlike many

other developing countries in Asia, the Caribbean is way ahead in the implementation of this

educational goal. The question which persists is how should the secondary education system be

structured to ensure that access results in individual student success? Critical to responding to this

question however is the need to respond to the experiences shared by multiple school-level

stakeholders such as principals, teachers and students regarding the impact of USE on schools.

The findings generally reveal that principals believe that secondary schools currently lack

adequate and relevant resources to meet the needs of the newly-included groups of students, given

increased disparities in students’ knowledge, skills, abilities and interests.

Teachers’ concerns on the other hand were specifically focused on the negative impact

they perceived that universalised access to secondary education has had on the quality of their

overall output, i.e., the results of teaching evident by student performance on standardised exams.

Their concerns mainly relate to increased challenges in the classrooms due to student diversity

and the increased strain this placed on them as teachers.

The responses of the teachers and students reflect a belief that transition should be based

on student readiness, rather than automatic promotion. This feeling is generally in support of a

conceptualisation of secondary education that reflects the old model but with a more stringent

focus on student acquisition of the basic literacy, numeracy and communication skills at the

primary school level. However in recognition of the new context that is the current reality shaped

by the policy of USE, both teachers and students were supportive of differentiated secondary

education to meet the needs of the current secondary education.

An interesting observation from the findings was the contrasting feelings of teachers and

students regarding current educational quality. While teachers were convinced that educational

quality was currently under threat, students shared the opposite view. Students expressed sincere

faith in the current education quality, and believed that it was a good one that would prepare them

for success in life. This belief did not blind them to the fact that there were problems; an awareness

they were quite willing to express (Knight & Obidah, 2014). However this obvious faith in the

education system must be honored, upheld and maintained at all costs.

Teachers specifically expressed support for the introduction of alternative schools, and

developing joint education programmes among schools to address the needs of students with

challenges. Teachers’ responses show evidence of their awareness of their own limitations as it

110 V. Knight

relates to training and development and expressed a general willingness to participate in

appropriate collaborative programmes for developmental purposes.

Students on the other hand expressed the need for increased options for students to pursue

skills training at the secondary level; especially those students facing significant difficulties with

the academic-oriented nature of the secondary education programme.

While the responses of principals simply indicate that better preparation of secondary

schools to meet the new demands is needed, the responses of the teachers and students seem to

strongly support specifically differentiating instruction and/or programmes and pathways for

students transferred to the secondary level.

Teachers and principals serve as key gatekeepers of educational quality and by extension

students’ preparation for success in life and work. If the educational gatekeepers are questioning

the educational quality they are able to provide then as educational administrators and policy

makers we must stop and listen. The research findings did not provide data to allow the researcher

to delve deeply into the factors teachers perceived as having a detrimental impact on educational

quality, but a general idea could be obtained as teachers identified threats such as students’ poor

literacy skills; insufficient teaching and learning resources to adequately teach all students; an

inadequate curriculum which was no longer suitable for meeting all students’ needs; overcrowded

classrooms which made teaching difficult, and inadequacies in their teacher training as the

traditional training which was suited for teaching at the secondary level was now unable to enable

them to adequately meet the needs of all students.

Conclusion

In an era of universalised access to secondary education, research and reports repeatedly

emphasise the need for education systems, and by extension schools, to maintain a parallel focus

on education quantity and education quality in order to achieve the ultimate goal of educational

success for each child. In the Caribbean the question of what is the best way forward for

improving the quality of educational outcomes in Caribbean secondary schools continues to

dominate educational forums. Consensus is yet to be reached as to whether education for all

should mean that secondary education must look the same for every child or whether secondary

education should be re-conceptualised to provide multiple pathways responsive to the varying

interests, needs, and capabilities of students. This paper confirms the need for urgent decision

making in this regard, and provides support from the perspectives of education administrators,

school leaders, teachers and students toward the development of multiple pathways in secondary

education to fully address the demands of educational inclusion.

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ISSN 1727-5512



Using Web 2.0 Technologies in a College Composition Classroom in the

Caribbean: The Case of the Electronic Dictionary of Bahamian English

Raymond Oenbring

The College of The Bahamas, Nassau, The Bahamas

The article provides an example of how wikis and other web 2.0 technologies can

play an important role in building knowledge and conducting research in post-

secondary English composition classrooms in the Caribbean and other academic

sites on the global margins. Specifically, the piece overviews the development of

the electronic Dictionary of Bahamian English (eDBE) from Holm and Shilling’s

publication of the original 1982 Dictionary of Bahamian English to recent

international collaboration leading to the development of the eDBE. Using the

eDBE as an example, the piece provides insight into what role research projects

using web 2.0 technologies can play in the post-secondary English composition

classroom, especially in academic sites in the Caribbean.

Keywords: Computers and composition, Bahamian Creole English, Caribbean

composition, Caribbean English, wikis

Introduction

Although wikis and other web 2.0 technologies offer unprecedented opportunity for information

transfer and collaboration between socially and geographically distant individuals and social

groups, most work in the field of rhetoric and composition1 promoting the use of wikis and similar

web 2.0 technologies have endorsed these technologies primarily for the ways these platforms can,

through class writing assignments, support intellectual and critical development in the individual

student – rather than for the legitimate and important public research such technologies can

support. That is to say, compositionists and digital media scholars who have endorsed the use of

wikis in the classroom have usually done so for one or more the following reasons: to break down

cultural, geographic, and/or public/private barriers between and within students (see, for example,

Almjeld, Rybas, & Rybas, 2013); to facilitate collaboration, critical engagement, and transfer of

information within and between classrooms and student groups (see, for example, Albert &

1Broadly stated, the discipline of rhetoric and composition is an academic field dedicated to the systematic

study of best practices in the teaching of postsecondary writing. While there have been some moves toward

institutionalising the discipline of rhetoric and composition in the Caribbean in the past few years (see, for

example, Milson-Whyte, 2015), rhetoric and composition remain, unfortunately, a largely American-based

discipline.


114 R. Oenbring

Kussmall, 2008; Gibert, Chen, & Sabol, 2008; and Moxey & Meehan, 2007); to offer students a

site for extensive but low stakes writing (see, for example, Maxwell & Fellczak, 2008); or to give

students a medium for multimodal writing (for an overview of all of these different threads, see

Lundin (2008)). Almjeld, Rybas, and Rybas (2013), furthermore, described their use of wikis and

other web 2.0 technologies to facilitate collaboration between students at three geographically

distant universities in the United States.

As the range of the previous studies suggests, what is missing from the critical conversation

in rhetoric and composition is what the use of wikis and other web 2.0 technologies in the

composition classroom can add to public research and public knowledge – not merely as platforms

for ephemeral assignments and/or class web publication – but as legitimate tools for building and

storing knowledge, especially in academic sites such as the Caribbean that are outside the Western

academic establishment and that may not have the funding and resources for more traditional

research. Indeed, speaking of the success of wikis at challenging traditional academic models of

scholarship and knowledge building, Cummings (2008) noted that “no matter how improbable it

may seem that a web page that anyone can edit would lead to valuable knowledge, Wikipedia

makes it clear that there is now another model for knowledge creation” (p. 2). Furthermore, if

rhetoric and composition scholars are to take seriously our claims that web technologies can and

should allow students the opportunity to become public writers (see, for example, the critical

discussion in Isaacs & Jackson, 2001) and we are to truly elevate student writing and inquiry in

the composition classroom beyond mere fleeting assignments below the level of genuine research,

wikis and other web 2.0 platforms seem promising and cost-effective vehicles for allowing

students – especially students in sites on the margins of the global academy – to participate in

genuine research aimed at storing and safeguarding their cultural and linguistic memory.

Several existing studies have found that using web 2.0 technologies such as wikis in post-

secondary classes can increase student engagement and learning (see, for instance, Caeton, 2008).

Senier (2015) found, for example, that having students in her class on 21st Century Native

American literature compose their essays on Wikipedia as lasting entries2 made students notably

more “motivated and invested” (p. 33) in their writing assignments. Similarly, Stafford, Elgeuta,

and Cameron (2014) found that having students in cognitive psychology classes participate in a

class wiki led to statistically significant improvements in student average grades compared to

classes where the students did not participate in a classroom wiki.

The present study offers a case study in the Caribbean context of how wikis and web 2.0

platforms can be used in the post-secondary composition classroom to support student research

and student engagement. The specific web 2.0 platform discussed in the study is the electronic

Dictionary of Bahamian English (eDBE), a ‘wiki-ised’ version of linguists John Holm and Alison

Shilling’s 1982 magisterial study of the lexicon of the diverse sociolinguistic communities

inhabiting the Bahamian archipelago, the Dictionary of Bahamian English (DBE). After providing

some historical background regarding the social situation and state of research in the Bahamas, the

piece traces the development of the eDBE from the original 1982 DBE to recent international

collaboration leading to the development of the eDBE.

Social situation and the state of research in the Bahamas

2 21st Century Native American literature is, according to Senier, an area where there are significant gaps

in coverage in Wikipedia.


As is the case in other English-speaking Caribbean nations, the majority of people in the Bahamas

speak as their home language an English-based creole, referred to by linguists as Bahamian Creole

English (BCE). Despite BCE’s close and interesting historical connections with African American

Vernacular English (AAVE) and Gullah, a relationship that a number of scholars have suggested

might provide insight into the historical development of AAVE and creole languages more

generally, presently there are only limited number of publicly-available academic studies of

Bahamian language and culture. This paucity of scholarship is due both to a lack of attention from

international researchers and from the limited amount of research activity that has traditionally

taken place in academic and government institutions in the Bahamas. Formed soon after

independence, and having until recently an almost exclusive focus on teaching, the College of the

Bahamas (COB) remains the only four-year college or university in the entire country. Although

the government of the Bahamas has expressed a commitment toward moving COB to a more

research-intensive university, there remain significant roadblocks to conducting research at COB,

including a lack of funding, library resources, research facilities, and research assistant support.

Indeed, despite the Bahamas’ complex sociolinguistic situation, COB still lacks a linguistics major

and until recently did not offer a Bachelor’s degree in English. (As all of this suggests, if an

English scholar at COB is looking for students to mobilise for research activity, the clearest

available source is their sections of first-year and advanced composition, which, of course,

constitute the vast majority of sections offered by the School of English Studies at COB.)

I see the ongoing dictionary project as a good example of using wiki and web 2.0

technology as a means to safeguard cultural memory and build academic knowledge, especially in

cultural contexts and institutions without extensive research support or research traditions.

Moreover, I argue that wiki and web 2.0 technologies, such as those that I outline here, are valuable

tools for allowing international collaboration facilitating research in academic sites without

extensive research funding or research assistant support. Indeed, as a small, still developing

country without extensive research funding, but with relatively high rates of internet use and

access, even in rural ‘family islands’, the Bahamas seems well-suited for research studies using

digital media and computer-mediated communication. With regard to student experience, the

working hypothesis of the study was that having students work directly with the web 2.0

technologies of the online dictionary would improve student engagement in writing assignments

due both to the arresting nature of the multimedia technologies and to students recognising the

importance of their work in preserving their language and culture.

The history of the DBE

In 1982 John Holm and Alison Shilling, two expatriate scholars who had been working at COB,

published the groundbreaking Dictionary of Bahamian English (DBE), a book that remains the

only complete academic study of the unique patterns of usage of Bahamian English. Impressively

comprehensive at the time of publication, the volume includes all of the following: contemporary

BCE terms and expressions; terms used at different social levels in the Bahamas; terms only

attested in historical documents; terms used in various island enclaves; and, finally, terms used by

the local white and Haitian minorities. To build the dictionary, Holm and Shilling combined

extensive word lists they had individually developed for their respective research programmes.

Supported by a grant from the United States’ National Endowment for the Humanities, Holm

116 R. Oenbring

traveled extensively throughout the Bahamian archipelago, interviewing informants in many

different settlements on many different islands.3

Despite the importance of the study, the DBE has long been out of print and not widely

available to either the Bahamian population or the scholarly community. In fact, only a limited

number of copies of the book were printed during the original run and the publisher, Lexik House,

went out of business soon after the original publication. In recent years, the only possible wait to

obtain a copy of the volume has been to purchase an (oftentimes decidedly expensive) used copy

on the secondary market. What’s more, COB has only one copy of the 1982 DBE and it, like the

rest of the specifically Bahamian material has been housed (that is, basically locked away) in

Special Collections in the library. That is to say, the dictionary has for decades been unavailable

in any form to the vast majority of the Bahamian population. In addition, most Bahamians are still

unaware of its existence.

As early as his presentation at the 1988 Society for Caribbean Linguistics conference in

Nassau entitled “A Supplement to the Dictionary of Bahamian English,” a piece where he offered

up a number of corrections, addendums and new entries for the dictionary, Holm had openly

invited scholars interested in Bahamian English to continue his and Shilling’s work on the DBE

and to expand it beyond the original 5,000 entries (see, Holm, 1988a).4Indeed, despite its

comprehensive nature, there have, in the decades since its original publication, developed a

number of glaring omissions in the DBE, especially in the realm of youth speech.5Furthermore,

although the original authors did their best to include as much terminology as possible from rural

‘family islands’ in the Bahamas, the original DBE, like much academic research done in and about

the Bahamas, may have used an informant sample in which individuals from the capital, Nassau,

are over-represented and informants from rural areas are under-represented. Nevertheless, after

decades without any progress, work on the continued development of the DBE has advanced

dramatically since 2009 when Holm and Shilling granted COB the copyright to the DBE and,

furthermore, the rights to digitise and update the work.

The design and development of the dLOC DBE and eDBE

At present, the 1982 DBE is currently being digitised and updated though the combined effort of

scholars and students at The College of The Bahamas, the Digital Library of the Caribbean (dLOC)

cooperative (technical infrastructure is provided by the University of Florida, Gainesville), and the

Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich (LMU), Germany. The initial stage of the project – that

is, the scanning of the book’s pages and uploading of the page images to dLOC – was completed

between 2009 and 2010 by COB libraries.6These digital page images (in .jpg format) are now

3After leaving COB, Holm has gone on to become an important scholar of the study of creole languages,

publishing several foundational texts in creolistics, including Holm (1988b, 1989). 4Holm (1988a) noted for example that: “As our work [on the DBE] progressed it became increasingly clear

that we had uncovered only the tip of the iceberg, and that much more work remains to be done. We hope

other linguists in the Bahamas will continue this endeavor, which is richly rewarding for all that it reveals

about Bahamian society, culture, and history” (p. 1). 5For example, the most common term of address between young Bahamians, male or female, pronounced

[bəj], usually spelled <bey>, is only present in the 1982 DBE in the form of the spelling variants <buoy>,

<boy>, and <beyeh>. 6For their work in securing the copyright and scanning and uploading the page images, I thank the COB

library team, especially former head librarian Willimae Johnson.


available on the web through dLOC (for the purposes of this study, I call this interface the dLOC

DBE).7For a screenshot of the dLOC DBE interface, see Figure 1.

Figure 1. dLOC DBE layout

Although the dLOC DBE does provide an accurate, broadly-accessible record of the

original 1982 volume, the dLOC DBE interface does not take advantage of much of what digital

technology is good at: that is, the ability for rapid searching and sorting, and the potential to be

updated. Indeed, the dLOC DBE is a static work; the definitions cannot be edited, expanded, added

to or supplemented with multimedia content. Furthermore, the definitions of the dLOC DBE are

not searchable. In fact, in order to search for a definition a user of the dLOC DBE must click

through the images much as they would turn through the pages of a physical book. Finally, the

dLOC DBE lacks a capacity for part of speech or semantic tagging. Thus, as all of this suggests,

the dLOC DBE’s potential uses as a research and publication tool in the composition classroom

are limited.

Following the research of Lisabeth (2015) and others into the use of wikis to build student

engagement in postsecondary writing classes, I determined that a wiki-style interface would

increase students’ opportunities for substantive engagement and interaction with the Holm and

Shilling’s (1982) important study of Bahamian language and culture. Accordingly, starting in

7 One can access the page images at the following URL: http://www.dloc.com/IR00000128

http://www.dloc.com/IR00000128

118 R. Oenbring

2010, I began development of the electronic Dictionary of Bahamian English with wiki (eDBE)

platform as split of the open source PHP-based platform phpMyFAQ8, making a number of

extensive modifications to the source code myself. Completed in late 2010, the final platform has

a number of features that the dLOC DBE interface lacks (See Figure 2 for a screenshot of the main

page). First of all, the eDBE allows for editing and expansion of the original 1982 set of

definitions.9

Figure 2. Screenshot of eDBE main page

Secondly, the eDBE platform contains a search function, using the native search feature of the

MySQL database (See Figure 3 for a screenshot of a search).

Furthermore, the eDBE platform allows for parts of speech and/or semantic tagging and for the

addition of multimedia content to entries (See Figure 4 for a screenshot of a multimedia entry).

Finally, the eDBE platform, like much web 2.0 technology, allows users to leave comments.10

8For more on the phpMyFAQ platform, see the project homepage: http://www.phpmyfaq.de 9Indeed, adding Holm’s (1988) corrections, expansions, and new definitions is a priority for the eDBE team. 10 One can access the eDBE here: www.cobses.info/EDBEWW

http://www.cobses.info/EDBEWW


Figure 3. Screenshot of a search page

Figure 4. Example of a multimedia entry

120 R. Oenbring

Although the eDBE platform does include numerous features that are generally present in

platforms given the name ‘wikis’, and thus uses the term as an organising label, the eDBE platform

and community are not designed with a certain feature that many laymen believe to be the sine

qua non of a ‘wiki’ (a feature that very few ‘wikis’ actually offer): that is, unmoderated and

uncontrolled user edits.11Although the eDBE community does welcome user-submitted definitions

from both students and the Bahamian community at large, all additions, comments, and changes

to the dictionary are overseen by a network of Bahamian and international scholars. Indeed, given

the DBE’s foundational place in the academic study of Bahamian English, maintaining the

scholarly rigour of all edits and updates to the eDBE has been an important goal of the eDBE

community. Therefore, what is entailed in the ‘wiki’ section of the eDBE, is a ‘wiki’ in the more

general, cautious definition given by Cummings (2008) – that is, “a Web page that users can

modify” (p. 5).

After the eDBE platform was developed, I began to lead a team of both advanced English

composition students at COB and paid student-research assistants at both COB and at LMU in

adding the definitions to the eDBE database.12The student assistants at this stage of the project had

four main tasks: upload copies of the scanned page images of the dLOC DBE interface into a web-

based optical character recognition (OCR) software platform13(www.onlineocr.net); carefully

proofread the OCR product text against the dLOC DBE page images; copy the text into the eDBE

database backend; and, finally, add all appropriate parts of speech and semantic tags. By Summer

2012, all of the definitions in the original DBE had been added to the database and work

commenced at this point to activate the links between entries (i.e., places where definitions refer

to other entries in the dictionary), something indicated typographically by Holm and Shilling

(1982) in the original DBE by placing words in all capital letters. At the time of writing of the

present piece (Winter 2016), the intra-dictionary link digitisation is ongoing and incorporation of

Holm’s 1988 updates and the addition and approval of new entries are in their nascent stages.

