Canadian History 11 - Allens Axiomallensaxiom.ednet.ns.ca/old on-line notes/On-Line Notes/Unit I... · HBC AND THE MADE BEAVER Here are the values of many of the NWC trade goods in

U N I T I : G L O B A L I Z A T I O N

CANADIAN HISTORY 11

CHAPTER 1: THE PEOPLING OF AMERICA

Misconception: North America was not discovered

by Christopher Columbus. People were already here,

but we need to remember that the winners write

history.

In 1492- People thought the world was flat and the

Discovery of North America was by accident, they

were looking for India.

Boy – were they wrong!

CHAPTER 1: VOCABULARY

1. Aboriginal Peoples

2. Archaeologist

3. B.P.

4. Mi'kmaq

5. World View

6. Artifacts

7. Radiocarbon Dating

8. Paleo-Indian

9. Fluted

10. DNA

11. Paradigm Bias

12. Physical Anthropologists

13. Linguistics

14. Beringia

15. Solutrean

16. Genetic Marker

17. Population Density

18. Treasure Ships

19. Ancient Anchors

20. Oral Tradition

21. Nomadic

22. Civilization Agriculture

WHO IS FIRST?

Who was here first?

1. Europeans were here first so we think…

2. Vikings certainly

3. Irish Monks: Pre-dating Vikings. (Dark Ages)!

4. Chinese made it here to – in theory

WHO WAS FIRST?

Christopher Columbus

After receiving significant funding from the Spanish

monarchs, Columbus set sail on August 3, 1492 with

three ships, the Pinta, Nina, and Santa Maria, and 104

men.

This voyage took five weeks - much longer than

Columbus expected, as he thought the world was

smaller than it is.

WHO WAS FIRST

Columbus…part 2?

Finally, at 2 a.m. on October 12, 1492, Rodrigo de

Triana, sighted land in area of the present-day

Bahamas.

When Columbus reached the land, he believed it

was an Asian island and named it San Salvador.

Because he did not find riches,

Columbus decided to continue

sailing in search of China

WHO WAS FIRST.?

Leif Eriksson

Nearly 500 years before the birth of Christopher

Columbus, a band of European sailors left their

homeland behind in search of a new world. Their

high-prowed Viking ship sliced through the cobalt

waters of the Atlantic Ocean as winds billowed the

boat’s enormous single sail.

WHO WAS FIRST.?

After traversing unfamiliar waters, the Norsemen

aboard the wooden ship spied a new land, dropped

anchor and went ashore. Half a millennium before

Columbus “discovered” America, those Viking feet

may have been the first European ones to ever have

touched North American soil.

Here is L'Anse Aux Meadows

NL, Canada

WHO WAS FIRST..

Saint Brendan

An Irish holy man who lived from 484 to 577 AD. Little

is known about his life. What we do know about him

mostly comes from a strange tale called "the Voyage

of St Brendan the Navigator," written down in the

ninth century and rewritten with various changes in

several later manuscripts.

WHO WAS FIRST..?

They eventually landed on the fabled Isle of the

Blessed far to the west of Ireland. This is what has

attracted the attention of some historians. Could the

fantastic tale hide the truth that the Irish came to

America a thousand years before Columbus?

WHO WAS FIRST…?

Chinese

The document is purportedly an 18th century copy of

a 1418 map charted by Chinese Admiral Zheng He,

which appears to show the New World in some

detail.

WHO WAS FIRST…?

Chinese River ship – massive in size

Traded across Europe and Asia

Admiral Zheng’s death changed China into a

isolationist nation.

CHINESE TRADE ROUTES

CAPE BRETON CONNECTION

• Englishtown site.

• Unclear if this was actually Chinese colony

• Questionable remains found

• Currently no empirical evidence

CAPER CONNECTION?

FOUR STORIES

Who was the first to discover North America?

Spanish, Vikings, Irish, Chinese?

WHAT WE DO KNOW…

North America was found many times. Also found to

contain a fully established and structured society.

ANASAZI

MAYAN

AZTEC

INCA

IROQUOIS

INUIT

APACHE

SIOUX

STORIES OF ORIGINS

STORIES OF ORIGINS

Egyptian's story of creation and the Nile, either an

ocean of chaos (Nu), or Ra came out of an egg

floating on the ocean.

