C82SAD Prejudice and Discrimination. What is Prejudice? Prejudice: An unfavorable attitude towards a social group and its membersPrejudice: An unfavorable.

C82SAD Prejudice C82SAD Prejudice and Discriminationand Discrimination

What is Prejudice?What is Prejudice?

• PrejudicePrejudice: An unfavorable attitude : An unfavorable attitude towards a social group and its towards a social group and its membersmembers

• DiscriminationDiscrimination: Singling out : Singling out members of a social group for members of a social group for prejudice based on attributes of their prejudice based on attributes of their group membershipgroup membership

• DehumanisationDehumanisation: Stripping people : Stripping people of their dignity and humanityof their dignity and humanity

Prejudice and the Prejudice and the Bystander EffectBystander Effect

0102030405060708090

100

White Black

Race of victim

No otherpotentialhelpersTwo otherpotentialhelpers

Per

cen

tag

e o

f p

arti

cip

ants

off

erin

g t

oai

d a

pp

aren

t vi

ctim

Source: Gaertner and Dovidio (1977)

Sex Stereotypes and Sex Stereotypes and DiscriminationDiscrimination

• Sex stereotyping – social stereotypes of women as Sex stereotyping – social stereotypes of women as “nice and incompetent and men as competent but “nice and incompetent and men as competent but not so nice” prevail across cultures and in both not so nice” prevail across cultures and in both genders! (Fiske, 1998)genders! (Fiske, 1998)

• But research suggests that people do not actually But research suggests that people do not actually describe themselves in terms of this sex stereotype describe themselves in terms of this sex stereotype (Martin, 1987) (e.g., women and sex-(Martin, 1987) (e.g., women and sex-discrimination)discrimination)

• People actually represent the sexes as ‘subtypes’:People actually represent the sexes as ‘subtypes’: HousewifeHousewife Businessman Businessman Sexy womanSexy woman Macho man Macho man Career womanCareer woman Feminist/athlete/lesbianFeminist/athlete/lesbian

Men and women generally see women as more Men and women generally see women as more homogenous than men (Lorenzi-Cioldi et al., 1995)homogenous than men (Lorenzi-Cioldi et al., 1995)


• Why are there these differential stereotypes Why are there these differential stereotypes which prevail across genders?which prevail across genders?

• Sex rolesSex roles: Behaviour viewed as sex-: Behaviour viewed as sex-stereotypically appropriatestereotypically appropriate

• Socialisation into sex roles – so do sex Socialisation into sex roles – so do sex stereotypes reflect actual differences in stereotypes reflect actual differences in psychological factors or role assignment?psychological factors or role assignment?

• Very few differences on psychological Very few differences on psychological dimensions, but large differences in terms dimensions, but large differences in terms of perceptions of sex rolesof perceptions of sex roles

• Therefore certain roles are ‘sex typed’ Therefore certain roles are ‘sex typed’ (Eagly & Steffen, 1984)(Eagly & Steffen, 1984)

• E.g. role assignment in jobsE.g. role assignment in jobs


WomenWomen MenMen

Restaurant serversRestaurant servers LawyersLawyers

Telephone operatorsTelephone operators DentistsDentists

SecretariesSecretaries Lorry driversLorry drivers

NursesNurses AccountantsAccountants

BabysittersBabysitters Business executivesBusiness executives

Dental hygienistsDental hygienists EngineersEngineers

LibrarianLibrarian

Nursery school Nursery school teachersteachers


1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

Female Male

Sex of Target

Homemaker

Employee

No information

Ra

tin

gs

of

Ta

rge

t

Morefeminine

Moremasculine

Source: Eagly and Steffen (1984)


• Glass-ceiling effectGlass-ceiling effect: Stereotypes : Stereotypes prevent promotion due to competence prevent promotion due to competence perceptions e.g. female in upper perceptions e.g. female in upper management, males in flight attendantsmanagement, males in flight attendants