Student Assignments and Data Collection: Methods I have tried two primary ways of getting my students involved in the eDBE project, each of which

has served to enhance and deepen the scope of the eDBE and to preserve important cultural

memory. First of all, in my Linguistics classes and Advanced Composition classes, I have asked

students to help with the production of new content. Specifically, I have designed assignments

where students either develop new definitions for the dictionary (indeed, as one can imagine, much

has changed in the terminology used by Bahamian youth since the early 1980s) or take pictures to

illustrate pre-existing definitions. However, in the interest of maintaining scholarly rigour, all

proposed definitions must go through scholarly review and editing before going live. Furthermore,

all entries clearly indicate their provenance and authorship, be it the 1982 DBE, a current scholar,

a member of the Bahamian community based locally or in the diaspora, or a COB student.

11Indeed, Wikipedia, the most famous example of a wiki, has an extensive hierarchy of editors and

administrators (see, for example, Sundin, 2011). 12I am particularly grateful for the help of two paid student research assistants: Erin Tenniel (COB) and

Alexander Laube (LMU). I also thank Prof. Dr. Stephanie Hackert, chair of English linguistics at LMU,

for her support. I also would like to thank COB for the small research grant I received to support the student

research assistants. 13The page images of the dLOC DBE interface proved invaluable as they could be used for OCR, preventing

the need for research assistants to type out all of the definitions.


Nevertheless, once the definitions are accepted by the eDBE editorial team, they are treated the

same as Holm and Shilling’s (1982) original entries by the eDBE interface.

In order to expand the knowledge base of the online dictionary, I have, in my first-year

writing classes, given students the following assignment: Find at least five words in the eDBE that

they are unfamiliar with (preferably on a unifying theme [e.g., all terms from one island in the

Bahamas]), and ask three separate people (the older, the better) the following: if they have heard

of the term and how they would define the term. Students then use the eDBE interface and/or the

eDBE’s comment feature to incorporate the insight they glean from their informants into the terms’

respective definitions (See, for example, Figure 5 for a student’s use of the comment feature). In

order to gauge what students learned by completing the assignment and to get a sense of their

degree of engagement with the assignment, I have, at the end of the dictionary assignment,

instructed students to write reflective paragraphs on what they learned by completing the

assignment.14

Figure 5. Screenshot of student comment

Results

The glosses to the original definitions provided by the first-year composition students serve an

important function of updating and deepening the knowledge base of the original DBE. Although

anecdotal and often based on small sample sizes, the first-year composition students’ additions to

the eDBE provide much-needed examples and cultural background to flesh out the original DBE

14The assignments I have given my students involving the eDBE never forget the (post) process writing

paradigm’s imperative for reflection as part of the writing process.

122 R. Oenbring

definitions. Indeed, whereas a printed dictionary must be economical in its use of space on the

page, entries and their commentary in a web-based dictionary need not be stingy with their word

count. Moreover, many students base their posts on informants from rural ‘family islands’, a group

under-represented in the original 1982 DBE; the first-year composition students’ glosses and

additions are working to counteract any Nassau-centric bias in the original dictionary.

In their reflective paragraphs, many students noted their surprise over the mere existence

of the DBE and eDBE. One student, for instance, noted that participating in dictionary project

“truly opened my eyes [and] gave me a great sense of pride knowing that my country has its own

dictionary.” Indeed, many students expressed that working on the dictionary had helped them

develop their sense of pride and historical perspective regarding Bahamian English. Another

student, for example, claimed that “I … now have a broader perspective on my history, and

therefore I can instill this knowledge on others that aren’t as familiar as [I am] about the terms.”

Similarly, another student observed that participating in the dictionary project “allowed [them] to

develop a wider understanding of how Bahamian English has advanced from 1982 to the present.”

Yet another student noted that the assignment task started with extensive reminiscing about food

terminology with her mother, father, and grandmother and eventually led to an extensive

discussion in her family about the use of old words and cultural preservation. Indeed, the student

noted that “I loved hearing [her father] talk about these words; it felt as if he took me into a time

machine and took me back in history; I was so fascinated, interested and excited.” Finally, multiple

students commented in their reflective paragraphs that participating in the dictionary project had

deflated their assumption that ‘island people’ (that is, people from one of the rural ‘family islands’

– that is just about every island other than New Providence, where the capital Nassau is located)

would be more likely to know BCE terms than individuals from Nassau.

More generally, my students participating in the eDBE project have expressed, both in their

reflective paragraphs and in class, their appreciation of the fact that their work for the assignments

has contributed to legitimate cultural preservation and genuine research. One student, for example,

noted in their reflective paragraph that “usually, English assignments seem pointless…but with the

dictionary assignment I felt like I was part of something important.” Indeed, as college

composition instructors oftentimes many of our assignments seem purely ephemeral tasks for

student-writers, and this one and done nature can often serve to disengage and demotivate students.

To be sure, as composition instructors we can do much to motivate students merely by making

them feel like they are participating in something important when they write.

Discussion

As indicted by the students’ reflective paragraphs, as well as their increased overall quality of

writing, the study’s working hypothesis – specifically, that working with the web 2.0 technologies

to build lasting knowledge about their language and culture would improve student engagement –

appears to be confirmed. This documented increase in student engagement is likely a product of

both the arresting multimedia technologies of the web 2.0 platforms and students’ interest in

cultural and linguistic preservation. Accordingly, the current study serves as a good example of

how wikis and other web 2.0 technologies can be used effectively as research and student-

engagement tools in postsecondary classrooms, especially in non-traditional and marginal

academic sites. Indeed, it seems possible that the eDBE can serve as a model to inspire cultural

and linguistic preservation projects at post-secondary institutions elsewhere in the Caribbean.

Although the need for cultural and linguistic preservation of Bahamian Creole English

grows greater, with older, basilectal speakers getting fewer and fewer and the homogenising forces


of American media growing more pervasive, there remain few resources available for academic

researchers in the Bahamas, a scarcity that seems unlikely to change in the near future despite the

College of the Bahamas’ planned transition to university status. Accordingly, scholars wishing to

do research in the Bahamas must work with whatever they have available, and in the case of

English scholars in the Bahamas, that is, Composition students. Despite being newcomers to the

academy, these students can, as I have shown, be marshaled to produce valuable research serving

to preserve their language and culture.

Of course, the author of this study acknowledges that the eDBE research project, and thus

my students’ opportunity to produce assignments engaging with it, would not have been possible

without the fortuitous event of the original authors of the Dictionary of Bahamian English

bestowing the rights to digitise and update the work to the College of the Bahamas; the eDBE

project has, like many successful academic endeavors, been beneficiary of fortuitous timing.

Moreover, the research activity that students have engaged in for the dictionary project has, up to

now, largely consisted of addendums and glosses on a previously published authoritative academic

text, with the students’ compositions receiving their status as ‘research’ as a result of their

connection with Holm and Shilling’s (1982) original text. These facts together might make any

possible overlap and carryover between the eDBE project described here and projects that other

scholars around the globe are engaged in questionable. Nonetheless, it is my sincere belief that

what makes the eDBE platform and project noteworthy are less these issues and more the unique

Bahamian and International research communities geared at collecting and safeguarding

threatened linguistic knowledge that the platform allowed to be engendered. Indeed, I sincerely

hope that the current study can provide inspiration to those teaching and working in similarly

marginalised communities whose language and culture are threatened.

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank the COB Library team, especially former Head Librarian, Willimae Johnson, for

their work in securing the copyright and scanning and uploading the page images. I am also

particularly grateful to the COB for the research grant which I received to support the two paid

student-research assistants: Erin Tenniel (COB) and Alexander Laube (LMU). Finally, I am

thankful to Professor Stephanie Hackert, Chair of English Linguistics at LMU for her support.

References

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ISSN 1727-5512



Improving Caribbean Undergraduates’ Enjoyment, Engagement and Learning

Using a 3D Role Playing Game

Paul Walcott* and Nadia Corbin-Babb


Many students complain of being bored in traditional classrooms and yearn for the

use of technology to enhance their learning. New media, such as video games, are

engaging for many of these students therefore it is worthwhile to explore how these

media can be effectively harnessed for learning. This paper presents the results of

a study which investigated the use of a 3D role playing game (RPG) to teach

Caribbean Undergraduates about the challenges of health management

information systems (as a part of STEM training). At the end of the game playing

activity, participants reported that they were fully engaged and enjoyed playing the

3D RPG. In addition, there were statistically significant differences in the pre- and

post- test scores of the participants based on the cognitive levels examined. These

results are important because there is a dearth of published research in the use of

3D RPGs in Caribbean classrooms.

Keywords: Game-based learning, 3D role playing games, STEM, active learning,

video games, learning tools

Introduction

It appears that many students in traditional classrooms are bored (Herreid, 2006) which may be a

contributing factor to their poor academic performance (Finn & Rock, 1997). Disengaged students

often do not put in much effort, they tend to be distracted and exhibit signs of overall withdrawal

from the lesson and class (Moreno & Mayer, 2000). Classrooms which are non-traditional use

active learning techniques to improve students' enjoyment, engagement and learning. These active

learning methodologies often utilise new media.

Many studies have reported improvements in students’ enjoyment, engagement and

learning through the use of new media to provide solutions to learning challenges. New media,

such as video games, keeps younger demographics engaged and motivated for many hours a week

(Prensky, 2003; Shaffer & Gee, 2005), therefore are potentially good active learning techniques

for use inside and outside of the classroom (Van Eck, 2006; Watson, Mong & Harris, 2011). In

addition, a combination of learning and game play has been shown to be effective in transferring

knowledge and teaching skills (Noraddin & Kian, 2014).

In 2013, Spil Games released an industry report stating that over 1.2 billion people

worldwide (out of an estimated population of 7.1 billion) played games (SpilGames, 2013). The

report highlighted the fact that gaming has become a mainstream activity with all possible

demographics being well represented in the gaming industry. This wide appeal of video games


126 P. Walcott & N. Corbin-Babb

makes it important to study the different ways that they might be used to improve the enjoyment,

engagement and learning of students.

This significant appeal of video games for entertainment also makes it important for

designers of instructional technologies and educators to study the game designs and genres that

can promote learning. It is useful to note that the positive impact of several game genres, such as

Action, Adventure, Puzzle, Simulation, Virtual Reality and Role Playing Games (RPGs), has

already been reported in the literature (Connolly, Boyle, MacArthur, Hainey & Boyle, 2012).

It is important to study 3D RPGs because “strategies of design that lead to engagement

may include role-playing” (Dickey, 2006, p. 1) and “researchers such as Dickey (2006) have found

that 3-D learning environments not only provide a narrative context for situating and

contextualising learning, they also enable spatial relationships rather than linear ones”

(Dondlinger, 2007, p. 23). These characteristics (engagement and learning) of RPGs potentially

make them good learning tools, thus deserving of further study. Furthermore, RPGs are very

popular and have been translated across different media, for example, from board games to digital

games (Tychsen, 2006).

In the Caribbean context there has been an increased emphasis on STEM education since

this is viewed as important for regional growth. Innovative ways therefore need to be explored to

engage Caribbean students in STEM; one such method is the use of digital games, for example 3D

RPGs.

Before embarking on this campaign, however, it is necessary to understand whether

Caribbean learners are different in any way from their counterparts in developed countries. One

obvious difference is their access to technology and their ability to use it, as a result of the digital

divide. Earlier studies have shown that Caribbean students’ ICT competencies do in fact differ,

for example, in the use of some productivity tools from students in other developed countries

(Walcott, Garner-O’Neale & Depradine, 2013; Walcott & Rolle, 2014).

The study presented in this paper investigates the use of a 3D RPG to teach undergraduates

about the challenges of health management information systems. This study is important because

it examines the use of a 3D RPG as a part of STEM training in the Caribbean where limited

research on this topic has been reported.

Literature Review

Teaching and learning can be a challenging activity for educators, especially when students are

not directly motivated by a lot of the material that they have to learn (Prensky, 2003). The

traditional view of teaching which focused simply on information transfer through books, notes

and lectures (Ruben, 1999), for example, is no longer having the desired effect and educators are

increasingly challenged to find methods that engage and motivate students (Legault, Green-

Demers, & Pelletier, 2006). This review will examine the need for active learning in traditional

classrooms and discuss how video games have been used in this regard with a specific focus on

RPGs.

According to Faust and Paulson (1998) the majority of college faculty teach their classes

using the traditional lecture format. These researchers believe that the traditional lecture format

was an efficient method of presenting information, however they indicated that if used as the only

mode of instruction then issues could arise for both educators and students. They noted that given

the differences in learning styles amongst students, presenting information exclusively in one style,

such as a lecture, is discriminating and disadvantageous to those people that may learn best using

another style. Similarly, Noraddin and Kian (2014) noted that the traditional method of teaching


is recognised as generally not being able to accommodate the many different learning styles of a

given set of students. Wilson and Korn (2007) added that if the aim of the teaching methodology

is to foster critical thinking in students, then lecturing is not enough.

It is likely that the traditional lecture format will continue to be the main form of

information transfer which may result in students passively taking in information that has already

been processed by the lecturer and simply regurgitating it in examinations (McCarthy & Anderson,

2000). To overcome this challenge, McCarthy and Anderson (2000) suggested that there needs to

be a balance between passive and active learning, in large classrooms, where the lecture format is

the dominant mode of information delivery. So what is active learning? Faust and Paulson (1998)

defined it as any learning activity that students engage in other than simply listening to the lecture;

these include short writing exercises to more complex collaborative or cooperative exercises. As

succinctly stated by Watson, Mong, and Harris (2011), students will not learn if they are unaware

or asleep, but will learn if they are engaged. Engaged students are more motivated thus more

driven to learn (Gee, 2003).

Jang, Reeve and Deci (2010) described two types of engagement, behavioural and self-

reported. Behavioural engagement relates to what is observed during the task (for example,

attention to the task, level of effort invested and persistence in facing difficulties) while self-

reported engagement refers to what students were actually experiencing (such as positive feelings,

determination to succeed, intentionally learning to master a skill or accomplish the task and deep

information processing) (Jang, Reeve, & Deci, 2010).

The pursuit of the most appropriate strategies and actions to develop the educational

systems in this new age, through active engagement of students, is therefore inevitable, and must

be based on a firm comprehension of social and cultural perspectives “and of the new media that

holds the key to potential educational reform” (De Aguilera & Méndiz, 2003, p. 5).

Games are informal, pedagogically-sound learning environments, providing a ‘multi-

sensorial’ experience (Oblinger, 2004). It has been stated that they have the ability to facilitate

the development of various skills including critical thinking and problem solving (Ebner &

Holzinger, 2007; Papastergiou, 2009) since they are considered active, collaborative and

technology-rich learning experiences (Bekebrede, Warmelink, & Mayer, 2011).

There are many different types of video game genres, each with the potential to foster

specific skills and abilities related to learning and education. De Aguilera and Méndiz (2003)

identify several of these along with their educational possibilities, including: (1) arcade and

platform games which facilitate psychomotor development and spatial orientation; (2) sports and

dynamic games which help to improve psychomotor coordination and provide stress relief; (3)

puzzle and question games which assist in developing reasoning skills and improving logical

thinking; (4) simulation games which foster the development of all intellectual capabilities; and

(5) strategy and role playing games which stimulate internal motivation.

Young students find modern video games extremely engaging and motivating, keeping

them focused on game play for hours at a time (Shaffer & Gee, 2005). In fact, it has been

recognized that this engagement and interest in games continues as the person matures, given that

many gamers do not give up this hobby (De Aguilera & Méndiz, 2003).

In a study conducted by Ruggiero (2013) with pre- and in-service teachers in the United

States, it was found that teachers agreed that games should be used to augment the learning process

and that their usage in the classroom is not a transitory trend but will increase in prevalence as

classroom technologies catch up to mainstream entertainment (Ruggiero, 2013). Other studies

have reported high levels of students' enjoyment, engagement and learning through the use of new


media, such as videogames (Crookall & Thorngate, 2009; Gremmen & Potters, 1997; Malone,

1981; McCarthy & Anderson, 2000; Sanford & Francis, 2006; Squire, 2005).

Games provide challenges, beauty, fantasy, fun and social recognition in a way that can

motivate learning to a great many people (Annetta, 2008; Gee, 2003). With the advancements

exhibited in technological applications, it has become possible to create very sophisticated digital

games that combine rich multimedia and enable high levels of interactivity (Noraddin & Kian,

2014) that capture and keep the gamers’ attention.

Although they might not be a single definition for RPGs, they usually comprise of: a game

world (an imaginary world where the players play); a game master (who controls the game world);

participants (players and game masters); characters (individuals in the game world); interactions

(with the objects in the game world); and, a narrative (a sequence of events portrayed in the game

world, in other words a story) (Hitchens & Drachen, 2008).

There are many different types of RPGs including: pen-and-paper/table-top (PnP), single

player digital and massively multi-player online (MMORPG) (Hitchens & Drachen, 2008). PnPs,

like Dungeons and Dragons, were the original form of RPGs and were played around a table by a

group of people; single-player digital RPGs were derived from the table-top versions; and

MMORPGs (a very popular genre), such as World of Warcraft, allow thousands of participants to

play online (Hitchens & Drachen, 2008). 3D RPGs are essentially single-player digital RPGs with

integrated third person (for example) 3D environments. In these RPGs the computer plays the role

of game master.

Rankin, Gold and Gooch (2006) described the use of Ever Quest 2 to teach vocabulary to

English as a second Language (ESL) students. The four participants that finished the study were

required to complete a pre-game questionnaire which queried their computer literacy and comfort

levels playing video games. These participants played the 3D RPG for four hours a week, for four

weeks. From the post-tests conducted it was noted that the participants were able to accurately

define 35 percent or more of the words that they were introduced to once and 55 percent or more

for the words that were introduced to more than five times. In addition, the confidence levels in

reading, writing and conversation increased for those participants that were not beginner ESL

students.

Levy (2011) described a 3D RPG for teaching history and literacy to 5th grade students.

The purpose of the game was to solve a mystery about a knight’s armour in a medieval town.

Participants were given about 45 minutes to play the game. A pre-/post-test was used which asked

the students to write down the names of the pieces of armour. The post-test showed that learning

occurred. Although students felt that the 3D RPG was fun, they believed that there was too much

talking in the game since audio clues would loop if participants were in close proximity to the

given objects.

Chen (2015), in a study of 362 undergraduates, reported significant differences in pre- and

post-test scores of English learning for EFL (English as a foreign language) students. The test

examined students at several cognitive levels based on Bloom's taxonomy. Not only were there

significant increases in test scores, but participants also believed that the virtual learning

environment was advantageous and meaningful to them.

Vasileiou and Paraskeva (2010) used a 3D virtual environment implemented in second life

to teach role playing to fifteen primary and secondary school teachers. Within this 3D environment

they were taught how to role play and then engaged in role playing performances. The results,

derived from interviews, indicated that many of the participants found the experience exciting,


fun, liberating and engaging, especially during role playing performances. In addition, more than

half of the participants believed that they had learnt how to role play.