STORIES OF ORIGINS

Haudenosaunee legend shows, that Sky Woman fell

through a hole in the Sky World and tumbled

downward toward the earth that was covered in

water. The animals came up from the ocean bringing

mud from the ocean floor, placing it on the Great

Sea Turtle, becoming Turtle Island.

STORIES OF ORIGINS

Mesopotamia: Enki make man from the clay in his

underwater world to serve the gods.

SO...HOW DID WE ARRIVE

(OTHER THAN COLUMBUS AND THE REST)

CLOVIS MODEL

• Most popular theory is that North America was

populated 10-15,000 BP by a nomadic Paleolithic

man.

• Following food source

• Supported by evidence found in New Mexico

EVIDENCE OF HUMAN MIGRATION

These guys...

…found

HARD EVIDENCE

S C I E N T I F I C A L L Y S U P P O R T E D

SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE

Archaeology shows that the deeper you go, the

further back in time you travel.

SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE

Radiocarbon

Dating:

Measuring the

deterioration

of Carbon-14

which provides

sense of how long

artifacts have

been in the

ground.

BERING LAND BRIDGE

• Paleolithic Man crossed this land bridge during the

most recent ice age.

• Nomadic existence following food takes people

across the bridge.

PARADIGM BIAS

The evidence was so overwhelming that it made too

much sense. (Same relative depth, same technical

skill set).

There was no demand to look at either challenging

the findings from New Mexico, or search for other

vectors.

Supports for the Clovis Model shows that artifacts

found at various locations (all from the same strata –

depth) conclusively connect the timing.

Perfect.

T R A N S - O C E A N I C R O U T E S

LAND BRIDGE…HAS CONTENDERS

PRE-CLOVIS SURPRISE

• As recent as 1981, researcher have found artifacts

in stratum deeper than the Clovis Model will correct

for.

• Artifacts are dated to be earlier, and widely

accepted that there is also a likelihood that there

deeper culture bearing artifacts can be found!

NINE MONTHS

Lucio Rendon, Salvador Ordonez and Jesus Eduardo

Vidana

Three Mexican fishermen and two others had set out

on a shark fishing expedition on Oct. 28, 2005, when

currents dragged their eight-metre boat out to sea

and sent them adrift across the Pacific after they ran

out of gas.

133 DAYS: POON LIM

In late November 1942, the British merchant ship SS

Benlomond, travelling from Cape Town to Surinam,

was sunk by a German U-boat. Lim, a 25-year-old

Chinese sailor, was the only survivor of the attack,

and managed to escape onto a life-raft with only

some provisions, including a jug of water, biscuits and

flares.

LINGUISTIC EVIDENCE

Canada has 3 main

language groups

1. Algonquian

2. Athabaskan

3. Eskaleut

North and South

America has many

more.

ALGOQUAIN

The dialects spoken

in the Algonquian

region are all similar

to a certain degree.

This range covers East

to Western Canada

ATHABASKAN

Athabaskan

language groups

range North Western

regions of Canada

and Sub-Arctic

regions.

These dialects are

also unique to

themseleves.

EKALEUT

Eskaleut is spoke

mainly in the Arctic

and Sub-Arctic

regions and has

connections to

circumpolar regions

across Greenland

and Siberia.

PALEO-LINGUISTICS

Time required for

language to “morph”

into one language

would require

100,000 years.

In Canada there are

three main families

that are not related.

DNA EVIDENCE

Direct evidence was later introduced to the argument on Who settled North America.

DNA markers have been found to exist between:

1. Indigenous peoples of British Columbia.

2. Indigenous Peoples of japan.

This link provides direct proof that there were more than one Migration of Paleolithic man into North America.

The routes taken by Paleolithic man were also very different from each.

PEOPLING OF NORTH AMERICA

3.2 million years ago first Hominid (up right walking

ape) found in Africa (Ethiopia)

'Lucy': Australopithecus afarensis was African!

We eventually evolve into: Homo erectus.

Our ancestry can be linked to

Africa. North America peoples

are also from this evolutionary

stream.