• Maintaining sex stereotypes: Media Maintaining sex stereotypes: Media largely responsible – unsubtle vs. subtlelargely responsible – unsubtle vs. subtle

• Face-ismFace-ism: Media depiction gives greater : Media depiction gives greater prominence to the head and less prominence to the head and less prominence to the body for men, but prominence to the body for men, but vice-versa for women (Archer et al., vice-versa for women (Archer et al., 1983)1983)

Sex Stereotypes and Sex Stereotypes and AttributionsAttributions

Successful task performance By a

WOMAN attributed to luck or an easy task

By a MAN attributed to ability or high level of effort

Performance viewed as less deserving of reward or recognition

Performance viewed as more deserving of reward or recognition

6

7

8

9

10

Masculine Feminine

Task

Female actor

Male actor

Sex Stereotypes and Sex Stereotypes and AttributionAttribution

Ra

tin

gs

of

Ta

rge

t

More toability

More toluck

Source: Deaux and Emswiller (1974)


• Illegality of sexism means sex stereotypes Illegality of sexism means sex stereotypes are more subtle (Glick & Fiske, 1996)are more subtle (Glick & Fiske, 1996)

• Ambivalent sexism inventory. Sexists hold Ambivalent sexism inventory. Sexists hold benevolent and hostile attitudes towards benevolent and hostile attitudes towards different ‘subtypes’different ‘subtypes’

• Benevolent attitudes towards traditional womenBenevolent attitudes towards traditional women• Hostile attitudes towards non-traditional womenHostile attitudes towards non-traditional women

• Recent reviews suggest that there are no Recent reviews suggest that there are no longer tendencies to devalue women’s longer tendencies to devalue women’s work and a positive female stereotype is work and a positive female stereotype is emerging (Eagly & Mladinic, 1994)emerging (Eagly & Mladinic, 1994)

RacismRacism

• RacismRacism: Prejudice and discrimination : Prejudice and discrimination against people based on ethnicity or raceagainst people based on ethnicity or race

• Much research focused on anti-black Much research focused on anti-black attitudes among whites in the United attitudes among whites in the United StatesStates

• Dramatic reduction in unfavorable Dramatic reduction in unfavorable attitudes since 1930’sattitudes since 1930’s

• Similar reduction toward ethnic Similar reduction toward ethnic minorities in Britain and Western Europeminorities in Britain and Western Europe

RacismRacism

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1933 1951 1967 1982 1993

Year

‘Superstitious’

‘Lazy’

‘Ignorant’

Perc

en

tag

e o

f w

hit

e r

esp

on

den

ts s

ele

ctin

g t

rait

Source: Dovidio et al. (1996)

‘‘New’ RacismNew’ Racism

• Racial stereotypes have not gone away but Racial stereotypes have not gone away but changedchanged

• Devine and Elliot (1995): 45% of white Americans Devine and Elliot (1995): 45% of white Americans perceived African-Americans as lazy and 25% perceived African-Americans as lazy and 25% characterised the group as athletic, rhythmic, low characterised the group as athletic, rhythmic, low intelligence, criminal, hostile, and loudintelligence, criminal, hostile, and loud

• Theories of new racism suggest that people Theories of new racism suggest that people experience conflict between prejudiced attitudes experience conflict between prejudiced attitudes and modern egalitarian valuesand modern egalitarian values

• E.g. Gaertner and Dovidio’s (1986) notion of E.g. Gaertner and Dovidio’s (1986) notion of aversiveaversive racism suggests that racist attitudes are racism suggests that racist attitudes are expressed when egalitarian values are weak and expressed when egalitarian values are weak and people are in homogenous groups where people are in homogenous groups where prejudiced values are acceptedprejudiced values are accepted

‘‘New’ RacismNew’ Racism

500

550

600650

700

750

800

850

900950

1000

Negative Positive

Words

Black targetWhite target

Reacti

on

tim

e (

mil

lise

con

ds)

Source: Gaertner and McLaughlin (1983)