Finally, Balicer (2007) surmised that RPGs such as “World of Warcraft” could be used to

model and study infectious diseases with a view to creating public health policies. Using an

outbreak of a serious epidemic in World of Warcraft” as an example, Balicer (2007) described a

potential strategy for testing hypotheses of infectious disease dissemination.

The 3D RPGs discussed resulted in improved participants' enjoyment (Levy, 2011;

Vasileiou & Paraskeva, 2010), engagement (Vasileiou & Paraskeva, 2010) and learning (Levy,

2011; Rankin, Gold & Gooch, 2006; Vasileiou & Paraskeva, 2010) at different cognitive levels

(Chen, 2015). Although most of these studies used pre- and post-tests, they did not employ control

groups. Additionally, the time period for the treatment varied from 45 minutes to about 16 hours.

Finally, as realised by Levy (2011), care must be taken to achieve the right balance of audio

narration since too much or too little might affect the participants' engagement.

Only a few studies appear to have been conducted in the Caribbean which used virtual

worlds for teaching and learning (Depradine, 2007; Mohammed & Mohan, 2011). Depradine

(2007) used a role playing virtual world to teach students the art of creating secure, web-based

systems in the Java programming language; interacting in the virtual world resulted in the

exploring of issues, such as, ethics, teamwork, leadership, strategy and software planning.

Alternatively, Mohammed and Mohan (2011) used culture (language and customs) in a 2D digital

game-based learning environment to improve undergraduates’ attitudes towards introductory

computer programming courses. In this game, students were required to detect and correct errors

in programme code during game play.

In conclusion, active learning strategies can be used to engage students who are bored in

traditional lecture-style classrooms. These strategies, which include the use of video games, can

be used to engage and motivate students while they learn. The research literature on the use of 3D

RPGs discusses the teaching of: English to ESL, EFL and 5th grade students; as well as, role

playing to primary and secondary school teachers. Additionally, it discusses a proposal for the use

of 3D RPGs to model and study infectious diseases. The outcomes of these studies begin to

demonstrate that 3D RPGs can improve enjoyment, engagement and learning. It has also been

shown that there is a dearth of research studies on the use of 3D RPGs in Caribbean classrooms.

It is within this specialised area of research that this paper will be based. It is expected that similar

learning outcomes may be achieved in Caribbean classrooms despite the digital divide.

Statement of the problem

Students are often not engaged during classroom instruction and do not enjoy traditional learning

activities such as the reading of research papers. As a result, the desired learning outcomes are not

always achieved.

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to determine whether a 3D RPG could be used to increase students’

enjoyment and engagement, while improving their learning.


Research questions

The research questions explored in this study were as follows:

1. Were there any significant differences in the undergraduates' overall test scores or

their test scores at the cognitive levels examined, before and after playing the 3D

RPG?

2. Do undergraduates perceive that the 3D RPG increased their enjoyment, engagement

and learning?

In the remainder of the paper the academic literature on the use of video games for learning will

be discussed; the context of the study and the methodology will be described; and finally the

results, discussion, conclusions and future work will be presented.

Methodology

This study was conducted at The University of the West Indies, Cave Hill Campus which is a

regional university comprising three main campuses. The smallest of the three campuses is in

Barbados and offers programmes in Science and Technology, the Social Sciences, Humanities and

Education, Law and Medicine. In the Faculty of Science and Technology, both a BSc. in

Information Technology and a BSc. in Computer Science were offered at the time of the study.

Several computer laboratories were available for use by students in the Faculty, including the

laboratory used for the study which was outfitted with approximately 40 computers running the

Windows 7 operating system. The RPG was preloaded on these computers.

Population and sample

Data were collected from a sample of 30 students reading either a second-year, software

engineering course or a third-year information systems course. The software engineering course

was compulsory for all students completing the BSc. Information Technology and BSc. Computer

Science programmes. This sample represented just over 40 percent of the overall population of

the courses. In the sample, 21 participants were male and 9 females. Twenty-four out of the thirty

participants were thirty years old or under, with six between ages 16 and 20; thirteen between the

ages 21 and 25; five between the ages 26 and 30; three between the ages 31 and 35; two between

the ages 36 and 40; and, one between the ages 41 and 45.

Data Collection

Data were collected during a two-hour laboratory session. In the first 15 minutes, a pre-test was

distributed, completed and collected. Participants then played a 3D RPG for 30 minutes. During

this time the researchers took photographs and observed the activities of the participants. After the

game activity a post-test was administered (for 15 minutes). The pre- and post-tests were the same

twelve question instrument (as per the guidelines published by ITECH (2008, p.1)). A group

interview was conducted with the participants immediately after the post-test to solicit feedback

about the students’ experiences during the activity. In addition, some participants provided

additional feedback via course journal reflections.

Research instrument

Bloom's Revised Taxonomy (Krathwohl, 2002) identifies six categories (as verb forms) that can

be used to define cognitive objectives. These six categories are: remembering, understanding,

applying, analysing, evaluating and creating. The categories analysing, evaluating and creating

relate to higher-order thinking and are therefore more desirable during learning experiences.


The developed test (pre/post) comprised twelve MCQ questions based on the health

management information system (HMIS) described in a research paper by Smith, Madon,

Anifalaje, Lazarro-Malecela, and Michael (2007). Eight of these questions related to the

Remembering category, while the remaining four related to the Analysing category (Table 1).

Table 1

The Cognitive Levels Evaluated in the 12 Question Pre- /Post-test. Bloom's Revised Taxonomy Category Questions

Remembering: Recall or retrieve previous learned information. 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

Analysing: Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its

organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts

and inferences.

4, 10, 11, 12

Two examples of the MCQ questions used, one drawn from the Remembering category

(question 2) and one from Analysing (question 10) are:

Question 2. What is the overall opinion suggested about the HMIS according to initial

surface reports?

A. The data contained in the HMIS provided a useful means of accurately measuring the

disease levels.

B. Despite minor flaws, there was nothing intrinsically wrong with the concept of the

system itself.

C. The HMIS in its current form was a useful tool and easy to use.

D. The HMIS project was a complete disaster.

Question 10. Do you think a bottom-up approach would have had an impact on the success

of the HMIS?

A. Yes – it would likely have been more successful as it would have involved the users

and incorporated their requirements, processes and perspectives.

B. Yes – it would likely have been more unsuccessful because it would have become more

complicated to incorporate everyone’s perspective and requirement.

C. No – it would not have made a difference because involving the users would not have

had an impact.

D. No – it would not have made a difference because the process is too complex.

In the group interview, participants were asked to provide feedback about the game

including issues found, whether the game was fun and if they perceived that learning occurred or

what prevented learning from occurring.

Data Analysis

Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used in the analysis of the data collected from the

pre- and post-tests. The number of correct responses, for each question in the pre- /post-test, based


on the cognitive levels examined, was calculated using frequencies. To determine whether

statistically significant differences existed in the pre- and post- tests, at the different cognitive

levels, paired sample T-tests were employed. SPSS 19 was used for the data analysis. Common

themes were also identified and reported from the journal reflections submitted and the responses

from the group interview.

The 3D RPG game

The 3D role playing game used in the study was based on the information contained in a case study

presented by Smith et al. (2007) which discussed the failed implementation of an HMIS in

Tanzania. In the paper, a number of stories were presented, highlighting different issues associated

with the implementation, such as corruption and undermining authority.

A series of non-playable characters (NPCs) and interactive objects were introduced in order

to provide information to the player. A summary of the information provided by each NPC and

outlined in Walcott and Corbin Babb (2014) is as follows:

Senior Member, Ministry of Health. Indicated that the HMIS data were not

trustworthy;

Rural Medical Aid. Described their responsibilities and duties;

Assistant Clerical Officer. Indicated that their authority was undermined by Rural

Medical Aids;

District Medical Officer. Described the roles and responsibilities of agencies in the

Health sector;

District Health Worker. Indicated how complex the data collection process was;

Village Health Worker. Described the complexity of the flow of information in the

health care facilities;

Soldier A. Highlighted corruption issues;

Soldier B. Described how some doctors bribed community leaders to maintain their

positions;

Desk A. Contained an extract of a report describing a successful district; and,

Desk B. Identified some of the problems associated with the HMIS.

The player’s objective was to find the key necessary to exit the level, a task only achieved

when all the required information had been gathered.

The 3D role playing game was created using Unity3D, a gaming engine that incorporates

the use of animations, audio, text capabilities and gaming objects for the creation of either 2D or

3D games. Within Unity3D, gaming objects can be controlled and manipulated through computer

programming scripts (C# was used in this game). For this game, elements contained within a

Unity game development tutorial were utilised, such as the playable character and the environment.

Other features were added to the game including the NPCs, the interactive objects, and the text-

based interactions with the game objects.

The case study (Smith et al., 2007) examined the issues associated with the failed

implementation of an HMIS in Tanzania which was caused by a complicated hierarchical structure

of data collection and reporting within the health care facilities, as well as the existence of

corruption within the Health sector. Additionally, the case study highlighted a series of political,

social and cultural issues that also negatively affected the implementation of the HMIS.

Within the case study, information was collated from identified interviewees, and this was

translated into the game by the introduction of NPCs that assumed certain identified roles from the

paper and interacted with the player to provide him/her with information (from the case study).


Each of the NPCs assumed one of the identified roles contained within the paper, except for two

of the NPCs which were introduced to provide independently uncorroborated information received

from anonymous sources. Additionally, interactive objects such as desks containing papers were

used to provide information found in reports mentioned within the paper or relevant background

information (Figure 1). The information obtained by the player from the NPCs and interactive

objects needed to be used to retrieve the key and end the game.

(a) (b)

Figure 1. Screenshots of the 3D RPG: (a) The player (on the left) is about to interactive with an

NPC and the desk which has important documents on it; (b) The player is interacting with a soldier.

Results

Research Question 1 Overall (for all the questions in the pre-/post-tests) there was an increase in average score from the

pre-test (M=1.00, SD=1.62) to the post-test (M=3.43, SD=2.14) (Table 2).

Table 2

The mean scores for the pre- (TotalPRE) and post- (TotalPOST) tests. Pre/Post Variable Pair Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

TotalPRE 1.00 30 1.62 .30

TotalPOST 3.43 30 2.14 .39

This increase was significant at the 95 percent confidence level as evidenced by the paired samples

T-Test (p<0.000) in Table 3.

Table 3

A paired sample T-Test applied to the pre- (TotalPRE) and post- (TotalPOST) tests. Pre/Post

Variable Pair

Mean Std. Dev. Std. Error

Mean

t df Sig.

TotalPRE

TotalPOST

-2.43 2.27 .41 -5.87 29 .000


The number of correct responses for the pre- and post-test questions in the Remembering and

Analysing categories of Bloom's Revised Taxonomy are illustrated in Figures 2 and 3,

respectively.

Figure 2. The number of correct responses for the eight questions in the Remembering category

for the pre- and post-test.

Figure 3. The number of correct responses for the four questions in the Analysing category for the

pre- and post- tests.

There was an increase in scores from the pre-test to the post-test for both the Remembering (from

M=.733 (SD=1.08) to M=2.27 (SD=1.31)) and Analysing (from M=.267 (SD=.69) to M=1.17

(SD=1.12)) categories (Table 4).

Nu

mb

er

of

corr

ect

re

spo

nse

s

Question Number

Pre Test

Post Test

Nu

mb

er

of

corr

ect

re

spo

nse

s

Question Number

Pre Test

Post Test


Table 4

The mean scores for the pre- and post- tests in both the Remembering

(RememberingPRE/RememberingPOST) and Analysing (AnalysingPRE/ AnalysingPOST)

categories of Bloom's Revised Taxonomy. Pairs Pre/Post Variables Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error

Mean

Pair 1 RememberingPRE .73 30 1.08 .20

RememberingPOST 2.27 30 1.31 .24

Pair 2 AnalysingPRE .27 30 .69 .13

AnalysingPOST 1.17 30 1.12 .20

A paired sample T-Test at the 95 percent confidence level resulted in a statistically significant

difference in the pre- and post-test for both the Remembering (p<0.000) and Analysing (p<0.000)

categories of Bloom's Revised Taxonomy. This is illustrated in Table 5.

Table 5

A paired sample T-Test applied to the pre- and post-tests of the Remembering

(RememberingPRE/RememberingPOST) and Analysing (AnalysingPRE/AnalysingPOST)

categories of Bloom's Revised Taxonomy. Pre/Post Variable

Pair

Mean Std. Dev. Std. Error

Mean

t df Sig.

RememberingPRE -

RememberingPOST

-1.53 1.59 .29 -5.28 29 .000

AnalysingPRE -

AnalysingPOST

-.90 1.09 .20 -4.51 29 .000

Research Question 2

Three broad themes emerged from the data collected (photographs, group interview and journal

reflections); these were students' enjoyment, engagement and learning. The participants also

voiced their opinions about the shortcomings of the activity. These results are presented in the

following sections.

Student Enjoyment

The general observation by the researchers was that the students enjoyed playing the game; this

was especially so when they first started playing. One female participant noted that it "add[ed] a

little fun to learning." Oddly enough though, this same student believed that this type of game was

better suited for secondary school rather than university students. A male student stated that he

liked the session and thought that it was a "great game."

Many students commented on the creativity of the game and that it was an innovative way

to teach the course materials. This helped to improve their overall enjoyment.

Student Engagement

During game play, it was observed that students remained focused on completing the tasks (Figure

4a), including overcoming the challenge created by the glitch in the game that did not allow the


game to end when all the relevant information was collected. This absorbed attention to the tasks

involved remained, even after 20 minutes of game play, demonstrating the players’ persistence in

achieving the required goal despite difficulties encountered; this can be seen as evidence of

behavioural engagement as described by Jang, Reeve and Deci (2010).

(a) (b)

Figure 4. (a) Participants engaged during game play; (b) Participant taking notes during game play.

Student Learning

The playing of the 3D RPG encouraged other forms of active learning, for example:

Note taking. During game play several participants were taking notes using pen and

paper to summarise the material found (Figure 4b); and,

Collaboration. While playing the game participants were sharing strategies; tips and

information; and, discussing who to talk to, in what order and where to go next.

Although some of the participants felt that the game was confusing due to the game objectives not

being stated (reinforced) during game play (note the objectives of the activity/game were stated by

the researchers before they started playing) they believed that this was an important learning

experience. For example, a male student stated that "... i [sic] would say for the most part it was

confusing but still a key learning experience." He felt that the game was "unending," the result of

a bug in the game that prevented the final door from opening when the player received the key;

and suggested the use of different worlds for different topics.

Finally, a male student stated that the

"final highlight again [of the course] would have been the game played in the final lab

which again wouldn't have been the norm in a regular classroom. Teaching methods used

in this course has [sic] now given me insight to try other studying methods for other courses

whereas rather than reading and writing i [sic] can try online quizzes or games to see how

or if the study material will stick similar to this class. I may even try a movie as well!!"

Shortcomings of the RPG

Participants also voiced their opinions about some of the shortcomings of the RPG. These

included:

The large amount of information that was presented to be read. Some students believed

that there was too much text and decided to skim through it. One female student said


that it "felt like cramming for an exam." Others suggested that voice clips should be

used to reduce the amount of reading required;

The lack of in-game objectives/instructions. Some participants thought that the lack of

instructions made the game confusing; and,

The game did not appear to end. As noted earlier this was due to a bug in the game

software.

Discussion

To determine the level of engagement of the participants both a behavioural (objective) and self-

reported (subjective) assessment (Jang, Reeve, & Deci, 2010) were performed. Observations of

the participants while they played the RPG showed a high level of attention to the game and the

tasks involved, including a persistence to complete the tasks and gather all required data despite

encountering challenges. Additionally, participants expressed enthusiasm and positive attitudes

toward the game and the use of the new medium for learning. These results speak encouragingly

to the engagement of the participants using this new medium as a learning tool.

The novelty of the learning method captured the attention of the participants and despite

the fact that everyone might not have liked playing video games, none of the participants indicated

that they disliked the game or the genre. This supports the proposition made by Shaffer and Gee

(2005) that young people are engaged by video games since the majority of the participants were

30 years old or under. The use of the 3D RPG sparked participants' interests causing them to

become enthusiastic and engaged. It made some of the participants so excited that they indicated

willingness to consider exploring the use of other active learning techniques, in future courses.

There was an increase in the number of correct responses during the post-test for every test

question. Furthermore, the differences in the overall score and the scores at the remembering and

analysing cognitive levels were statistically significant at the 95 percent confidence level (Tables

3 & 5). As a result of playing the RPG, students did not only exhibit an increase in basic

remembering skills, but also critical thinking skills which concur with the findings of Ebner and

Holzinger (2007). These results also correspond favourable with the findings of Chen (2015) who

reported significant differences at the knowledge and analysis levels for participants learning

English while using a virtual world.

Hagen (2015) introduced research papers into a Life Science course in a number of

different ways in order to promote active learning. In the approaches employed students were

required to read a research paper and then either: draw a diagram illustrating the mechanism of a

disease, write a commentary, or complete an assessment. Just over 10 percent of the 250 students

in the class liked the use of the research papers while less than one percent had a negative opinion

about their use. Similarly, Yeong (2013) reported the results of a study that required participants

to complete a practice assessment involving the reading of a scientific article and the answering of

questions. In the actual assessment that followed, participants were required to read another

scientific article and write a 1000 word essay. Generally these participants felt that the exercise

was good but time consuming. Comparatively, all of the participants liked the 3D RPG in this

study and no participant had a negative opinion about the game even though they reported the

issues that they encountered.

Hagen (2015) also reported that the students felt that a stress-free learning environment

was created during their study since they no longer had to memorise information, due to

assessments being open book. Conversely, one of the female participants playing the 3D RPG

noted that "given the time we were allocated, getting the information and reading the information


felt like cramming for an exam." Clearly, unlike the participants in Hagen's (2015) study, the

participants in the 3D RPG study did not have enough time to play the game. This helps to explain

the lower than desired mean scores in the post-tests.

Yeong (2013) stated that 47 percent of the participants would prefer to listen to a lecture

as compared to 27 percent who would prefer to read a research article. Despite this, several of the

participants suggested that the exercise should be continued. Alternatively, participants playing

the 3D RPG never indicated that they would prefer to engage in the reading of a research article

exercise, rather they were more interested in using these same techniques in other courses.

3D RPGs provide great flexibility in the type of media that could be used during game play

to improve learning, for example the use of movies in cut scenes. This opportunity for learning

was particularly embraced by one of the male participants who said that he was even willing to try

a movie to help him remember course content. A multi-sensory approach, for example, combining

reading, audio and video, provides opportunities for facilitating a richer learning experience. The

provision of different types of media is especially important since it will appeal to different

learning styles. This was evident from the participants’ feedback when they suggested using voice-

overs to reduce the amount of text that needed to be read. This approach will ensure that there is

no disadvantaging or discrimination against students with different learning styles as noted by

Faust & Paulson (1998).