C O N T A C T A N D C O L O N I Z A T I O N

CHAPTER 2

CHAPTER 2: VOCABULARY

1. Contact

2. Woodlands

3. Lowlands

4. Interior Plains

5. Northern Subarctic

6. Pacific Coast

7. Arctic

8. Egalitarian

9. Modern Age

10. Reformation

11. Globalization

12. Assimilation

13. Residential Schools

14. Coureurs de bois

15. Metis

16. Independence

17. Interdependence

18. Dependence

19. Colonialism

20. Expansionism

1492

• 1492: Conquest of Paradise: Christopher Columbus.

• He believed that crossing the Atlantic was possible.

• He sailed 1492 (crossed the ocean blue)

• There was a mass invasion of European Nations.

Spanish, French, English, and Portuguese.

WHAT DROVE EUROPEAN CONQUEST?

Why did the Europeans come to North America?

➥ Gold

➥ God

➥ Glory

Not only were the Europeans looking for Gold (for the

crown’s investment) but the promise of entry to

heaven for any conqueror who converted new

Christians.

Immortality was also gained through the fame!

COLONIZATION

In Europe: all resources were costly and limited.

Mining was expensive. Natural Resources were

limited. The labour was also expensive.

Compared to North America, Europe is a small

landmass with high populations and conflict over

resources.

Where can you secure new resources and labour?

COLONIALISM= PROFITS

Finding North America was profitable. Although there

may not have been gold, there were other things

such as: Lumber, Fish, Wild Life (Beaver), Farming:

Plantation.

COLONIAL PROFITS

African slaves were prized stronger and larger than

indigenous peoples of North America.

Worked for free, which lowered costs of production

and increased profit.

COLONIAL PROFITS

Cash-crops were where the money was. There were

cane, tobacco, and cotton.

Agricultural capacity and open space of North

America was staggering in potential.

COLONIAL PROFITS

Fisheries were a large part of the success of North

American colonialism. Cod fisheries were important

for the European market. Cod was a cheap food

source and abundant in North America. Could feed

the masses in Europe.

Whale industry was equally as vibrant for oil!

Particularly sperm whales: Had large heads and were

mostly fat (Blubber). It would produce whale oil that

was a cheap source of lamp oil.

COLONIAL PROFITS

Beaver pelt industry was incredibly rich. Skins from the

beavers were fashionable (Pragmatic).

Europe had hunted beavers to extinction while North

America had an abundance of them.

Native peoples did not hunt these animals as a

primary source of food.

HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY

Largest company to operate inside of Colonial North

America – at its peak HBC owned the business rights

to 40% of Canada.

Founded in 1670.

HBC

Was allowed to operate in any tributary that flowed

into the Hudson’s Bay.

I.5 million square miles

As a charted company it

was given into the hands

of King Charles II cousin

Prince Rupert who became

the first governor of the

company – thus naming the

lands that it operated in:

Rupert’s Land

CHARTERED

HBC became a chartered company – giving them

special powers that no other company held:

1. Could print own money. Natives could exchange

pelts for money – but the money could only be spent

in a HBC trading post! Good for Europeans, not so fair

for native trappers.

HBC AND THE MADE BEAVER

Here are the values of many of the NWC trade goods in Made Beaver:

• 1MB = .75 pounds of coloured beads

• 1MB = 1 brass kettle

• 1MB = 2 pounds of sugar1MB = 1 gallon of brandy

• 1MB = 2 yards of flannel

• 1MB = 12 dozen buttons

• 1MB = 1 pair of pants

• 1MB = 1 pair of shoes

• 1MB = 20 flints1MB = 8 knives

• 1MB = 2 hatchets

• 1MB = 20 fish hooks

• 1MB = 1 blanket

• 4 MB = 1 pistol1MB = 2 shirts

• 1MB = 1.5 pounds of gun-powder

• 11 MB = 1 musket

HBC CHARTERED

2. Had to find the North-West passage. A water route

that connects the Atlantic, Arctic and Pacific oceans

for trade.

HBC CHARTER

3. Could engage in hostilities in order to cement it’s

business success. In fact, would recruit natives to

attack competition (French traders mostly).

In 1713, by the Treaty of Utrecht, France

acknowledged England's claim to Hudson Bay.

HBC CHARTER AND DOMINANCE

Prior to the union of the North West Co. and the Hudson's Bay Co in 1821, the struggles between the2 fur-trading rivals were capped by a violent incident 19 June 1816 at Seven Oaks. The so called massacre of Seven Oaks provoked retaliation and led to a merger of the 2 companies.