Indicative of well-concealed prejudice (Hogg & Vaughan,

2005)

Forms of DiscriminationForms of Discrimination

• Reluctance to helpReluctance to help: passively or actively : passively or actively declining to help other groups improve their declining to help other groups improve their position in society (e.g., Gaertner & Dovidio, position in society (e.g., Gaertner & Dovidio, 1977’s Bystander effect)1977’s Bystander effect)

• TokenismTokenism: Practice of publicly making small : Practice of publicly making small concessions to a minority group to deflect concessions to a minority group to deflect accusations of prejudice and discriminationaccusations of prejudice and discrimination

• Reverse discriminationReverse discrimination: Practice of publicly : Practice of publicly being prejudiced in favour of a minority in being prejudiced in favour of a minority in order to deflect accusations of prejudice and order to deflect accusations of prejudice and discriminationdiscrimination

TokenismTokenism

70

75

80

85

90

95

Organisationalcommitment

Jobsatisfaction

Dependent measure

Hired as tokenwomanHired on ability

Rep

ort

ed

com

mit

men

t/sa

tisf

acti

on

Source: Gaertner and McLaughlin (1983)

Theories of Prejudice and Theories of Prejudice and DiscriminationDiscrimination

• Mere exposure effectMere exposure effect: Zajonc (1968): Zajonc (1968)• People’s attitudes towards other improve with People’s attitudes towards other improve with

direct contact and familiarity (Perlman & direct contact and familiarity (Perlman & Oskamp, 1971)Oskamp, 1971)

• Tajfel (1981) believes this is not the case and Tajfel (1981) believes this is not the case and that prejudices are learned early in life before that prejudices are learned early in life before exposureexposure

• Barrett and Short (1992) found that children Barrett and Short (1992) found that children had clear preferences for European nations had clear preferences for European nations despite not having contact with anyone from despite not having contact with anyone from those culturesthose cultures

• Parental modeling, instrumental/operant Parental modeling, instrumental/operant conditioning and classical conditioning may be conditioning and classical conditioning may be responsible for these learned predjudicesresponsible for these learned predjudices


• Frustration aggression hypothesisFrustration aggression hypothesis: Dollard : Dollard et al. (1939)et al. (1939)

• All frustration leads to aggression and all aggression All frustration leads to aggression and all aggression arises from frustrationarises from frustration

• Catharsis was the reason why people performed Catharsis was the reason why people performed psychological activities and if frustrated these had to be psychological activities and if frustrated these had to be vented elsewhere e.g. frustrationvented elsewhere e.g. frustrationaggressionaggression

• Target of aggression usually source of frustration but if Target of aggression usually source of frustration but if unavailable a unavailable a specificspecific ‘scapegoat’ is targeted – process ‘scapegoat’ is targeted – process known as known as displacementdisplacement

• Research is inconclusive as to whether displacement Research is inconclusive as to whether displacement always occurs, as some research has shown a always occurs, as some research has shown a generalisation response – direction of anger towards generalisation response – direction of anger towards irrelevantirrelevant other stimuli (Horowitz, 1973) other stimuli (Horowitz, 1973)

• Critics of frustration-aggression hypothesis suggest that it Critics of frustration-aggression hypothesis suggest that it does not take into account interpersonal communication – does not take into account interpersonal communication – people are passive victims of individual frustration and people are passive victims of individual frustration and angeranger


• The authoritarian personality: Adorno et al. The authoritarian personality: Adorno et al. (1950)(1950)

• Some people had ‘prejudiced’ or authoritarian Some people had ‘prejudiced’ or authoritarian personalities that caused discriminationpersonalities that caused discrimination

• Characteristics:Characteristics:– Respect for authorityRespect for authority– Obsession with rank and statusObsession with rank and status– Tendency to displace anger and resentment onto weaker Tendency to displace anger and resentment onto weaker

groupsgroups– Intolerance of uncertainty and ambiguityIntolerance of uncertainty and ambiguity– Need for a rigidly defined worldNeed for a rigidly defined world– Problems achieving intimacyProblems achieving intimacy