Despite the shortcomings of the game, significant learning took place. This augurs well

for the use of RPGs in this and similar contexts. RPGs such as these could therefore be used

outside of the classroom to complement existing resources thus freeing up valuable classroom time

for other activities.

Limitations

Two main limitations of this study were that no control group was used and the sample was only

drawn from two undergraduate Computer Science courses at a single Caribbean university. The

issue of no control group was due to the fact that there were only 30 participants, therefore it was

decided that they would all be placed in the treatment group.

Another limitation was related to the length of time participants had to interact with the 3D

RPG. This was a result of the duration of the laboratory session, only two hours, and the fact that

the experiment was run in the final laboratory session of the semester. Although this treatment

period was short it was not unreasonable based on the literature (Levy, 2011).

Conclusion and Future Work

In this paper a 3D RPG was used to teach participants about HMIS. After engaging in the game,

increases in the levels of lower and higher-order thinking of the participants as demonstrated by

the statistically significant differences in the pre- and post-test scores were seen. In addition,

students enjoyed the learning experienced and were engaged by it. Although several shortcomings

of the RPG were identified by the students, they viewed it as an important learning experience.

When compared to the literature, it was found that participants had a positive attitude to

both the reading of the article and the 3D RPG exercises. In addition, both groups indicated a

willingness to explore the use of these methods in the future. However, there was a high level of

enthusiasm and persistence by the participants playing the RPG; and none of them indicated that

they disliked the game or the genre. Finally, unlike the participants described in the literature who

preferred to engage in the traditional lecture format, none of the participants who engaged in the


RPG activity indicated that they would have preferred to engage in a research article reading

activity. These results speak well for the use of 3D RPGs in this type of STEM training.

In the future, research in 3D RPGs should employ control groups to more effectively

measure the effectiveness of this game genre. In addition, the impact of the use of 3D RPGs for

different subject/topic areas should be investigated so that 3D RPG learning models can be created.

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ISSN 1727-5512



Factors Affecting the Implementation of the Programming Component of the

Information Technology Syllabus: Teachers’ Perceptions

Shirdi Ali* and Debra Ferdinand-James


Recent reports by the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) for the Information

Technology (IT) Caribbean Secondary Education Certification (CSEC) signal that

the problem solving, program design and implementation (PS/PDI) components

are proving challenging for students. Given the growing demand for IT skills for

participating (living, learning, and working) in today’s digital age, an examination

of the factors affecting the classroom delivery of these challenging components of

the IT syllabus is warranted. The current study examined IT teachers’ perceptions

of the PS/PDI components of the IT syllabus as well as what teachers perceive to

be inhibiting factors affecting their implementation of this syllabus. Guided by

Fullan’s (1991) educational change model, the study employed a qualitative

collective case study design. Data were collected from five teachers from four

different government secondary schools in Trinidad through the use of guided

journals and semi-structured interviews. The emerging findings indicated

inadequate training of IT teachers, limited resources, and student ability as

inhibiting factors to implementing the CSEC IT syllabus. Such significant findings

indicate that these factors should be urgently addressed to become facilitators

instead of inhibitors in avoiding any further teaching and learning deficits in the

delivery of the programming component of the CXC (CSEC) IT syllabus.

Keywords: Problem-solving, programming, pascal, algorithm, innovation,

Information Technology, CXC (CSEC) IT syllabus

Introduction

Information technology is a 21st Century skill that supports students’ capacity to live, learn, and

work in our digital age (Fraillon, Ainley, Schulz, Friedman, & Gebhardt, 2014). Thus, education

authorities around the world are including digital skills such as computer programming in their

school curricular. Balanskat and Engelhardt (2014) defined computer programming as the “process

of developing and implementing various sets of instructions to enable a computer to perform a

certain task, solve problems and provide human interactivity. These instructions (source codes

which are written in a programming language) are considered computer programs…” (p. 5). Still,

they pointed out that this term is used interchangeably in different European countries to mean

coding, programming, algorithmic thinking, and computational thinking. The Caribbean

Examination Council (CXC) uses the term programming in its curriculum material, but the term



coding is preferred in the U.S. and Canada (CXC, 2008; Eggleston, 2015). According to a recent

study undertaken by European Schoolnet, a survey of 20 Ministries of Education across Europe

(e.g., in Finland, UK, and Bulgaria) revealed efforts were ongoing to integrate coding and

computer programming either as mandatory or optional components in their secondary school

curricular, and similar initiatives were developing in businesses and Non-Governmental

Organisations (Balanskat & Engelhardt, 2014). For example, England became the first European

country in 2014 to mandate that students be taught computer programming at primary and

secondary public schools (Wastiau et al., 2013). These educational initiatives include training and

support for teachers for the delivery of programming skills as “the main focus is to develop logical

thinking skills, coding and programming skills, and problem-solving skills” among students

(Balanskat & Engelhardt, 2014, p. 10). Similarly, CXC (2008) stated, “Information Technology

develops computer-related skills and encourages the development of analytical and design skills

which are applicable in all areas of the curriculum. This unique feature warrants the inclusion of

Information Technology in the secondary school

curriculum” (Section-Rationale).

First introduced in 1990, the IT Caribbean Secondary Education Certification (CSEC) is

offered by CXC in 16 English speaking Commonwealth Caribbean Countries and Territories,

including Trinidad and Tobago, at the General and Technical proficiencies levels. Based on

research and consultations with key stakeholders (e.g., teachers, business community and tertiary

institutions), the CXC revised its CSEC IT syllabus in 2008. The revised syllabus (CXC, 2008) is

designed to assess candidates’ IT general proficiency only and contains much of the previous

content from the Technical and General proficiencies but extended to include content and

objectives for Problem-solving, Program Design, and Program Implementation (PS/PDI) in the

Pascal programming language. The latter now accounts for 33⅓% of the overall marks compared

to 10% from the previous technical syllabus. IT teachers who previously prepared students for the

technical proficiency examinations are now required to teach using programming software such as

Pascal and were provided with the requisite training for delivering these additional components of

the IT syllabus. Apart from previous topics which included Fundamentals of Hardware and

Software, Information Processing and Productivity tools, teachers now have to spend 57 out of a

total of 160 teaching hours on PS/PDI as suggested in the revised syllabus.

Despite the evolution of IT at the CSEC level over the last two decades, the programming

components appear to be still challenging for students. IT mean scores of 2.97 and 3.75, out of a

maximum of 10 and 15 respectively, were attributed to a “majority of candidates who did not

attempt this part” of the exam (CXC, 2012, p.8). The latter was in keeping with the view of Daley-

Morris (2000), who claimed that such poor overall performances in CXC IT was because students

either failed or scored very low in the programming components. In subsequent regional

workshops to address this challenge, IT teachers expressed sentiments that the PS/PDI components

should be removed from the syllabus (CXC, 2004). Furthermore, a study conducted by CXC from

2006-2010 involving 400 IT teachers throughout the Caribbean, including Trinidad and Tobago

(T&T), indicated that the majority of teachers were not comfortable teaching programming (Gay,

2011). This study seeks to understand the factors affecting teachers’ delivery of the new

programming components of the revised CSEC IT syllabus.

Literature Review

144 S. Ali & D. Ferdinand-James

Factors Affecting the Classroom Delivery of Problem-solving and Programming Components

Initiatives to include computer programming in secondary school curricular are not without their

challenges. These include the subject difficulty level; inadequate teacher training and support;

underdeveloped assessment arrangement; student underperformance, and high dropout rates

(O’Kelly & Gibson, 2006; Robins, Rountree & Rountree, 2003; Saeli et al., 2011). Three factors

that are consistently highlighted in the literature affecting computer programming teaching and

learning are as follows: Programming language and tools being used, the ability of the learner, and

teacher qualifications.

Programming Language and Tools

An important issue to be considered when teaching programming is the programming language

being used. The benefits and drawbacks of various languages have been an issue of contention for

many researchers. Schollmeyer (1996), for example, noted the features of Pascal such as functions,

procedure calls, and declaration of variables make it an ideal tool for the development of

appropriate programming practices that include using modules and top-down design. On the other

hand, the failure of Pascal as a commercial language along with increased job competition in the

IT industry has led to an increased pressure to teach a more “marketable language” (Brilliant &

Wiseman, 1996; Eggleston, 2015). Yet, the nature of programming languages such as Java, C and

C++ characteristically integrate the use of extensive and complex syntaxes. These programming

language classes are essentially professional and will add to the level of difficulty for beginners

like young secondary school students (Jenkins, 2002; Motil & Epstein, 2000; Saeli et al., 2011).

While these authors make valid points, the researchers of the current study agree with the view of

Stephenson et al. (2005) and Szlavi and Zsako (2006) that these languages are simply tools, and

secondary school students should learn the principles and concepts of problem-solving and

programming independent of specific languages in order to master these key programming skills.

Ability of the Learner

The learner’s ability is also a factor. The intricacies of abstract concepts found in computer

programs prove too complex for many students. Knowing how to decompose problems into

smaller simpler concepts; design solutions for solving these problems; consider possible errors for

testing, and debug programs are sometimes overwhelming for young students (Esteves, Fonseca,

Morgado & Martins, 2008). Grandell et al. (2006) cautioned that age groups as secondary students

are young and have not necessarily developed the requisite skills for coding and documenting

programs. Program languages utilise abstract concepts such as variables, data types and memory

addresses, which do not have direct analogies in real life (Lahtinen, Mutka & Jarvinen, 2005;

Miliszewska & Tan, 2007); students often struggle with not knowing how to use the programming

language correctly to create a program (Lahtinen et al., 2005; Winslow, 1996).

Teacher Qualifications

Perhaps, the greatest challenge to teaching students programming may lie within the teacher.

Teachers’ competence and training in programming are crucial if assigned to teach others. In

Trinidad and Tobago, secondary school IT teachers possess qualifications of various degrees from

different institutions, including Information Technology, Computer Science, and Information

Systems among others. Consequently, not all degree programmes include programming courses

and in each course the scope and depth of programing being taught and language used may vary.


Understandably, this scenario directly affects teachers’ confidence and preference for teaching

programming.

In fact, the survey conducted by Gay (2011) from 2006-2010, involving almost 400 IT

teachers in Caribbean countries including Trinidad and Tobago, indicated teachers’ preference for

teaching specific objectives of the programming syllabus. The results of this survey (see Table 1)

showed that the majority of teachers are not comfortable teaching programming. These findings

concur with the literature by Goldhaber and Brewer (2000), and Miller (2006), who suggested that

teachers’ qualifications and skill set in their field are integral to classroom practice.

Table 1

Comparison of teacher preference for programming

Topic Teachers who do not like

to teach programming

Teachers who like to

teach programming

S01- Identifying and describing

levels of programming languages

16.0% 7.0%

S02 - Breaking a simple problem

into its components

20.2% 8.3%

S03 - Developing algorithms to solve

simple problems

21.7% 12.9%

S04 - Writing code using a

programming language (e.g. BASIC,

PASCAL, C)

75.6% 54.5%

S05 - Constructing and using a trace

table to test algorithms and programs

14.1% 7.2%

S06 - Testing programs and

algorithms for correctness

59.1% 38.8%

Source: Gay (2011)

However, teacher certification and preference are insufficient as the only requirements for

teaching students programming and therefore it is necessary to go a step further to include content

and pedagogical knowledge. Pedagogical content knowledge is defined as “a way of representing

and formulating the subject that make it comprehensible to others” (Shulman, 1986, p.9). In the

classroom environment, teachers (to include those for IT) are aware that different learners have

different learning styles (Ferdinand & Onyebadi, 2009). As such, “there is in fact a difference

between knowing how to program and being able to teach programming” (Saeli et al., 2011, p.75).

The methodology and tools used by many teachers are simply not user-friendly as the basic

traditional teaching methods usually comprise lectures and fastidious programming language

syntaxes (Lahtinen et al., 2005; Schulte & Bennedsen, 2006). This approach may pose a grave

difficulty for students, de-motivating any sound interaction with more meaningful programming

activities such as problem analysis, decision making and structuring. Programming should be

taught in such a way that students learn more than just the syntax of the language; they should


learn how to solve problems and design algorithms. Therefore, problem-based learning should be

a key approach to classroom delivery for computer programming

(Rashid & Farra, 2011).

Significance of the study

This collective case study sought to examine five (5) IT teachers’ perceptions in Trinidad and

Tobago of the factors affecting their teaching students the Problem Solving and Programming

components of the revised CSEC IT syllabus. Such an examination would lend insight into how

teachers’ said experiences affect the underperformance of students for the problem solving and

programming components in CSEC IT exams. Such a Caribbean perspective is lacking in the

broader international literature as reported by Daley-Morris, (2000) and Milne and Rowe (2002).

The current study should add to the dearth of literature on the teaching of programming in

secondary schools in the local country and by extension the Caribbean.

Research Questions

The research was guided by the following two research questions:

1. What are IT teachers’ perceptions of the Problem Solving, Program design and

Programming components of the of the new CSEC syllabus?

2. What do IT teachers perceive to be factors that inhibit them in their implementation

of the Problem Solving and Programming components of the syllabus?

Methodology

Qualitative Collective Case study

The scope of this study is limited to IT teachers with at least five years of experience teaching the

CSEC syllabus at co-ed Government Secondary Schools. This bounded approach warranted a

collective case study design. Case studies are an extremely versatile method of research and

provide insights into complex interrelationships of the central phenomena being investigated.

While there are various types of case studies, Creswell (2007) posited that in a collective case

study, a single issue is investigated but the researcher uses multiple cases to illustrate the issue.

Thus, this particular research is defined as a collective case study as the factors affecting IT

teachers were investigated using five participants from four different schools. As noted earlier, the

CSEC IT syllabus was revised with this change mainly representing the addition of the following

components: Problem-solving, Program Design, and Program Implementation (PS/PDI) in the

Pascal programming language. Thus, Fullan’s (1991) educational change model informed most of

the analysis in examining the factors affecting the implementation of these added programming

components to the current CSEC-IT syllabus. Popular change models like Roger’s (1995)

Diffusion of Innovation (adapts characteristics of innovation to stakeholders’ likes) and Hall and

Hord’s (1987) Concerns-Based Adoption Model focus more on the characteristics and

stakeholders’ concerns of the innovation. In contrast, the Fullan’s model takes into consideration

the wider context within which change is to be implemented to include the promotion and

implications of change for different stakeholders in the local context (e.g., promoters and

implementers).

Fullan’s Educational Change Model


According to Fullan (1991), educational change is a process that involves different stakeholders,

who work within and across their different groups (e.g., promoters or implementers) in the context

of change agents for the four phases of the Fullan’s change process: (1) Initiation that includes

advocacy for and access to innovation; (2) Implementation that includes programme goal clarity

and change complexity for the innovation; (3) Continuation that includes established procedures

and commitment to innovation; and (4) Outcome that includes skill and environmental changes

resulting from innovation. Fullan and Pomfret (1975) previously explained that when teacher

support and assistance are provided by both central administration and external bodies, there is a

significant difference in the degree of implementation. In taking into consideration both local and

external factors such as the school district and government agencies in the wider school

environment, the Fullan’s (1991) model allows all those affected by change to understand the

interconnectedness of their roles in education reform as a result of an innovation . In the current

study, the implementation phase of the Fullan’s (1991) model would be emphasised in keeping

with the scope and title of the study.

Sampling Strategy and Participants

A purposive sample was used as participants were chosen based on specific criteria. IT teachers

who have been teaching the CSEC syllabus for at least five years were selected. This criterion

ensured that the teachers were experienced in teaching the previous technical proficiency syllabus

for at least two years and would also have taught this new syllabus since its inception in 2008.

These teachers have not previously taught PS/PDI, thus, it is an innovation for them. The five

participants were teachers working at co-ed Government Secondary schools in various regions of

the country. The pseudonyms, Mr. Jack, Mr. John, Mr. Jim, Mr. Jane and Mr. Jones were used to

refer to the participants to preserve their anonymity. All the participants possess a first degree in

IT from different tertiary institutions.

Instruments and Procedure

Journal Analysis

Each participant was requested to write reflective journals of sessions when they taught problem-

solving and/or programming. The researcher provided structured headings for the journals to aid

the teachers’ reflections on the study’s focus that were as follows: Topic, Objectives, Activities

and Resources, Student Response and Reactions, Teacher Evaluation of Lesson, and

Reflections/Comments. The data obtained from these journals were compared to identify

similarities and exceptions. The information was then presented in the form of a diagram using

concept mapping software. This graphical tool enabled the researcher to demonstrate the inter-

relatedness of different factors as well as articulate a timeline during the process. These data were

then used to help triangulate findings and generate interview questions.

Interviews

Interviews were conducted face-to-face in a secluded setting on the school compound with the

participants to allow for better communication and privacy. Lofland and Lofland (1995) describe

in-depth-interviews as a dialogue between the interviewer and the interviewee characterised by

extensive probing and open-ended questions aimed at eliciting thick, rich, detailed material to be

used in analysis. These interviews were approximately forty minutes long and were recorded

electronically. The interviews were semi-structured and consisted of a list of open-ended

questions. The recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim and printed to be read and analysed.


The researcher employed a thematic approach for the data collected to identify and report patterns

(Boyatzis, 1998). This six-phase inductive method included transcribing data, coding, generating

and reviewing themes and finally reporting findings (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Member checking

was used to verify that the transcribed data and themes represented the teachers’ views.

Ethical Considerations

Creswell (2009) highlighted that in any research involving collecting data from human subjects,

researchers must anticipate issues that may arise such as personal privacy, professional misconduct

as well as the credibility and validity of data. In an effort to guard against these issues and to ensure

the integrity of the research the following policies were adopted:

Confidentiality - The schools under study as well as all the participants remain

anonymous to ensure privacy.

Peer reviews – The analysed data were reviewed by competent peers to reduce the

threat of researcher bias within the study.

Member Checks - Participants were given an opportunity to review the data collected

by the researcher which was provided by them in order to guarantee integrity.

Informed Consent - Letters were given to the principals of the schools as well as the

participants requesting permission to conduct the research.

Research Question 1:

What are IT teachers’ perceptions of the PS/PDI components of the new CSEC IT syllabus?

Findings and Discussion

Importance of Programming

The information derived from the data captured indicated that the majority of participants believed

that problem-solving is an essential skill that students need to learn. The following comment from

one participant echoed this view: “Problem-solving is a skill that students need for basically any

subject area.” Those participants who believed programming is a vital skill for IT students also

expressed their confidence in writing computer programs using Pascal. Thus, the responses from

the majority of participants concur with the findings of Clements and Gullo (1984) and Ellinger

(2003), who contended that by learning programming, students develop problem-solving skills

that are not just applicable to IT but can be transferred to other areas of study and life in general.

Furthermore, another common view among the participants was the perception that

students wishing to pursue a career in computer science would need to learn programming.

Therefore, programming is seen as a requirement for students who may pursue IT studies at tertiary

level institutions. Although there were mixed views regarding the level of programming needed to

be done by the students at the CSEC level, the need for students to learn programming does not

seem to be a substantial inhibiting factor for IT teachers.