TRIANGLE TRADE

• The “New World” was not found, it was conquered.

• A vibrant assortment of civilizations were disrupted.

• A colony is not an opportunity for making

somewhere/someone else rich, but rather in taking

the riches form some where else and bring it to

Europe.

TRIANGLE TRADE

Natural resources were taken

from N.A. and sent to Europe

to fuel the European factories

and keep European workers

working.

Finished goods were sold back

to colonies for a larger profit.

T R I A N G L E T R A D E : E U R O - C E N T R I C D O M I N A N C E

COLONIAL PROFITS

TRIANGLE TRADE

T H E E V I L O F C O L O N I A L I S M

SLAVERY

SLAVERY

• Main source of labour in the colonial world was not

by white European workers.

• African slaves were introduced into the new world

to satisfy the demand of Europe.

• African slaves were prized above Asian, and Native

slaves due to their generally larger size.

ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

1 6 5 0 - 1 8 6 0

ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

1 0 - 1 5 M I L L I O N A F R I C A N S L A V E S B R O U G H T T O N O R T H A M E R I C A

G R E A T E S T

ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

SLAVE TRADE AND CANADA

Slavery in Canada was characterized as Chattel

Slavery

Also called traditional slavery, as people are treated

as the personal property (chattel) of an owner and

are bought and sold as if they were commodities.

It is the original form of slavery.

SLAVE TRADE AND CANADA

Slavery ended in Canada in 1833.

Canada’s role in the Atlantic Slave Trade was very

minor, easily over shadowed by the slave trade in the

United States.

In fact, the United States was the last modern nation

to abolish slavery in 1865.

UNDERGROUND RAILWAY

• People who helped slaves find the railroad were "agents" (or "shepherds")

• Guides were known as "conductors"

• Hiding places were "stations"

• "Station masters" hid slaves in their homes

• Escaped slaves were referred to as "passengers" or "cargo"

• Slaves would obtain a "ticket"

• Similar to common gospel lore, the "wheels would keep on turning"

• Financial benefactors of the Railroad were known as "stockholders".[

UNDERGROUND RAILWAY

Underground Railroad Quilt Code

Secret messages in the form of quilt patterns helped

slaves escape the bonds of captivity in the Southern

states before and during the American Civil War.

UNDERGROUND RAILWAY: CODES

Log Cabin

This symbol was used in a quilt or drawn on the ground

to indicate that it was necessary to seek shelter.

Rose Wreath

This symbol indicated that someone had died on the

journey. It was an African tradition to leave floral

wreaths on graves.

Shoofly

This was a symbol that identified a person who could

guide slaves and help them escape along the

Underground Railroad.

UNDERGROUND RAILWAY TO FREEDOM

Codes: key to freedom

Slaves could not read or write; it was illegal to teach

a slave to do so. Codes, therefore, were important to

the slaves’ existence and their route to freedom,

which eventually became known as the

Underground Railroad.

T H E D A R K S I D E O F E V O L U T I O N

COLONIALISM=GENOCIDE

COLONIALISM: THE DARKER SIDE

Colonialism is equivalent to Genocide. The United Nations (UN) defines genocide as any of the following acts:

1. Killing people of different race, religion, culture

2. Preventing Births of same group

3. To cause mental or physical harm.

4. Removal of children from parents and family groups.

5. Prohibit: Take away or limit one’s ability to thrive. (Hunt/Fish)

CHAPTER IIIG L O B A L I N F L U E N C E S A N D T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F

C A NA DA

CHAPTER 3: VOCABULARY

1. Manifest Destiny:

2. Annexation:

3. Protectionism:

4. Intendant:

5. Natural Increase:

6. Le Grand Derangement:

7. Great Upheaval:

8. Sovereignty:

9. United Empire Loyalists:

10. Thirteen Colonies:

11. Intolerable Acts:

12. First Nations:

13. Indentured Servant

14. Confederacy:

15. Reciprocity Treaty

16. Rupert's Land:

17. British North America (BNA) Act:

18. Alaska Boundary Dispute:

19. Underground Railroad:

20. Civil Rights:

21. Freehold Land Tenure:

AMERICAN REVOLUTION: 1776

The thirteen Colonies were rebellious:

Taxation without representation. Where they paid

taxes to the British who were fighting a war vs. the

French.