• Developed through excessively harsh and disciplinarian Developed through excessively harsh and disciplinarian practices to secure emotional dependencepractices to secure emotional dependence

• While it has attracted a lot of research, research has While it has attracted a lot of research, research has shown few differences between prejudiced and non-shown few differences between prejudiced and non-prejudiced people on authoritarian personality traits prejudiced people on authoritarian personality traits (Pettigrew, 1958; Minard, 1952)(Pettigrew, 1958; Minard, 1952)

• Fails to account for situational factors – cultures of Fails to account for situational factors – cultures of prejudice, relative deprivationprejudice, relative deprivation


• Dogmatism and closed-Dogmatism and closed-mindednessmindedness: Rokeach (1948, 1960): Rokeach (1948, 1960)

• A more generalised ‘syndrome of intolerance’ A more generalised ‘syndrome of intolerance’ – cognitive style rather than traits per se – cognitive style rather than traits per se called dogmatism or closed-mindednesscalled dogmatism or closed-mindedness

• Characterised by being rigid and intolerant Characterised by being rigid and intolerant and predisposes people to be prejudicedand predisposes people to be prejudiced

• Correlates well with authoritarianism and Correlates well with authoritarianism and therefore suffers from same limitations – therefore suffers from same limitations – ignores situational and contextual factors ignores situational and contextual factors (Billig, 1976) (Billig, 1976)


• Belief congruence theoryBelief congruence theory: Rokeach (1960): Rokeach (1960)• Similar beliefs promote liking and social harmony Similar beliefs promote liking and social harmony

among people while dissimilar beliefs promote dislike among people while dissimilar beliefs promote dislike and prejudiceand prejudice

• ““Belief is more important than ethnic or racial Belief is more important than ethnic or racial membership as a determinant of social discrimination” membership as a determinant of social discrimination” (Rokeach, 1960, p. 135)(Rokeach, 1960, p. 135)

• Research requiring people to report attitudes toward Research requiring people to report attitudes toward people of different race and similar or dissimilar people of different race and similar or dissimilar beliefs support this hypothesis (e.g., Rokeach & Mezei, beliefs support this hypothesis (e.g., Rokeach & Mezei, 1966)1966)

• But states that in situations of ‘institutionalised’ But states that in situations of ‘institutionalised’ prejudice belief congruence plays no partprejudice belief congruence plays no part

• Rokeach’s (1960) research designs might blur the Rokeach’s (1960) research designs might blur the boundaries between beliefs and race – no clear boundaries between beliefs and race – no clear consistencyconsistency

Belief Congruence Belief Congruence TheoryTheory

Institutionalised or socially sanctioned prejudice?

Interpersonal assessment of belief dominance

Negative attitude, dislike

Positive attitude, attraction

Friendly relations

Yes

No

Prejudice


• Social dominance theorySocial dominance theory: Pratto (1999): Pratto (1999)•Prejudice is attributed to an individual’s Prejudice is attributed to an individual’s

acceptance of a ideology that legitimises acceptance of a ideology that legitimises ingroup-serving hierarchy and domination, ingroup-serving hierarchy and domination, and rejects egalitarian ideologiesand rejects egalitarian ideologies

•An ‘individual differences’ explanations – An ‘individual differences’ explanations – people tend to desire their own group to be people tend to desire their own group to be dominant and therefore have a high ‘social dominant and therefore have a high ‘social dominance orientation’dominance orientation’

•This legitimises prejudice towards This legitimises prejudice towards outgroups as the ingroup is perceived as outgroups as the ingroup is perceived as dominantdominant

C82SAD Prejudice and Discrimination. What is Prejudice? Prejudice: An unfavorable attitude towards a social group and its membersPrejudice: An unfavorable.

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discrimination sex

sex rolesvery

sexdiscrimination people

social stereotypes of

sex stereotype martin

differential stereotypes

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discrimination slide