Suitability of the Content

While the participants may generally agree that PS/PDI are important for students, most of them

took issue with the content outlined in the syllabus. There was an air of disenchantment from most

of the participants regarding the level and volume of work required for students at the CSEC level.

The topic ‘arrays’ was singled out by a few participants who felt that it is an area of programming

that may be too “intense” for the students at the CSEC level. Consequently, if they could change

the syllabus these participants would “knock out the arrays part of it”. With one exception, the


participants believe that CXC needs to revise the content of the syllabus by removing the ‘arrays’

topic, thereby reducing the volume of work and making it more appropriate for CSEC students.

Research Question 2:

What do IT teachers perceive to be factors that inhibit them in their implementation of the Problem

Solving and Programming components of the syllabus?

The teachers under study also raised a number of factors affecting them in implementing the

syllabus which echoed the findings of various authors such as Fullan (1991), Guskey (1986) and

Saeli et al. (2011) to name a few. One factor affecting participants identified in this study is clarity.

Clarity of Teachers in Their Implementation of PS/PDI

The researcher inquired from the participants their interpretations of the objectives outlined in the

syllabus and the means by which these objectives can be achieved. Four of the five participants

interviewed described the syllabus as “vague” at times. These participants felt that the syllabus

was not as specific as they would like. This lack of clarity presents an obstacle for their

implementation as the teachers described instances where they were unclear regarding the depth

and scope of topics to be covered. Fullan (1991) concurred that clarity regarding educational

change and means towards achieving the aims of this change can become problematic due to vague

goals and unclear implementation strategies.

Consequently, the participants pointed out that they utilise other sources such as textbooks,

past papers and even their experience marking CSEC IT examinations in order to get a clearer

picture of what is expected of the students. This combination of experience and relevant sources

gave teachers a deeper understanding of what is required of them such as the depth needed in

teaching ‘arrays’ as a topic in the delivery of the PS/PDI components of the syllabus. The following

participant’s comment portrays their confusion in this regard:

“...for the SBA even though they say to do arrays we did not know how in depth to go, is

only after we went to mark CXC and we ask about it we found out it was too elaborate and

that is after the first two years. All we needed to do was just a page, a page and a half.”

Complexity of Teaching Students PS/PDI components

IT teachers also pointed a myriad of factors regarding complexity that affected them in their

implementation. These factors are depicted using Figure 1 – A problem solving lesson and Figure

2 – A programming lesson.


Figure 1. A Problem-solving Lesson

Figure 1 illustrates a typical class on problem-solving in which a teacher presents the topic to

students. The factors in this diagram include student ability, poor mathematical skills, and teacher

training that are depicted in red to indicate a factor common to all participants. The other factor,

limited time, is depicted in yellow since it was a factor for only some participants.

Figure 2 depicts the factors affecting teachers in a lesson where the students are learning

to implement a program by coding the algorithm in Pascal. The factors are once more coded to

indicate common factors amongst the participants.


Figure 2. A programming lesson

Some important factors highlighted in the figures above include student ability, teacher training,

and limited time. Various authors suggested that programming is a topic that is often too complex

for secondary school students because of the abstract concepts such as variables and data types

(Esteves et al., 2008; Lahtinen et al., 2005). However, the challenges faced by teachers go beyond

the fact that programming is a challenging and complex topic as many of their students were

entering secondary school with an overall score between 0-35 percent in the Secondary Entrance

Assessment (SEA). This score indicates under-performance especially in the Math and Language

Arts SEA components (Ministry of Education, Government of the Republic of Trinidad and

Tobago, 2007). Teachers lamented about students’ weak mathematical ability with statements such

as “simple concepts in Mathematics give them problems” and “sometimes I does feel like a Maths

teacher in class.” From the participants’ perspective, the limited ability of the students further

compounds the challenge of teaching an already difficult topic. The latter is reflective of the

complexity of change as a factor to consider in the implementation phase according the Fullan’s

(1991) educational change model. Perhaps it is the difficulties students face coping with abstract


concepts of programming that serves to demotivate them and cause them to lose interest in the

topic (Saeli et al., 2011).

Inadequacy of teacher training is another major factor affecting IT teachers. While the

training programmes that some participants attended did help to sharpen their programming skills,

they felt that the training was not sufficient. Participants recognised that they need to employ

various techniques and strategies in order to meet the needs of various learners and capture student

interest. This discovery epitomises the point made by Saeli et al. (2011) that “there is in fact a

difference between knowing how to program and being able to teach programming” (p. 75). While

participants felt they had the content knowledge to teach programming, they recognised that

pedagogical knowledge is just as important. Their perceptions reflect the views of authors such as

Lahtinen et al. (2005) and Schulte and Bennedsen (2006) that the traditional teaching methods are

not sufficient to motivate and engage students learning PS/PDI.

Local and External Factors (Resources and Support)

Ideally, based on their pragmatic orientation, teachers require resources and materials with real

classroom situations in mind (Guskey, 1986). Yet, this study also revealed that IT teachers perceive

that they have little or no resources available for them to use in order to implement this revised

innovative curriculum. Participants complained that they need workbooks, software and other

material that are more “Caribbean-oriented”. In some instances, even basic necessities such as

working computers and Pascal software were identified by participants as being lacking.

Therefore, some teachers face constraints in schools due to a lack of administrative support. Fullan

and Pomfret (1975) explained that where assistance and support is provided for teachers by both

central administration and external bodies, there is a significant difference in the degree of

implementation. School administration and IT curriculum division must collaborate in order to

provide teachers with the necessary materials and resources for implementing the curriculum.

In addition, because of the issues they endure with student ability and the volume of work

to be covered, most of the participants interviewed said time is another inhibiting factor. Teachers

are required to complete the entire IT syllabus inclusive of PS/PDI within the Form four and Form

five years. Yet, time becomes an issue when working with students who lack the necessary

foundation in Mathematics and English as more time must be spent working with these students.

Many instances were identified in which teachers needed to spend extra time explaining and

repeating classes in order to improve student performance. In fact, all the participants indicated

that they decided to start preparing students in Form three for programming in an attempt to

mitigate the problems faced because of limited time. Considering the volume of work required for

programming and the ability of some of the students at the schools in this study, the teachers are

faced with an overwhelming task to get students prepared for CSEC within the allocated time.

In conclusion, although Problem-solving and Programming are deemed important for IT

students to learn, the many factors presented earlier sufficiently illustrate that they are indeed

complex topics to teach secondary school students. There are major negative issues such as low

student ability, reduced student interest, limited teaching time and resources; and insufficient

training for teachers. In keeping with Fullan’s (1991) educational change model, the factors

affecting change are interrelated and can either inhibit or facilitate educational reform. However,

the researchers of this study observed that the factors identified in this study are not only

interrelated but also share a ‘symbiotic’ relationship. For example, without proper training and

resources, IT teachers are unable to deliver the PS/PDI curriculum effectively. As a result, students

perceive PS/PDI as being too difficult and consequently become dejected and lose interest. Finally,


teachers resort to utilising additional teaching time as they struggle to assist students to cope with

the topic. The existence and intensity of certain crucial factors create a ripple effect that influences

other factors. Thus, we affirm that key to alleviating factors that are inhibiting IT teachers’

implementation of PS/PDI components of the IT syllabus implementation is to transform these

vital factors such as teacher training and available resources into facilitators. In so doing, the

negative effects of inhibiting factors including student motivation will be reduced thereby creating

a facilitating environment for both teaching and learning.

Recommendations

The following is a list of recommendations that can be employed in an effort to improve IT

teachers’ implementation of the PS/PDI components of the CSEC syllabus.

1. Given that there was no Postgraduate Diploma in Education available for IT teachers

in the year 2012, very few IT teachers in the country have been exposed to the requisite

professional teacher training. Although some teachers will now be trained each year,

there is need for continuous training sessions for IT teachers. The Ministry of Education

in conjunction with CXC and the University of the West Indies can conduct these

training courses. The objectives of these training sessions should not only be intended

toward learning the skills and tools of programming but also on teaching strategies

geared toward delivering the programming aspects of the syllabus. In addition,

learning programming in Pascal at these sessions, teachers can learn educational

psychology. This form of training can also help the teachers in finding alternative ways

for helping students with reading and mathematical skills deficiencies. By combining

their technological and content knowledge with pedagogical knowledge teachers can

create resource materials for their lessons that can engage and motivate students.

2. A support system via a website can be created among CXC, IT curriculum division of

the Ministry of Education, and IT teachers. The website would serve as an information

board for teachers to be informed of training programmes being conducted which they

may attend. It would also act as hub that can provide real-time communication for all

the parties allowing teachers to be aware of any news related to the curriculum as well

as being able to voice their opinions, ask and answer questions related to the syllabus.

However, perhaps the most important benefit of having a website will be to provide

access to a data warehouse of teaching materials such as lesson plans, worksheets,

software and more. The resources can be easily downloaded by teachers when

necessary and uploaded by any party, CXC, curriculum division or even other teachers.

3. Although only five participants were interviewed, there was a general sense of

dissatisfaction with the content outlined in PS/PDI components of the syllabus, CXC

should establish a committee to revisit this aspect of the syllabus. This committee

should gather input from IT teachers and tertiary institutions throughout the Caribbean.

The latter can help refine the content of the syllabus in such a way that the level and

volume of work required reflects what relevant stakeholders deem suitable for CSEC

IT students. In addition, this may help IT teachers develop a sense of ownership

regarding the syllabus, which may inspire a greater level of commitment and fidelity

towards the implementation of the syllabus.

4. School administrators with students who display or have potential for deficits in

literacy and numeracy should be more proactive. If not yet initiated, administrators


should implement diagnostic testing for these students as early as Form one in order to

identify ‘at risk’ students. Once these students are identified, proper interventions can

be put in place to help them improve their reading and math skills. This strategy will

not only alleviate issues for IT teachers but for all subject areas.

This research has provided valuable insights into IT teachers’ perception of the PS/PDI

components of the syllabus as well as factors affecting these teachers. The findings of this study

indicate that IT teachers perceive student ability especially in the areas of reading, comprehension

and mathematics as a major factor affecting their capacity to teach problem-solving and

programming at the CSEC level. This finding warrants further investigation of this topic from the

perspective of the students. Such an investigation may help to uncover what students perceive to

be the major challenges they face while learning problem-solving and programming as well as

what may be done to address these challenges.

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ISSN 1727-5512



Issues and Challenges in Programme Renewal: Faculty Perspectives

Jennifer Yamin-Ali


This paper examines the challenges and issues encountered by twenty-one teacher

educators during the process of programme renewal. The context is the School of

Education of the University of the West Indies, St. Augustine. The programme that was

being renewed is the postgraduate Diploma in Education for secondary school teachers.

All participants were interviewed individually and were asked to describe the challenges

they experienced during the process as well the issues they encountered. The transcripts

were analysed to produce categories and themes. Findings revealed that the main

challenges of programme renewal that emerged for the teacher educators fell under the

broad categories of lack of staff commitment, logistics, democratic process, lack of staff’s

understanding and resistance to change. The issues they identified as having arisen during

the process had to do with dissatisfaction with details of the programme, the loss of

“giants”, inconsistent use of research, competition from providers, the need to revise vs.

modify and university policy. The paper identifies some areas of staff and institutional

development to deal with some of the issues and challenges raised.

Keywords: Teacher education, programme renewal, institutional change, challenges,

issues

Introduction This paper looks at the process of change in curriculum planning at a School of Education. Whilst

this institution continues to examine how to develop sustainability of professional practice through

the courses offered, it has not looked at the needs of faculty for their learning and sustained

capacity which would impact its envisioning, planning and implementation. Internationally, as

indeed in the regional and national contexts, the role of teacher educators in curriculum reform

needs to be examined since such reform directs nation building through how citizens are educated.

Coupled with this is the need for teacher educators to view their role as a dynamic one which

responds to social changes affecting the lives of students at all levels of the education system.

Research conducted by this author on the issue of becoming a teacher educator,

unpublished at this time, found that teacher educators in this context were ‘loosely’ recruited and

inducted, and in other contexts are referred to by Martinez (2008, p. 41) as ‘self-basting turkeys’.

From the findings of that research, this author concluded that the needs of professional teacher

educators can no longer be satisfied by adhering to a narrow focus of what constitutes the

professional self. A composite skills set derived from human resource management, organisational

management, and personal management skills would serve to better situate the modern teacher

educator as a professional. Examining their experiences of programme renewal would help to

determine additional professional needs that would help them to competently fulfill their roles as

curriculum designers and developers.


158 J. Yamin-Ali

The faculty at this School of Education was recently engaged in a long process of

programme renewal of one of the major programmes offered by the institution – the postgraduate

Diploma in Education for secondary school teachers. This is a one year part-time programme of

initial training with a recent yearly cohort of approximately 250 teachers. Since its inception, the

Ministry of Education has fully sponsored all participants who teach in government schools. This

diploma is a requirement for promotion to middle and senior management positions in the

secondary school system. The rationale for the renewal was that having been in existence for forty

years it was time to respond to increasing demands for a more relevant in-service initial

professional development for teachers and administrators in the secondary school system of

Trinidad and Tobago. Whilst there have been internal adjustments to content and delivery over the

forty years that the programme has been offered, such adjustments have not satisfied the need for

the efficient and effective use of new andragogical principles and practices and the facilitation of

student-friendly practices (Programme proposal, 2015). Stakeholder input garnered through

research conducted by some of the faculty, as well as broader university policies regarding the

benefits of blended learning, propelled the decision to renew the programme.

The changes to the programme included the merging of the Foundations in Education

course with the Project in the Theory of Education course. Since the latter focused on issues in

education, it was felt that an integrated approach to teaching the foundations and educational issues

through the use of case studies would lend more relevance to students. This approach would also

make more efficient use of time so fewer credit hours were allocated than a sum of the credit hours

for the original two courses. Whereas research methods were formerly subsumed in the course

Curriculum Process, the redesigned programme distils Research Methods into a separate course.

With the course changes, assignments were aligned to suit the new learning outcomes, overall

programme credits were reduced from thirty to twenty-four, still remaining in the postgraduate

diploma requirement range, and an online element was introduced.

Whereas informal adjustments had been made in the current programme, the proposal for

re-design constitutes major changes which required staff to view critically programmes that they

had been accustomed to as students and eventually as teacher educators. They reviewed the

programme goals, and programme and course learning outcomes, and consequently new

assessments were elaborated.

Meetings to discuss changes to the programme began in December, 2013 and continued

throughout 2014 and to February, 2015. The proposal approval process began in March, 2015 and

in February, 2016, at the time of writing this paper, had not reached, due to bureaucratic reasons,

the final stage of approval. Staff had been engaged in a series of whole-group meetings and sub-

committee work with a view to arriving at common understandings of the vision for the programme

and the articulation of how that vision would be realised through the curriculum. Initial whole

group meetings were chaired by the programme coordinator who outlined the agenda for each

meeting. She managed brainstorming sessions which concluded with the identification of main

decisions regarding courses. There was a sub-committee per course and each sub-committee

generated a course outline and reported to the whole faculty for feedback and refining.

Ensuring the faculty’s involvement in the renewal process was a roller coaster experience

from the coordinator’s perspective in that there were many feedback and discussion sessions

which, in the first instance, had to be scheduled amidst the hectic workload of staff, and had to be

managed in order to arrive at curriculum decisions which satisfied benchmarking and quality

assurance expectations. It was therefore important to engage the staff to find out what their

perspectives were on the process. Was it the “perfect educational storm” referred to by Hainline,


Gaines, LongFeather, Padilla and Terry (2010)? Did these teacher educators recognise the need to

change themselves in order to advocate change, if at all? How did they handle compromise in the

context? Having emerged from the experience of educational decision-making, what were their

reflections?

The purpose of this research, therefore, was to find out how faculty members experienced

the programme renewal process upon reflection. The areas of focus were the issues that arose for

them and the challenges they experienced. For the purpose of this research ‘issues’ is interpreted

as “a subject or problem that people are thinking and talking about” (Cambridge Dictionaries

Online, 2016) and ‘challenge’ as “an obstacle that prevents progress” (author’s definition).

This research, therefore, set out to answer the overarching research question: How did

faculty experience the programme renewal process? and the sub-questions:

1. What issues arose during the Dip. Ed. renewal process from the faculty’s

perspective?

2. What were the challenges in the renewal process from the faculty’s perspective?

Literature Review

Literature on change management processes and managing change in education has focused on

core and now well-established features of such change (Fullan, 1982; Hargreaves, 1994; Hoyle,

1976; Patterson, 1997; Purpel, 1972; Russell, 1999; Sarason, 1971) including the challenges and

the tensions that arise from considering, planning and implementing change. The participatory

approach to programme development, according to Wiek et al. (2011), highlights the value of a

systems approach to planning for sustainability and includes specific necessary competencies

including interpersonal competence. They underscore the importance of being able to resolve

tensions between the collective and the individual while highlighting the role of facilitative skills

in collaboration and adaptation.

The issues that arise in teacher education planning have been documented in various studies

and discussions. Specific details of a specific programme would inevitably give rise to varying

views. With regard to the practicum, for example, Russell (2001, p. 5) in his paper on a radical

programme change in pre-service teacher education, emphasises that we know from “virtually

every student teacher” that the practicum is the most important single element of a pre-service

teacher education programme. However, Sheehan and Fullan (1995) highlight as one of the factors

hampering the move to true reform in British Columbia, the tendency to count courses and numbers

of weeks of practicum as opposed to focusing on the distinctive qualities and abilities of teacher

candidates.

Another issue in change management concerns the ‘change of the guard’ and its possible

effects. Tagg (2012) quotes Max Planck as quoted in Samuelson and Zeckhauset (1988, p. 47),

who wrote that “a new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making

them see the light, but rather its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is

familiar with it”. While the loss of ‘old’ faculty might facilitate new ideas, that loss also points to

the need for capacity building which is seen to be a major driver in change knowledge (Fullan,

2006). In recognising the potential of younger staff to bring new ideas to the table, we also

recognise the seemingly contradictory experience of ‘seasoned’ teacher educators who, while

holding on to their traditional beliefs, still possess the valuable experience in the field to enable

them “to learn epistemologically from [their] personal and organisational experiences” (Russell,

p. 8). Notwithstanding this potential contribution of senior faculty, there also exists the issue of

work overload for those who have been teaching and publishing at an equally acceptable rate.

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/subject

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/problem

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/people

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/thinking

http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/talk

160 J. Yamin-Ali

Apart from the obvious input of staff capacity in the change process, the dynamics of an

organisation, including its organisational variables, are fundamental to strategising for

improvement. Fullan (1985) highlights this in the context of schools, but the point is clearly

applicable to any organisation. He identifies four factors that underlie successful school

improvement: a feel for the improvement process on the part of leadership, a guiding value system,

intense interaction and communication, and collaborative planning and implementation.