British did not allow Colonists to expand into Indian

lands

French Canadians were

allowed to expand into

the Indian lands.

BRITISH EMPIRE VS. COLONISTS

The British could not fight the Colonists with their entire army. England and its empire were far spread and defending it required having their army evenly distributed. Plus – fighting the French took energy.

British did not enjoy the uncivilized tactics used by the rebels either. These weaknesses were exploited by the Rebels.

Colonies who were loyal (Loyalists) went North and reinforced the colony of Canada.

Loyalists were not popular among the rebels.

Rebels vs. Loyalists: Tar and Feathering. Where they would take a loyalist supporter, strip their shirt off and pour tar on them then cover them with feathers and make them walk around in public. Deadly!

“ C I V I L I Z E D ”

FORMATION COMBAT

LINE FORMATIONS

Line Infantry had three formations used since 1700’s:

Square (defends all sides at once)

Line (advancing towards enemy – it is slow)

Column (moving from point A to point B)

BRITISH MILITARY: ARISTOCRACY

Two kinds of officers:

Killing officers -

And murdering

officers…

WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

• The Leadership of Revolutionaries: George

Washington

• On 1776, July 4th the Revolution ended which was

the birth of the United States. Now known as

Independence Day.

• England gave up its right to the

New England colonies.

• Even though England did not

express interest in attacking

USA, they continued to make

life difficult!

32 MONTH WAR

THE WAR OF 1812: THE SECOND WAR OF INDEPENDENCE:

As much about retaliation, as it was injustices as England had made life difficult:

1. Impressing Sailors: To force them into military services. (Had to stop)

2. Tecumseh bent on stopping U.S. expansion west.

3. Britain will not fight because of the French war.

4. French Canadians were revolting vs. the British as well.

5. Manifest Destiny6.Belief that "Brother vs. Brother“ would work in their favour.

G O D - G I V E N R I G H T T O R U L E N O R T H A M E R I C A .

MANIFEST DESTINY:

WAR OF 1812

A FULL WAR ACROSS AN ENT IRE CONTINENT

T H E R E W A S L I M I T E D B R I T I S H R E G U L A R S , C A N A D I A N M I L I T I A , A N D N A T I V E A L L I E S .

ON LAND

B R I T I S H D O M I N A N C E

AT SEA

N A T I O N W I D E C O N F L I C T

THE ENTIRE FABRIC OF CANADA

THE MAIN PLAYERS

THOSE WHO MATTER MOST !

TECUMSEH

Native Alliance :

Was the Shawnee Chief brought together 15 groups making up a Native alliance.

He stopped American settlers from expanding into Native territory (through force)

He secured a sovereign First Nations Homeland in the interior. West of Ohio, Great Lakes to Florida.

Was a direct Native threat to the U.S.A.

Had been an aggressor against the US for many years (since late childhood)

GENERAL ISAAC BROCK

Brock was 42 when war

eventually broke out in June

1812. Of the 5,200 regulars in

the colony, 1,200 were

stationed with Brock in Upper

Canada and of the 11,000

militia, Brock estimated that

fewer than 4,000 could be trusted to fight.

Even the population's loyalty

to the British cause gave rise

to serious concerns. This

prompted Brock to remark

that "Most of the people have

lost all confidence. I however

speak loud and look big!"

PRESIDENT MADISON

A powerful motivation for the

Americans was the desire to

uphold national honour in the

face of what they considered to

be British insults. Some American

politicians considered this a

second war of independence.

The approaching conflict was

about violations of American

rights, but was it also about

vindication of American identity.

RETALIATION BY BRITISH

On 16 August, Brock marched up the road toward Fort Detroit as

Tecumseh’s men swept north through the forest. The popular

story that Tecumseh marched his men three times through an

opening in the forest to give the idea of a much larger force

lacks real evidence.

Nevertheless, at 10 am a white flag appeared over the walls of

the fort. The American loss was considerable: some 2188 men,

39 guns, a large store of shot, flint, powder and supplies, and an

unfinished ship, the Adams. US general Hull is sent home and

Court Marshalled!

THE LEGEND OF LAURA SECORD

Canadian heroine of the War

of 1812 who, having

overheard that the Americans

were planning to ambush a

small detachment of British

soldiers under Lieutenant

James FitzGibbon, set off on a

dangerous 20-mile cross-

country trek to warn him.