Reminiscent of the concept of ‘Professional Learning Communities’ the use of collaboration or,

according to Fullan (2006, p. 14), “learning from peers”, has been seen to be effective in

approaches to improvement in schools and “one of the most powerful drivers of change” (Lattuca

& Star, 2009; Russell, 2001; Sheenan & Fullan, 1988). In the context of curriculum planning,

collegial exchange that introduces new ideas and expertise and approached as an opportunity to

learn from one another was seen to have greater potential for success (Sheenan & Fullan, 1988).

This is linked to collegial decision-making which can be seen to be strongly related to

improvement (Fullan, 1985; Gray, Kruse & Tarter, 2015).

It cannot be disputed that collaboration and collegial decision-making are facilitated though

the skilful use of teams, notwithstanding the fact that teamwork comes with its own set of

challenges in reality. The use of teams in organisations has grown as a phenomenon (Yuki, 2002)

and Harvey, Millett and Smith (1998) point out that the results of teamwork are influenced by

factors such as the organisation's culture and climate, the nature of team leadership, commitment

of employees, as well as the system of compensation and rewards, and the level of employee

autonomy. The use of teamwork is recommended by Johnson (2001) from a study of curriculum

revision in the state of Missouri in the United States. She concludes that “no one individual can be

responsible for the entire curriculum revision process; it is truly a team-approach” (p. 15).

One of the salient benefits of collaboration and working in teams is that faculty becomes

involved in the change being designed. Tagg (2012) comments on an innovative college

experience described by Mentkow (2000) and explains that the problem and the plan become

“ours” due to opportunities for discussion and for resolving the cognitive dissonance created by

the onset of change. Johnson (2001) echoes the importance of this personal ownership of the

change process when she outlines principles of effective change. Such ownership is even more

powerful when we consider the contrasting situation where faculty who teach courses designed by

others tend to be discontent with the courses and with their teaching role. On the other hand,

collaboration could prove to be inspiring and reinforcing (Creating Academic Plans, p. 127).

Collaboration and ownership are double-edged swords if we were to look at the possible

influence of senior faculty who have difficulty parting with traditional views. Fairweather (1996)

warns against the perpetuation of dominant mores in academic organisations and reports that there

was a feeling among faculty that assistant professors who extend their time into curricular reform

are at risk. Yet, perhaps, these are the ones who would likely introduce innovative ideas. The

conflict arises when one has to ascertain whether the ideas stem from the ‘bandwagon effect’ or

from meaningful innovations (Creating Academic Plans). One scenario that possibly emerges from

the desire to hold on and the desire to move on is the compromise of modifying as opposed to re-

visioning a programme. The main challenges that give rise to the modification choice is the

perception that new ideas still have to ‘fit’ into the university’s wider system (Aubusson, 2003),

and the need to meet stakeholders’ expectations. Such adaptive work, according to Heifetz and

Linsky (2004) creates disequilibrium and avoidance, which sharpens the double-edge of good

intentions to ‘change’.


There might be instances where such disequilibrium and avoidance create the perception

that not all team members are ‘pulling their weight’. As Achian and Demstez (1972, p. 790) note,

“Every team member would prefer a team in which no one, not even himself, shirked”. The

individual responsibility and team synergy proposed by Arce and Gunn (2005) might be a pie-in-

the-sky concept for faculty who feel burdened by conflicting responsibilities that claim their time.

The additional tasks of the curriculum reform or design might be seen as extra and burdensome

where such effort is not recognised or does not formally contribute to the “shirker’s” credit. It is

not unlikely that curricular reform conducted by insiders is fraught with logistical challenges. The

sacrifice of time is one such challenge for faculty. Allocation of time to this effort can only come

with a systematically plan for programme development (Johnson, Eubanks, Fink, Lewis &

Whitcomb, 1987).

But how systematic can one be in a free flowing democratic operation? According to

MacDonald (1975), “in many ways, all curriculum design and development is political in nature”.

This is corroborated by Russell (1999, p. 7) who, in reporting on his experience of programme

change, concluded that “internal politics also played its inevitable role in blocking our abilities to

listen to each other.” Despite the positive contribution of collaborative efforts, there is the negative

aspect of a lack of respect for one another which might be an inevitable human relations factor, or

the outcome of the influence of senior faculty. Additionally, as Tagg (2012, p. 7) comments, the

hard work of groups could be railroaded by others who “speak first and most vigorously.”

Ironically, a democratic framework allows one to clearly see the emergence of power relationships

discussed by Blase (2005) and others such as Bacharach and Lawler (1980), Ball (1987) and Hoyle

(1986). It is in these settings that influence is wielded due to the intricacies of human nature and

communication.

In the collaborative settings of discussions, experienced and qualified faculty recognise the

gaps in knowledge and understanding of less experienced members who are either inhibited by

their own deficits or more significantly, unaware of their lack of understanding of the intricacies

of programme content and structure. In some settings capacity-building can be created through

learning communities (Cox et al., 2006). On the other hand, there are settings when the

involvement of some is not as intense as for others, creating a divide in decision-making (Russell,

1999). These gaps in understanding are mostly due to the specialisation phenomenon in higher

education where faculty might not have generalist knowledge, or who give higher priority to their

subject area, thus making it difficult for them to make the links necessary for comprehending

broader issues in programme planning (Aubusson, 2003; Russell, 2001). However, as Aubusson

(2003, p. 182) posits, “a fundamental principle of teaching…is that it is the lecturer’s responsibility

to make these connections and relationships explicit”. Such connections, he feels, are stymied by

the lack of connection between lecturers’ research and what they teach. Perhaps this is a result of

the feverish efforts of junior faculty to secure better contracts or even tenure. As they continue to

pursue those goals, major decision-making is left to senior faculty (Hainline, Gines, Feather,

Padilla & Terry, 2010).

A significant challenge in modern programme planning is blended design for which many

faculty members are not prepared (Ocak, 2011). This is another cause of debates which waste time

and energy due to lack of understanding and expertise, rendering discussions fruitless. This

challenge is related to the overall challenge of resistance to change propelled by the power of fear

which result in tentativeness and lack of action (Fogarty, 2010). From one perspective, it is the

fear of loss that makes people averse to risk (Tagg, 2012). Tagg (2012) cites Thaler (1980) who

claims that people will take bigger risks to keep what they have as opposed to gaining what they

162 J. Yamin-Ali

don’t have. The notion of “leaving things as they are” is a major obstacle to change. Tagg (2012)

refers to this as the “status quo bias” an outcome of which is that those concerned will question

the quality of the change but not the quality of the existing practice. They remain within their

comfort level rationalising that “the horse is not dead” (Fogarty, 2010), reminiscent of Aubusson’s

(2003, p. 178) “if it ain’t broke why fix it”. This comfort level is explained by Black and Gregerson

(2002) as the outcome of ‘brain barriers’ which immobilise people to avoid being incompetent and

looking stupid when they don’t have the knowledge and skills to realise a new vision. Heifetz and

Linsky (2004) describe some of the more complex challenges to change as “adaptive”. Such

challenges demand a response beyond what we know, require the narrowing of the gap between

our aspirations and our reality, require us to be the solution even though we are also the problem,

make us uncomfortable and take time to manage. This, according to Fullan (2006), clearly points

to the need for capacity building of faculty involved in programme planning, through the collective

development of new knowledge, skills and competencies as well as through new resources together

with shared identity and motivation.

Methodology The research falls within the qualitative paradigm since it explores the thoughts, feelings and

opinions of people. It sought descriptions and explanations of individual experiences as well as

perspectives on those experiences. The interviewer was an insider, being the coordinator of the

programme which was being renewed.

The sampling was purposive. Twenty-one full-time lecturers who were fully involved in

the postgraduate Diploma in Education programme and who had a cohort of students, and who

were involved in the renewal process were interviewed individually using a semi-structured

interview guide which allowed for follow-up questions for further detail. The interview included

questions which sought faculty’s perspectives on the issues and challenges they could identify in

the process, as well as the factors which facilitated and hindered the process. They were also asked

if they perceived that there were outcomes from the renewal process other than the programme

proposal.

Nineteen of the lecturers were interviewed face-to face- and two were interviewed online.

The interviews each ranged from one hour to one hour and a half and were conducted

approximately three months after the initial programme proposal completion. One lecturer who

was involved in the programme minimally, but who was intimately involved in the renewal process

and who was one of three faculty members with teacher educator training was included because

although she did not have a history of teaching a whole course on the programme, her familiarity

with the renewal process would have enabled her to give a fresh perspective to the questions. The

interviewees varied in years of experience as teacher educators. They all granted permission for

the interviews to be audio-recorded. Pseudonyms have been used to ensure anonymity.

The insider status of the interviewer made it relatively easy to schedule the interviews and

participants made themselves available to be interviewed. The familiarity with the experience also

facilitated the strategic formulation and inclusion of pertinent questions and issues in the interview

protocol and allowed for useful follow-up. While there might be some concern regarding the ethics

of this research because the interviewer was the programme coordinator, it must be noted that

lecturers were not compelled to participate, and member checking of the interview transcripts gave

them the opportunity to reconsider any comments they had made or to ask that they not be included.

In addition, the position of programme coordinator is not a hierarchical position achieved through

formal promotion, but a responsibility carried out without remuneration. Thus the relationship


between coordinator and lecturer is collegial rather than hierarchical. From the interview

transcripts, it can be concluded that respondents were open and frank in expressing their

perspectives. However, one recognises the likelihood that the balance of power between the

interviewer and the participants could have impacted the nature of their answers (Cohen, Manion

& Morrison, 2007).

The ‘social situatedness’ (Vygotsky, 1962) of insider research allowed this researcher to

draw upon shared understandings and trust of her immediate colleagues with whom she works on

an everyday basis. Their agreement to be interviewed about the renewal process was indicative of

their willingness to share and more so, to sacrifice the time to the activity. Because of this

“insiderness” she was able to follow up on answers given and to ask for pertinent clarifications.

Indeed, she concluded that for many of the interviewees, the opportunity to express their views

and to reflect on the experience was a welcome one, and in some cases, even cathartic.

The interviews were transcribed verbatim and member-checked. Using a grounded theory

approach, a first stage of open coding was applied to the data during which patterns emerged.

Identifying those items for substantive coding was based on the researcher’s sensitivity to the

context of the investigation due to her insider status. Those initial codes were further refined using

a process of constant comparison (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007; Glaser & Strauss, 1967) to

ensure that there was sufficient similarity of ideas to warranty patterns. The refined codes were

then categorised into sub-categories which were then clustered into themes. Each theme was

clearly distinct from each other thus showing the variety of matters raised in the interviews. For

example, details of the programme were clustered only under one theme and do not appear

elsewhere. For the presentation of the analysis, themes have been described individually, and then

compared and contrasted to demonstrate contradictions and ironies within a critical discussion.

This paper presents the findings from analysis of the data regarding the issues and

challenges. Interviewees were asked to address issues separately from challenges. The interviewer

made the distinction between challenges and issues clear by indicating that challenges referred to

obstacles that prevented progress in the renewal exercise, and that issues were problematic or

contentious matters that arose or that occurred to them as the process evolved that were not

necessarily challenges to the process. The discussion bore in mind that people could consider all

their challenges to be issues, but they would not necessarily consider all their issues to be

challenges.

Findings The issues that arose during the process of renewal of this programme fell under six broad themes:

1. Dissatisfaction with details of the programme

2. The loss of “giants”

3. Inconsistent use of research

4. Competition from providers

5. The need to revise vs. modify

6. University policy

Dissatisfaction with details of the programme

Comments that had to do with programme content were categorised under this theme. There were

three instances of comments made concerning assessment in the programme. Two persons

expressed dissatisfaction with the rubric for the teaching practice: John felt that the “rubric for

teaching still needs attention” and Sally indicated that she was “not satisfied with the Teaching

164 J. Yamin-Ali

Practice instrument”. Barry felt that although the quality assurance system of first and second

marking is a good system “it has to be done differently…[because] it becomes a power game”.

Thus he felt that assessment was not adequately dealt with.

The lack of microteaching in the redesigned programme and the absence of places in the

curriculum for the merging of all disciplines were issues that were of concern to Sally. A major

issue for Sean was the “way we conceptualise the Practicum”. He felt that “so-called mentor

teachers who are not equipped in our system” will not adequately perform the role of the university

lecturers who “read more widely that classroom teachers” and know “our content area and…how

to pedagogically operationalise it”.

The loss of “giants”

Data that reflected issues regarding seniority of lack of experience of staff members were clustered

under this theme. The effects of the diminishing numbers of experienced staff in light of their

significant role stood out in this process of renewal according to John: “we have lost some giants

in the place…giants replaced by neophytes…we still need people with more intellectual

maturity…more pedagogic maturity”. But the younger ones feel the need for perhaps more

mentoring to maximise the expertise of these “giants”. Julie commented that: “everybody wants

everybody else to do the work because everybody’s struggling to write and to find time to visit and

to find time for family and let somebody else do it, let the younger ones do it. But if you are here

for a while, you are the ones that the younger ones have to learn from”. This need for a shared

understanding and a recognition of the developmental needs of all staff is echoed in the words of

Mary who indicated that “if people really understand what we are about here and why, we could

do wonders”. She observed that after a particularly stimulating discussion session during the

renewal process, “that’s when people started to realise [that] we need training in this…and they

were willing to embrace. I think that is something on the horizon waiting.”

Inconsistent use of research for decision-making

This theme comprises concerns about whether lecturers use research for decision-making. Two

opposing views regarding the use of research were presented by separate members of staff. With

regard to the use of data to make decisions, Abby felt that “we discuss things too much without

referring to the research” yet John was of the opinion that “there’s greater rationality to what

we’re doing now” and “we are using evidence as a basis for almost all the things we do. It’s an

evidence-based renewal or restructuring”. Similarly, Jean commented that “the research drove it

[the renewal process].”

Competition from other providers

This theme is an example of how qualitative research does not diminish the value of a single

comment and is highlighted because of its significance to the context from the researcher’s

understanding. According to Gary, the issue of “competition made the process a catalyst”. This

refers to the fact that the institution for the first time, had to cope with other providers in the teacher

education system. This was perhaps a stimulus for the effort of staff members, which was a

contributory factor to the accomplishment of the task.

The need to modify the old versus to re-vision

Any comment that related to the issue of holding on to what was familiar in terms of the

programme is presented under this theme. One of the major issues emerging from the experience


of re-designing this programme was, as Julie saw it, “trying to create a new programme by

modifying the old.. but we need to re-vision the programme”. The issue seemed to her to be that

we were not starting off with a sufficiently clean slate. This is evident in the remarks made by

Betty, who, during the process “reflect[ed] on her own student experience of the programme during

the renewal process” and “tried to ensure that things in the programme were practical”. She tried

to implement some of the new ideas in the existing programme due to her enthusiasm. All of

Brian’s comments used the comparative “more” in describing his understanding of the intention

of the renewal. He gathered “that we were trying to make the programme more relevant”, “more

marketable and competitive”, “more student-centred”, and that we were “making the content

more manageable”. A comparison of the new with the old was foremost in his mind.

University policy

This theme presents two issues that featured the actual and potential impact of university policy

on programme design. One of the factors that featured heavily in the renewal process was the

recognition of the extent to which the university’s credit system determined the structuring of

courses and programmes. Len felt strongly that our teacher education programmes are not as

integrated as they should be because of the “conflict between the university space and the teacher

ed. space”. He felt that the School of Education was disintegrating the programme because of the

university credit system. He further explained that “the biggest educational changes come not

because of educational issues but policies” and while he saw the need for the School of Education

to conform, he argued that it must not, for example, lose its need to integrate teaching and research.

The main challenges that staff identified in the programme renewal process are grouped under five

broad themes:

1. Lack of staff commitment

2. Logistics

3. Democratic process

4. Lack of staff’s understanding

5. Resistance to change

Lack of staff commitment

Ideas that related to staff not doing the work that was expected of them were categorised under

this theme. There was the perception that some members of staff “are looking to shirk our work

by using mentor teachers for the supervision of teaching” (Sean). Julie felt that “people were not

doing what they were supposed to do” She gave examples: “we’re on teams we’re on

committees…and the team is responsible for X, Y and Z and then you don’t communicate with each

other and then you’re passing round a document and people are not accessing the most up-to-date

one and…you send it out for comments from everybody and not everybody’s commenting on it…

you had a period of a month, you come the day before to write an email about your concerns and

you come to the meeting to raise these concerns. Where were you before?” She summarised her

conclusion that “people don’t want to do the work – they want others to do it”.

Mary’s observation was captured in her comment: “What stood out to me is…some of the

people’s distance...from the whole process…somebody else will do it…and it’s almost like tying,

hog-tying them to get them in there”.

166 J. Yamin-Ali

There was disappointment regarding the inconsistent attendance at meetings or lack of

input by some staff as expressed by Abby: “I was disappointed in that all staff didn’t see it as a

priority that they should attend these sessions and make their input either by an email or paper”.

This led to a challenge to consensus building as pointed out by Karen: “…how difficult it was to

come to consensus about things because really you were getting different bodies at different times,

people were in and out, you know, you weren’t getting like a flow”. Allison supported this when

she said: “it wasn’t a whole School engagement right through. So sometimes you tended to see

some faces, sometimes not…for whatever reason, some people… just... weren’t there. Some came,

left, might come late, so the real shared thinking, I think, was missing”. In terms of how this

affected the team work, Jan highlighted the challenge of “the fact that when you worked in these

teams, we did not get everybody coming back out to now agree…and that sometimes delayed the

process or sometimes stopped it altogether because you worked in your team, you have views about

the other teams but if you’re not there when we’re presenting and sharing, it hampers the process,

because decisions are made on the few and then you have to kind of go back in a circle”.

However, some comments contradict the impression that there was a lack of commitment.

According to Jean, “persons who were given to lead tasks were competent”, and “the team I

worked with…worked and out of our meetings and meeting of the minds we were able to really get

a better grasp of how to do things”. Mary held a similar view about a session that was particularly

successful: “there was one session we had, though, where I was very pleased, the one we had when

people had so much to say and they worked so well”. This concept of teamwork ties in to the

concept of getting people on board as Mary further commented: “Success was achieved when

people were brought on board” and Jean added that “The [team] process helped people buy into

the change”. Perhaps the latter statements were not so much about commitment, but the strategy

that was used to maximise the input of those who were present.

Logistics

Practical factors that posed a challenge to the work involved in the renewal process were

categorised as ‘logistics’. Several persons commented on the challenge of a lack of time to focus

adequately on the task of programme renewal. John elaborated: “the thing is that finding the time,

the quality time, to spend on the process of renewing the various components. Now I’m not so sure

that has gone as well as it might have gone. I know...it has gone somewhere but people have been

so swamped with a variety of tasks”. Jean reiterated the point: “It was tough getting people and

getting us to come all the time to have to be spending so much time because it took a lot of your

time”. Allison felt that the preparation she needed in order to effectively address the tasks was a

challenge because of the lack of time: “just the opportunity to read things…, you don’t have that

kind of time because…you have deadlines to meet, you have to meet the academic calendar”. The

given time-frame within which we wanted to complete the process in the context of workload was

commented on by Jan: “But knowing that there was no way it could be done in the time frame…

coming to terms with that would make this whole process a lot easier. If we just accept… that

there’s only so much we could do”.