Thus forewarned, FitzGibbon

turned the tables on the

Americans at the Battle of Beaver Dams, defeating and

capturing an entire American

regiment with his tiny force.

AMBUSH AT BEAVER DAMS

June 1813, 500 US soldiers

captured by tiny militia

force and Natives

BATTLE OF CHATEAUGUAY

October 1813, 2600 US soldiers tricked into attacking uphill towards a easily defended forest. Canadian Militia, French Militia, and Native Warriors numbering only 1300 defend and repel superior force causing a route.

First Canadian Victory!

BATTLE OF YORK

On April 27, 1813, American forces, under General Henry Dearborn, captured the British base at York, Canada. This attack is in response to the loss of Detroit in 1812.York is destroyed, resulting in loss of US soldiers. In turn US sack the city of York.

CHESAPEAKE VS. SHANNON

On June 1, 1813, the

USS "Chesapeake"

is attacked and

captured by the

HMS "Shannon."

BATTLE OF LAKE ERIE

On September 10, 1813,

Commodore Perry defeats

the British fleet at the Battle of

Lake Erie. The Battle, which is

hard fought by both sides,

ends up with a total defeat

for the British. Perry sends his

famous message: "WE HAVE

MET THE ENEMY AND THEY ARE

OURS.

Lake Erie from this time

forward becomes an American lake.

BATTLE OF THAMES

On October 5, 1813, at the Battle of Thames, American forces cross into Canada across Lake Erie after the American victory on the lake. British forces, under General Proctor, are forced to withdraw, with American forces following closely. The American forces catch up with the British and Indians, and decisively defeat them. Tecumseh, the Indian chief, is killed in the battle.

BATTLE OF LUNDY'S LANE

Bloodiest battle on Canadian Soil

On July 25, 1814 the Battle of Lundy's Lane, near Niagara Falls, takes place. In the course of the battle, 2500 men, commanded by General Gaines for the Americans and General Drummond for the British, exchange in intense fire. Eight hundred and fifty men on both sides are casualties.

WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION

BAYONETS

TECUMSEH’S LEGEND

1. Tecumseh lost three close family members to frontier violence.Born in 1768 in present-day Ohio, Tecumseh lived during an era of near-constant conflict between his Shawnee tribe and white frontiersmen.

2. Tecumseh took part in the worst defeat ever inflicted by Native Americans on U.S. forces.In fall 1790, the Shawnee and Miami tribes repelled an assault on their villages near modern Fort Wayne, Indiana, killing 183 U.S. troops in the process.

3. Tecumseh tried to unite all tribes against white expansion.Tecumseh envisioned a confederacy that would bring all of the tribes together—even longtime enemies—to resist the whites’ insatiable desire for land.

4. The U.S. Army invaded while Tecumseh was away.While Tecumseh was down south in fall 1811, William Henry Harrison, then governor of the Indiana Territory, decided to march on Prophetstown.

5. Tecumseh allied himself with the British during the War of 1812.When the War of 1812 broke out in June of that year, Tecumseh and his supporters immediately joined with the British.

6. Many myths sprang up around Tecumseh.No one knows for sure who killed Tecumseh, but that didn’t stop a number of people from taking credit. Richard M. Johnson, for example, rode his reputation as Tecumseh’s killer to the vice presidency in 1836.

WASHINGTON BURNS

White wash used to

cover scorch marks.

British forces march on

Washington April, 1814. At a

brief battle on the road,

known as the Battle of

Bladensburg; the British forces

defeat the American forces,

who withdraw in disarray, thus

opening the road to

Washington. The British burn

the White House and the

Capitol, but the rest of

Washington is saved by a strong rain storm. The British,

under orders not to hold any

territory, withdrew.

ATTACK ON BALTIMORE

The American forces

stop the British advance

on Baltimore. The British

are stopped by a

determined defense

along the road to

Baltimore. Unlike on the

road to Washington,

these American forces

do not break like Detroit.

Legendary poem written during the

attack.

T H E W A R I N T H E F I E L D C O N T I N U E S U N T I LM I D - F E B R U A R Y

DECEMBER 24 1814, THE TREATY OF GHENT IS SIGNED.