Another logistical challenge as noted by Gary was the lack of a period of time dedicated

solely to the task of renewal: “It was the start and the stop…a more concentrated thing so that…

there would be a more...a smoother flow”. The use of groups and group reporting at times, for

some, proved to be unsatisfying. Pat’s experience was that when reporting on the work of the small

group to the larger group “small group work is thrown away”. She felt despondent when in such

a case “you spend a lot or time …and then it’s shot down”. At another level, returning to the large


group to arrive at consensus was a challenge as Jan indicated: “when you worked in these teams,

we did not get everybody coming back out to now agree…and that sometimes delayed the process

or sometimes stopped it altogether because… if you’re not there when we’re presenting and

sharing, it hampers the process, because decisions are made on the few and then you have to kind

of go back in a circle…” Karen supported this view when she commented about the lack of

consistency in meeting attendance: “I find we had so many [meetings]… but in every mix it was

like the repeat of the same thing, going back, going back. I found we didn’t progress for a long

while”.

Democratic process

There were elements in a democratic process that proved to be challenges. Such elements

constitute this theme. Initially, because of the imposition of time on staff’s workload, the

programme coordinator attempted to do some of the initial groundwork on her own. However,

Mary saw this as a negative. The outcome of staff involvement at every stage was positive and

Abby stated the obvious: “the democratic process made the process long”. When discussion was

opened up, for Allison “what stood out was people’s different ways of perceiving things…like on

different islands” and “you learn that…you could have your own views but unless it strikes against

your moral code…it is not always possible to hold on to that…you have you give in sometimes”.

In terms of the larger group, Sally recognised the challenge of sacrificing one’s personal views:

“leading a team…you have to go with the majority even if it’s against your personal view”.

One disappointment with the process was the way in which micro-politics can “throw a

spoke in the wheel” of consensus. As Sean explained, politics was a challenge. He gave an

example: “you’d make a point in a plenary in front of all of your peers, receive unanimous support

and then between then and the next meeting something has happened”. What has happened is a

top-down decision to reverse the decision made by the majority. However, in contrast to this

feeling of dissatisfaction, staff involvement created opportunities for “the collaboration needed

for the institution to move forward” brought about by the process as well as “recognition that

renewal is necessary” according to Jean. Empowerment through understanding as highlighted in

Allison’s comment that “the meetings are one opportunity to get to know other people and how

they’re thinking”.

Lack of staff’s understanding

Some interviewees commented that the lack of staff’s understanding impeded the process. All

related views were placed under this theme. Members of staff found a lack of understanding to be

an impediment in the renewal process and perceived this at different levels. On the one hand, Julie

felt that “everybody has not been keeping up with current things…people need to read”. Allison

recognised her own limitations when she said she “wasn’t comfortable – didn’t do enough reading

in the area of ‘teacher ed’ and programme renewal…my conversation was more intuitive”.

Bearing in mind that the programme renewal involved a blended element, two perspectives

show a possible weakness of the staff’s professional development. Julie felt that “people don’t

have a clear idea of blended…[they] have not experienced being a blended student”, and Sean’s

disappointment with the position of the institution in the context of blended learning was evident

“I would have thought that the SOE would have been at the forefront of that [blended]”.

The other level of a lack of understanding was highlighted by Candice who lamented the

lack of understanding of some staff who do not have a Curriculum group”. This referred to staff

members who do not teach in the programme being renewed but who were involved in its renewal.

168 J. Yamin-Ali

On a more fundamental level, Len was adamant that to design a programme that was well

integrated “required a lot of strong independent lecturers who are good teacher educators”. He

was able to cite an example of a lecturer who was unduly stressed by the new articulation of courses

due to what he perceived as a lack of understanding of teacher education that valued integration.

In support of the latter point, Mary concluded that “they need to prepare people well for their

jobs” (referring to teacher educators).

Resistance to change

Resistance to change was evident in different ways as highlighted by some lecturers. In addition,

any complications related to change are addressed under this theme. While the staff in general

recognised the need to renew the programme, there were elements that seemed difficult for them

to change. Barry saw this as being “protective” of and “committed” to the ‘old’ programme and

identified the syndrome of “if it’s not broken don’t fix it”. Julie corroborated this notion by stating

“they’re locked into the old ways of thinking” and “some people have difficulties changing…are

afraid to change…so it becomes then really a tweaking of the old thing instead of trying something

new”. Jean added that she “didn’t feel people were necessarily ready for change”. However, she

saw that “the process helped people to buy into change and awaken the need to change”. Sean

elaborated on this difficulty with change when he stated “it’s a case of more of the old…a

considerable amount of lip service being paid to the change when people’s pedagogies have not

really moved on…I don’t see that there is a philosophical movement”. He continued: “we spent a

long time on the process because people couldn’t conceptualise what teaching in a new paradigm

means…I think we’re too inflexible… there are some people inside here with very, very strong

opinions. They are not moved by any kind of evidence. They are very set in their ways”. Sean also

pointed out that “people can’t work out that with new conditions we need innovations”. But even

with the notion of innovations comes the challenge of conceptualisation as he indicated: “on one

extreme some colleagues seem to believe that technology can solve all our problems”.

Discussion As indicated in the beginning of this paper, no change experience is without its complexities. The

peculiarities of the programme change context explored in this study through the data and the

examination of the literature demonstrate that there are some universal commonalities in the

change experience which cross professional fields and geographical borders. Whilst some of the

beliefs, fears, doubts, opinions and attitudes of faculty might have clearly surfaced during the

programme renewal process, in addition to nuances and subtleties which communicated messages

indirectly, it was the direct communication via the interviews conducted for the purposes of this

research that facilitated the sharing of candid thoughts and clear messages regarding faculty’s

experience of programme renewal.

It is evident that there were divergent views about some issues and challenges which arose

in the discussions. For example, even though there was the feeling that staff was shirking work,

and that there was a lack of commitment, there was also the view that the staff who did participate

demonstrated commitment and competence when they worked in teams. Such teamwork parallels

with the collaboration which enabled collegial understanding. Yet, even though this collaboration

was seen to be a positive factor, the time challenge that emerged is an indication that staff felt the

stress of wanting to make valuable contributions without having sufficient available time to do so.

Even though the democratic process was seen as time-consuming, it also allowed for the

collaboration and the teamwork which were valuable features of the process.


The issue of the tendency to modify as opposed to re-vision could be seen to be closely

aligned to the resistance to change observed. Within that alignment lies the irony of the perception

that “giants” have left and that “neophytes” have come on board. This is not an indication of where

the “lack of understanding” lies. It could well be that those “giants” who have the “intellectual

maturity” need new understandings as do those “neophytes” who are perceived as having

developmental needs. Linked to this is the perception of “competition” as an issue. In the context

of this programme renewal, the “competition” in fact proved to be a major stimulus which

propelled the renewal process.

As could be seen from some lecturers’ comments, the tendency to focus on individual

preferences within a programme raises a myriad of issues within the change discussions with the

result that some remain dissatisfied with the final outcome. It is worth noting that perhaps it was a

lack of time to devote to the entire change process that prevented more understanding and

compromise with regard to a rubric, the practicum and microteaching. Finding adequate time is a

challenge (Johnson et al., 1987) as well as a possible contributor to what might have seemed to

be “shirking” of work or not attending meetings. One’s commitment might have swung according

to one’s pendulum of responsibilities where several duties competed for one’s time. In light of the

demands of the wider university, it is likely that some lecturers had to make a choice in terms of

their time and energy (Aubusson, 2003; Hainline, Gines, Feather, Padilla & Terry, 2010).

However, there exists a conundrum in that if these very lecturers feel the pressure of a heavy

workload or of unrealistic demands on their time, surely their input into improved programme

planning could have a long-term positive effect on their job satisfaction. One recognises, though,

that commitment to such work, and ownership of an innovation necessitate certain understandings,

knowledge and skills which are, no doubt, lacking in faculty, and which point to a need for

systemic reconfiguration (Fullan, 1985) to facilitate new ways of learning aimed at capacity

building.

In as much as there was appreciation for the team approach which was used in the

programme renewal process, this is a possible strategy that could be utilised for professional

development among the faculty. The Professional Learning Communities and learning from peers

(Fullan, 2006) could become a driver of change as recommended by Russell (2001). In the context

of this institution, though, one must recognise that “neophytes” may well have something to offer

to programme change, while “lost giants” may need new lenses through which they can understand

new needs and ways of being. However, whereas collaboration through teams might have been

viewed as a positive contributor to the process of renewal, that experience has to be managed so

that the shared spaces of discussion do not breed self-doubt and feelings of inadequacy in those

with less experience and less confidence.

Currently, this institution is growing in its capacity to produce and use research pertinent

to its programmes, including stakeholder expectations and experiences. There is evident need to

build on this development so that rational decision-making becomes more common practice.

Current advice to faculty is that they must strategise in order to make their research pertinent to

their practice, be it in teaching, programme development or any other facet of professional

responsibility. In so doing, time for research is minimised, research output might be maximised,

and faculty confidence to contribute to institutional development could increase.

The issues and challenges highlighted by staff point to broader issues that require attention

if faculty are to grow in ways that would enable their empowerment to effectively and efficiently

make a positive difference to the output of the institution and to their own sense of professionalism.

In order for staff to look beyond their personal needs toward the greater need of students’ learning

170 J. Yamin-Ali

and national development, they must be equipped to see the ripple effect of their efforts while at

the same time, learn how to ‘work smart’. There is the possibility that some faculty have difficulty

managing themselves. From observation, the university’s system has the capacity and the will to

provide sessions to support staff in this capacity. Just as professional workshops are compulsory

for new lecturers, so too should be some of these self-management sessions. The recommendation

is that these should include personal coaching.

In order that some staff and institutional needs are met, the leadership of the institution

would need to look at staff development and institutional work from a fresh perspective, focusing

on details which were hitherto perhaps overlooked. Apart from the inspirational side of leadership,

the management of the institution’s work becomes a greater challenge when one considers the

knowledge, skills and dispositions deemed necessary for faculty, in addition to the degree of

planning necessary for the realisation of goals and desired outcomes of the institution at the varying

levels of functioning. One example that surfaces from the data is the meeting time needed for the

extent of planning for the programme renewal in this context. Gary complained about the “start

and stop” nature of the meetings rather than a preferred “period of time dedicated solely to that

task of renewal”. Although it is recognised that people need time to reflect on issues, it could be

worth the while to use a retreat-type approach to programme planning so that effort is intense and

condensed without the stress of fitting in a plethora of meetings within regular working time.

The feedback from faculty indicates that in addition to logistical planning, leaders ought to

pay attention to the development of the softer side of human interaction which organisations tend

to underestimate and which can have great implications for the success or failure of a plan or

project. For some faculty members, it was the “different ways of seeing”, the impression of being

“shot down”, “sacrificing one’s personal views” and the recognition that “politics was a challenge”

that point to a need for staff training in critical thinking, handling conflict, discussion techniques,

interpersonal communication, and teamwork skills. Such training may, indeed, draw out more

meaningful and significant contributions from all staff. At the same time, one must bear in mind

that, as Pfeffer and Sutton (2000), cited in Fullan (2006), remind us, we should embed new learning

into the actual task rather than depend solely on training programmes, thus turning new knowledge

into action. According to Tagg (2012, p. 9), apart from designing change for our institutions, we

must “redesign our institutions for change”. He suggests creating structures which would enable

large numbers of faculty to design the change, implying therefore that large numbers must be

involved in the requisite training mentioned above.

In the planning experience, it is common for potential game-changers to claim that

opponents to change are “set in their old ways”. This research supports this to some extent but

bears in mind that those who don’t want to ‘fix it’ can usually support their arguments. It is up to

those in favour of the change to convince the naysayers of the value of the change, which is why

knowledge of the field and the art of persuasion are crucial strengths for all faculty members. This

extends to new knowledge and understandings such as of blending learning which has arisen as an

issue in this research.

The effects of broad economic and political events shape the dynamic nature of all social

institutions. Educational provision, therefore, will always inevitably dance to the tune of policy-

makers and researchers who intend to make a difference. Educators at all levels need to keep

abreast of how and why changes take place within the education domain and should also be in a

position to predict and bring about the changes that they see as necessary, from carving out their

own goals to planning for implementation. Teacher educators need to take a leading role through


dialogue with all stakeholders in order to ensure a common vision with shared understandings of

the ways forward.

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ISSN 1727-5512



Nigerian Pre-service Teachers’ Perceptions of Gender Roles and Stereotypes

in Social Studies Classrooms

Ayodeji Ifegbesan

Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria

The aim of the study was to explore the perceptions of Undergraduate pre-service Social

Studies teachers toward gender roles and stereotypes. Two hundred and ten (210) pre-

service Social Studies teacher-trainees were administered an 18-item Likert type

questionnaire. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to address the questions

raised. The analysis revealed that pre-service teachers possess negative perceptions of

gender stereotypes in classroom. Results also showed significant differences in sex, age,

religion, academic level and mode of entry among pre-service Social Studies teachers on

gender-stereotype perceptions. Correlation analyses reveal significant associations

among sex, age, mode of entry and religion, and gender-stereotyped perception. Multiple

regression results also revealed that sex, academic level, mode of entry and religion are

predictors of perceptions of gender stereotype practices. The implication of this study is

the importance of sensitising pre-service Social Studies teachers toward issues of gender

stereotypes. There is also the need for schools to adopt policies, curriculum and learning

materials that would provide equal opportunities for both sexes.

Keywords: Gender, Social Studies, pre-service teachers, classroom, perceptions

Background

One of the issues that have dominated international discourse in the last three decades is gender

and gender equality. Beginning from the Vienna Conference in 1993; the UN International

Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) in Cairo in 1994 and Beijing in 1995,

declarations at these conferences became the impetus for the promotion of gender equality and

elimination of discrimination. Since then, there has emerged a substantial body of literature which

suggests a growing interest by scholars in gender-related issues world-wide (Benjamin, Choi, &

Strickland, 2010; Ilona, Štreimikienė & Grundey 2011; Mwamwenda, 2011). Within the teacher-

students interaction in educational system, gender has been recognised as important. Research

evidence on gender stereotypes has produced an impressive number of data, scattered through the

arts, social sciences, sciences and education literature. A critical review of the published articles

(Abimbola & Dada, 2015; Igbo, Onu & Obiyo 2015; Law & Chan, 2004; Steinke, Long, Johnson

& Ghosh, 2008) has lent credence to the fact that education through various school subjects plays

a vital role in shaping and reinforcing the identities of boys and girls as well as perceptions about

gender relations and equality in society outside the classroom. Furthermore, evidence suggests that

teachers’ classroom practices are an essential aspect of effective teaching and learning

methodology and by extension, the success of the students.



Literature Review

Gender is a concept used to express the way a society ascribes roles to maleness or femaleness.

The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) (2004), defined gender as the “cultural

expected behavior of men and women based on roles, attitudes and values ascribed to them on the

basis of their sex.” From the same perspective Health Canada (2000) refers to gender as the “array

of socially-constructed roles and relationships, personality traits, attitudes, behaviours, values,

relative power and influence that society ascribes to the two sexes on a differential basis” (p. 14).

This implies that the different roles that men and women play in a society and the benefits ascribed

to these roles are created and sustained through traditions and regulations which are transmitted to

generations across time and space. Aiken (2002) has defined stereotypes as “beliefs concerning

the personal attributes of a group of people” (p. 6). Gender stereotypes thus refer to shared beliefs

concerning the categories of male and females.

Gender stereotypes involves the categorisation of individuals or groups (e.g. female or

male), the assignment of a dispositional quality (e.g., trait, attitude, intention) to an individual or

group based on their membership in various categories or subcategories. These socially-imposed

gender role stereotypes create inequalities and limit behaviors and opportunities for all. Examples

of gender stereotyping of males as possessing such characteristics as independence, self-

confidence, being rough, assertive, strong and aggressive. In contrast, females are seen as being

caring, submissive or weak and possessing characteristics such as gentleness, understanding and

warmth.

Gender stereotyping does not begin in schools or in adolescence when students choose

subjects and/or career on the basis of their perceptions of certain subjects as gendered. It starts

from birth, when parents treat boys and girls differently; buy pink dresses for girls and blue for the

boys; give balls and cars for boys and dolls for girls. Boys are told that “boys don’t cry” and girls

are encouraged to be quiet and obedient. Most students enter schools with certain gender

behaviours already ingrained in their minds. In most African societies, like other societies, gender

roles define male and female behavioural norms. Some behaviours, actions and activities are

categorised as masculine or feminine. Evidence abounds to suggest that the socialisation of African

children from their tender age through adolescence to adulthood is rooted in gender stereotypes

(Erinosho 1997; Ogunyemi 1999; Mwamwenda, 2011). Parents discriminate on the basis of gender

in assigning responsibilities at home to boys and girls. Boys are often excluded from household

chores which are compulsory for girls who are “being prepared for their husbands’ homes”. Girls

are to fend for the young ones in the absence of their parents while boys, who are potential “heads

of families”, are excused. The effects of gender stereotypes on children and young people cannot

be underestimated. Stereotyping of gender roles has led to society where both men and women are

often perceived in unfair or prejudicial ways. It is a form of prejudice and encourages assumptions

about people based on their gender. Female and male students experience sex discrimination,

harassment and exclusion at school, home and in many other ways in their everyday life. Gender

stereotyping denies the expression of one’s identity as an individual. This becomes complicated

where such gender stereotyping is entrenched in cultural backgrounds or religious beliefs. Leaving

these stereotypes unchallenged creates unfair and unnecessary barriers.

There have been numerous studies in literature that have analysed gender role stereotypes

(Aladejana, 2002; Azikwe, 2002; Cahill & Adams, 1997; Erinosho, 2005; Mkuchu, 2003;

Subramanian, 2002). These studies revealed that teachers do not just hold personal beliefs and

stereotypical perceptions which affect their attitudes and classroom practices but also encourage

gender stereotyping in the classrooms (Cahill & Adams, 1997; Good & Brophy, 1994;

176 A. Ifegbesan

Razumnikova, 2005). Other studies have reported that girls do better in languages than boys

(Delamere & Shaw, 2010; Lee & Mushner, 2008; Tucker, 2007; Woods et al., 2008).

Gray and Leith (2004) explored the promotion of gender equity in the classroom and the

extent to which initial teacher training and in-service courses address gender issues. Their findings

suggest that teachers are generally aware of gender stereotypes in the classroom. Almutawa (2005)

investigated the beliefs of pre-service teachers at the University of Pittsburgh about gender-role

differences and their related roles and behaviours and reported that both male and female pre-

service teachers tended to hold egalitarian views about gender roles. Females tended to have

stronger egalitarian views about gender roles than males. Age and marital status of pre-service

teachers were not related to their beliefs about gender roles. The findings also showed that pre-

service teachers tended to believe that students are the ones who should decide on the preferable

gender roles; however, it was acceptable for teachers to be involved in shaping students’

perspectives about gender roles. Most pre-service teachers believed that teachers should try to

reduce gender stereotypes that result in unequal learning opportunities for students, and they

suggested ways to do so.

Igbo, Onu and Obiyo (2015) investigated the influence of gender stereotype as a predictor

of secondary school students’ self-concept and academic achievement and found that gender

stereotype had a significant influence on students’ self-concept and academic achievement in favor

of the male students. On the other hand, school location had a significant influence on the academic

achievement of students but had no significant influence on students’ self-concept.

There is no doubt that education is very vital to the pace of social, political and economic

development of any nation. Nigeria is striving for quality education by advocating for the quality

of instruction at all levels. This however has to be oriented toward inculcating the following

values:

Respect for the worth and dignity of the individual;

Faith in an individual’s ability to make rational decisions;

Moral and spiritual principle in inter-personal and human relations;

Shared responsibility for the common good of society;

Promotion of the physical, emotional and psychological development of all children;

Acquisition of competencies necessary for self-reliance (FRN, 2014; p. 2).

The National Policy on Education (FRN, 2014) prescribes the teaching of Social Studies

as a core subject in the primary and junior secondary schools and as an elective at the senior

secondary level. Nigerian Social Studies education, like in many part of the world, is a problem-

solving school subject (Ogunyemi 2003). The solution to the contemporary national and

international problems, it has been argued, requires citizens who can think critically and

constructively. It requires the support of those with sound social, political and environmental

orientation. Social Studies as a discipline and as a way of life strives to equip the young learners

with such knowledge, values and skills through its contents and methods. Its content is rich and

versatile, and its methods are diverse and unique.

Ogunyemi (2003) opined that Social Studies is dynamic and that its dynamism makes it

capable of responding to new challenges. The role of Social Studies is to help students develop the

knowledge and understanding, attitudes and values and skills necessary to become active and

responsible citizens. The Universal Basic Education Curriculum for Social Studies at its three

levels (lower, middle and upper) has incorporated “many of the local contemporary issues , local

and global concerns such as youth unemployment and youth restiveness, environmental issues,


drug abuse, child/women trafficking and family life education, HIV/AIDS, gender issues, peace

and conflict issues, Nigerian peoples and their cultures, the mass media, globalization and the

millennium development goals (MDG) (FRN, 2013).

The Problem

Studies on the gender stereotypes from Africa and specifically Nigeria are relatively scarce. The

available studies have focused on content analysis of school curricular materials, textbooks, gender

differentiation in performance and gender disparity in Sciences and Mathematics (Abimbola &

Dada, 2015; Erinosho, 2005; Igbo et al., 2015; Jovanovic, 2006; Mwamwenda, 2011; Law & Chan,

2004; Steinke et al., 2008). Few available studies in the area of Social Studies are different in term

of focus and are from Europe and Caribbean (Brugar, Halvorsen & Hernandez, 2014; Crocco,

2001; Griffith, 1999; Hahn et al., 2007). No previously published research has yet examined pre-

service teachers’ view of gender stereotypes in Social Studies classrooms. This represents a

significant gap in the literature in Nigeria and a serious source of concern considering increasing

socio-economic development the country is witnessing and the need for gender equality. The

dearth of research assessing pre-service teachers’ perceptions of gender stereotypes in Nigeria is

worth researching. Pre-service teachers, as would-be teachers, need to be aware of gender

stereotypes and their potential role in reducing and elimination gender discrimination among of

students. Therefore, the purpose of this study is in response to this gap by assessing pre-service

teacher perceptions of gender stereotypes in Nigerian Social Studies classrooms. Thus, this study

will contribute to gender studies literature by promoting the understanding of how pre-service

teachers perceived gender-role stereotypes in the classrooms.

Specifically, the research will answer the following questions:

What are pre-service Social Studies teachers’ perceptions of gender stereotypes in the

classroom?

Are there any significant differences between demographic characteristics of pre-

service teachers’ (sex, age, religion, level of study and course of study) and perceptions

of gender stereotypes?

What is the relationship between demographic characteristics of pre-service teachers’

(i.e., sex, age, religion, level of study and course of study) and their perceptions toward

gender stereotypes?

What is the impact of the background characteristics of pre-service teachers on

perceptions of gender stereotypes?

Method

Participants

The sample consisted of two hundred and forty (240) Social Studies undergraduate pre-service

teachers in the Department of Curriculum Studies and Instructional Technology at the Olabisi

Onabanjo University who were offering courses in Social Studies Education. A total of two

hundred and ten (210), i.e. 87.5% of the total students sampled completed and returned the

questionnaire. The characteristics of the participants indicated that 54% are male while 46% are

female. Their ages ranged between 18 and 32 years. The majority (66%) of the students were

between 23 and 27 years of age, and the average age was 20 years. Twenty-five percent were

between 18 and 22 years while 9% were between 28 and 32 years. The majority (49%) were in

400 level (fourth year), and 33% were 200 level (second year) and 18% were 300 level (third year).

In addition, the majority (58%) were direct entry students – students who gained admission into

178 A. Ifegbesan

the University from second year, whilst 429% came in through the University Matriculation

Examination (UME). In terms of religion, most of the sampled students (76%) claimed to be

Christians, while 24% were Muslim. With respect to course of study, there were 54% Social

Studies major, while 46% were Social Studies minors.

Instrument

A researcher-designed semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data for the study. The

questionnaire had three sections. The first section, focused on the demographic background of

respondents’ sex, age, course of study, academic level, mode of entry and religion. The second

section contained 18-items measured using a five-point Likert scale of strongly disagree, disagree,

neutral, agree and strongly agree. The instrument was validated with the assistance of two experts

in research in the Faculty of Education, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye and was pilot-

tested using 30 fourth-year students in Social Studies programme. The obtained Cronbach’s alpha,

a measure of reliability, was calculated to be 0.87.

Analysis

Descriptive statistics were performed to determine the teachers’ general perceptions of gender.

Moreover, a multiple regression and correlational analysis were conducted to establish the relative

predictive importance of pre-service teachers’ gender perceptions when sex, academic level, ages,

mode of entry, religion and course of study were controlled. To classify the teachers’ perceptions

as revealed in the questionnaire responses the following cut-off ranges were established: positive

perception = mean score between 3.00 and 5.00, neutral perception = mean score between 2.00

and 2.99 and negative perception = means score between 1.00 and 1.99. A standard deviation

greater than 1.00 was taken to be indicative of high variability among responses.

Findings The first research question of this study was to determine the general perception of pre-service

Social Studies teacher-trainees. The findings are presented in Table 1. An overall analysis revealed

that pre-service Social Studies teachers are largely aware of the gender stereotyped beliefs with

about 90 percent giving an affirmative answer, however more than 65 percent acknowledged not

interested in gender issues.

A critical look at Table 1 reveals that only six of the eighteen items “Men are strong and

women are weak”, “Boys generally possess more scientific skills than girls”, “Male students

generally do better in Mathematics than female students”, “Females are better in Reading than

males”, “Women’s place is at home” and “Husbands and wives should share equally in housework

such as cooking, washing dishes, and house cleaning” had mean scores above the critical value of

3.00.

Table 1


Perceptions of pre-service teacher-trainees about gender-stereotypes

SA A D SD UD Mean SD

1 Sweeping of school compound should be a

shared responsibility between boys and

girls.

41

(19.5)

60

(28.6)

55

(26.2)

53

(25.2)

1

(.5) 3.09 1.53

2 Cleaning up of the classroom should be the

primary responsibility of girls.

15

(7.1)

59

(28.1)

63

(30.0)

58

(27.6)

15

(7.1) 3.43 1.34

3 Male students generally do better in Social

Studies than female students.

27

(12.9)

48

(22.9)

60

(28.6)

51

24.3

24

(11.4) 3.29 1.39

4 Male and female students should receive

equal instructional attention in all subject

areas.

32

(15.2)

70

(33.3)

49

(23.3)

15

(7.1)

44

(21.0) 2.74 1.18

5 Boys should be made the head prefect and

class captain.

102

(48.6)

62

(29.5)

14

(6.7)

24

(11.4)

8

(3.8) 2.03 1.35

6 Girls should have as much opportunity as

boys to answer questions in all classrooms.

33

(15.7)

57

(27.1)

36

(17.1)

60

(28.6)

24

(11.4) 3.16 1.48

7 Male students’ with stereotypical behavior

should be accepted.

81

(38.6)

68

(32.4)

29

(13.8)

16

(7.6)

16

(7.6) 2.20 1.29

8 Boys and girls should be encouraged to do

the same things.

59

(28.1)

73

(34.8)

39

18.6

25

(11.9)

14

(6.7) 2.51 1.38

9 I have developed effective classroom

strategies for dealing with gender bias.

40

(19.0)

42

(20.0)

69

(32.9)

47

(22.4)

12

(5.7) 3.20 1.47

10 I have studied gender issues in my Social

Studies programme.

75

(35.7)

55

(26.2)

36

(17.1)

11

(5.2)

33

(15.7) 2.30 1.26

11 Gender equity instruction of students was a

major consideration in my Social Studies

programme.

74

(35.2)

85

(40.5)

17

(8.1)

18

(8.6)

16

(7.6) 2.14 1.23

12 Social Studies teachers should not use

students’ gender as a criterion for making

educational decisions about them.

87

(41.4)

69

(32.9)

26

(12.4)

12

(5.7)

16

(7.6) 2.08 1.22

13 Schools and government are not doing

enough to create awareness about gender

issues in Nigeria.

32

(15.2)

61

(29.0)

48

(22.9)

28

(13.3)

41

(19.5) 2.90 1.29

14 It would not be appropriate for Social

Studies teachers to communicate

stereotypical expectations to students.

45

(21.4)

70

(33.3)

48

(22.9)

21

(10.0)

26

(12.4) 2.67 1.31

15 Awareness about the gender-stereotype

issues should be incorporated into Social

Studies and other school subjects.

54

(25.7)

92

(43.8)

39

(18.6)

6

(2.9)

19

(9.0) 2.29 1.13

16 Social Studies teachers should be involved

in shaping their students’ perceptions

about gender roles.

47

(22.4)

98

(46.7)

39

(18.6)

11

(5.2)

15

(7.1) 2.38 1.17

17 Social Studies teacher education should

foster awareness and prepare students’ to

deal with gender-stereotypes issues.

67

(31.9)

103

(49.0)

22

(10.5) -

18

(8.6) 1.98 0.91

18 Social Studies teacher education

programme should promote gender

sensitive behavior.

59

(28.1)

112

(53.3)

14

(7.1)

10

(4.8)

15

(7.1) 2.07 1.02

To examine the extent to which differences were present in participants’ perceptions, t-test

and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were conducted. Table 2 reports the results of t-test analysis

180 A. Ifegbesan

to determine whether significant differences existed in perceptions of gender stereotypes practices

by independent variable of sex, mode of entry, religion, and course of study. Significant

differences were found with respect to sex, mode of entry and religion.

Table 2

Differences between demographic characteristics of pre-service teachers and perception

Sex N Mean S.D t Sig.

Male 96 59.8 11.1

Female 114 64.4 12.6 -2.80 0.01*

Mode of Entry

UME 88 57.84 8.39 -4.77 0.00*

Direct 122 65.55 13.39

Religion

Christian 159 61.04 10.44 -2.74 0.01*

Islam 51 66.31 15.85

Course of study

Social Studies-Major 113 61.05 10.71 -1.63 0.10

Social Studies Minor 97 63.79 13.55

* Significant at the .05 level

Stated differently, the results in Table 2 indicated that female Social Studies teacher-

trainees, direct entry students and Muslim students have higher mean scores than male, UME and

Christian teacher-trainees. These suggest that female students are more likely to hold positive

perceptions and express fewer gender-stereotypical views.

Additional one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) analyses were conducted to determine

whether significant differences existed in teacher-trainees' perceptions of gender stereotype

practices according to age group and academic level. As shown in Table 3, statistically significant

differences were present among the age groups for perception, (F (2, 209) = 11.5, p < .00), and for

academic level, (F (2, 209) = 3.15, p < .05).

Table 3


Differences between background characteristics of respondents and perception

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Age

Between Groups 3086.44 2 1543.2 11.5 0.00

Within Groups 27775.18 207 134.2

Total 30861.62 209

Academic Level

Between Groups 912.69 2 456.34 3.15 0.04

Within Groups 29948.94 207 144.68

Total 30861.62 209

In order to determine where the difference in perception lies, Scheffe’s post hoc analysis

was performed. The results indicate that there are statistically significant differences in the

perception of pre-service teachers’ aged 18–22 years and 28-32 years, and between participants

aged 23-27 years, and 28-32 years. Furthermore, with respect to academic level, statistically

significant differences were found between pre-service teachers’ in the 200 level and 300 level.

In order to answer the third research question, which is to determine the relationship

between the students’ demographic characteristics and gender stereotype perceptions, the results

in Table 4 indicate that sex, age, mode of entry and religion were positively correlated with

perceptions. Academic level and course of study shows no relationship. This suggests that

academic level and course of study of pre service teachers has nothing to do with the gender

stereotypes perceptions held.

Table 4

Correlations between perceptions and demographic characteristics

Sex

Ag

e

Aca

dem

ic L

evel

Mo

de

of

entr

y

Rel

igio

n

Co

urs

e of

study

Per

cep

tion

s

Sex - Age -.077 - Level -.030 .284(**) - Mode of entry -.043 .322(**) -.280(**) - Religion -.171(*) .045 -.093 .098 - Course of study .179(**) -.158(*) -.419(**) .129 .032 - Perceptions .190(**) .227(**) .039 .314(**) .187(**) .113 -

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Significant at the 0.05 level

Multiple regression was conducted to address the fourth research question, which is to

determine the impact of students’ characteristics on their gender stereotype perceptions. The

182 A. Ifegbesan

results are presented in Table 5. The six independent variables were sex, age, academic level, mode

of entry, course of study and religion. The results indicate that the six background characteristics

variables of the students explained 20% of the variance on perception of gender stereotyped (R =

0.47 and adjusted R square = 0.20). The impact was significant (F (6,209) = 9.55, p < .000.00).

All of the background variables included in the regression with the exception of age and course of

study were predictors of perception of gender-stereotyped practices. In the analysis, sex (β =0.23,

t = 3.60, p≤ .00), academic level (β =0.16, t= 2.16p ≤ .03), mode of entry (β =0.30, t=4.7, p≤ .00)

and religion (β =0.20, t=3.21, p ≤ .00) were identified as significantly positive predictors of gender

stereotyped perception among pre-service social studies teacher-trainees. This result indicates that

mode of entry is the most predictor of gender-stereotyped perception while academic level has the

least predictive capability gender stereotyped practices among the teacher-trainees.

Table 5

Multiple regression analysis of six independent variables on the dependent variable

Model Summary

R R Square Adjusted R Square

0.47 0.22 0.20

ANOVA (b)

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Regression 6791.56 6 1131.93 9.55 0.00

Residual 24070.06 203 118.57

Total 30861.62 209

Coefficients (a)

Unstandardised Coefficients Standardised Coefficients t Sig.

B Std. Error Beta

(Constant) 13.98 8.66 1.61 0.11

Sex 5.62 1.56 0.23 3.60 0.00*

Age 2.39 1.55 0.11 1.54 0.12

Academic Level 2.22 1.03 0.16 2.16 0.03*

Mode of entry 7.36 1.77 0.30 4.17 0.00*

Religion 5.75 1.79 0.20 3.21 0.00*

Course of study 2.74 1.69 0.11 1.62 0.11

Dependent Variable: Perceptions

Discussion

This paper has investigated pre-service teachers’ perceptions of gender stereotypes in Social

Studies classroom. The results from this study indicated that pre-service teachers possessed

negative perceptions of the gender-stereotyped practices. The negative level of attitudes could be

attributed to the socialisation process and cultural background of the pre-service teachers. Socio-

demographic variables, religion, mode of entry, sex and academic level played significant role in

predicting the perception, which was in contrast to other studies (Frawley, 2005). This study found

no significant relationship for age and gender, and gender stereotype perceptions. This finding

does not support past research, which suggested significant relationships between age and


perceptions of gender stereotypes (Calvanese, 2007; Markauskaite, 2006; McCoy & Heafner,

2004).

The evidence of Burns (1998), points to the same conventional stereotypes noted in

Western cultures being strongly held in Islamic societies. A considerable gulf is apparent among

these student teachers between their perceptions of masculinity and femininity, particularly

between the ascribed expressive and instrumental characteristics which could prevent full use

being made of the potential of each person. Gray and Leith (2004) suggest that teachers are

generally aware of gender stereotypes in the classroom and that, despite their lack of training in

gender issues, where appropriate, most attempted to challenge this type of behaviour. Concern was

expressed with the role of teachers in unconsciously perpetuating stereotypes and the extent to

which equality issues are directed more towards girls than boys.

Conclusion

This study provided insight into the perceptions of pre-service teachers’ gender related practices

in Social Studies classrooms. The results of the study indicated that the major factors affecting

pre-service teachers’ gender perception are their genders, academic level and their mode of entry.

The results of this study maintained the standpoint that there is a significant relationship

between sex and gender perceptions. Furthermore, this study supported the idea that academic

level affects the pre-service teachers’ perceptions toward gender (Calvanese, 2007; Hahn, et al.,

2007). This study indicated that gender competency level of pre-service teachers should be

developed in order for them to have a favourable gender perception for their education and work-

life. Female pre-service teachers should be encouraged so that their current perceptions might

increase.

Based on the findings and discussions, the following recommendations are offered for

teachers and teacher-education institutions:

Teacher-education programmes can play a key role in alleviating this disconnect by

devoting time to explicitly discussing gender and gender-equity issues. Pre-service

teachers should be allowed the opportunity to debate the role of gender in and out of the

classroom and the possibilities that exist in Social Studies. Teacher educators should take

the time to introduce relevant research and instructional opportunities into their methods

in the classes and throughout teacher-education programmes.

Teacher-education institutions should assess teachers' gender competency at the beginning

and the end of their pre-service undergraduate programmes. During undergraduate pre-

service training of teachers, new information about gender-related issues should be

provided periodically for the sustainable development of pre-service teachers.

Teacher-education institutions should provide training for pre-service teachers in

accordance with the needs in their prospective schools. Therefore, teacher-education

institutions and schools should cooperate in designing Social Studies training curriculums

to meet teachers' specific gender needs.

It is the task of Social Studies teacher-educators to provide experiences that will broaden

pre-service teachers' perceptions of gender and gender education. Hence, hands-on

experiences, realistic classroom examples, and links to teaching experiences and

instructors with both technical and curricular expertise should be advocated. These

attributes may help develop teachers' beliefs so they are able to effectively integrate gender

in instruction.

184 A. Ifegbesan

Teacher educators must examine their courses for gender bias. They must model gender

equality and gender-stereotypes freely in the classroom and identify strategies and

activities that provide teacher-trainees insight into addressing not only gender stereotypes

but also gender-related issues in their classrooms.

Acknowledgements

The author acknowledges two anonymous referees who commented on the first draft of the paper

and provided useful suggestions on methodological issues so that many constructive changes on

the paper were made.

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