C OGNITION Memory. T HOUGHT TO PONDER AND D ISCUSS … From what you have learned thus far, or from personal experience, do you think all memories are stored.

COGNITIONMemory

THOUGHT TO PONDER AND DISCUSS…

From what you have learned thus far, or from personal experience, do you think all memories are stored in the same way? Why or why not?

MEMORYMemory: persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information.

Gives us our sense of self and connects us to past experiences.

Cognition: All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering information

MODELS OF MEMORY:NO MEMORY ACCOUNTS FOR ALL MEMORY PHENOMENA

Information Processing Model: Compares our mind to a computer

1. ENCODING To become a memory, information must first be

registered in sensory memory – it must stand out among a variety of stimuli and be selected for further processing.

2. STORAGE When we rehearse short-term memories sufficiently, we encode them for placement in long-term memory.

3. RETRIEVALWe seek information from long-term memory storage

INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL:

IMPACT OF ATTENTION

Focused (selective) attention: attending to one task over another

Divided attention: We have difficulty when we try to attend to more than one complex task; thus we may encounter the cocktail party effect

Feature Integration Theory (Anne Treisman): Focus attention on complex incoming auditory or visual information in order to synthesize it into a meaningful pattern.

LEVELS OF PROCESSING MODEL:CRAIK & LOCKHART

How long and how well we remember information depends on how deeply we process the information when it is encoded.

Shallow Processing: Using superficial sensory information that emphasizes the physical characteristics of the stimuli as it comes in Example: Crossing the street when there is traffic..you notice

there is traffic by you don’t focus on the specific types of vehicle or who is driving

Deep Processing: Attach meaning to information and create associations between the new memory and existing memories Semantic encoding: Emphasizes the meaning of verbal

input Self-referent encoding: Processing information that is more

important or relevant more deeply, making it easier to recall

THREE-STAGE MODEL:ATKINSON & SHIFFRIN

Describes three different memory systems characterized by time frames

Stage One: The initial recording of sensory information in the memory system is referred to as sensory memory.

Stage Two: sensory memories are processed into working/short term memory your activated memory which can only hold a minimal amount of information.

Stage Three: short term memories are encoded into long-term memory, the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse from which we retrieve.

THREE-STAGE MODEL

Sensory input

Rehearsal

AttentionStorage

Retrieval

SENSORY MEMORYSTM LTM

TYPES OF SENSORY MEMORYSensory Memory: refers to the initial recording of sensory information in the memory system. All information is held here briefly (1/2 to 4 seconds)

Sensory Memories include both:1. Iconic Memory: a momentary sensory memory of a visual stimuli. Memory only lasts for a few tenths of a second. 2. Echoic Memory: a momentary sensory memory for auditory stimuli. Sound memories can usually last up to 3 or 4 seconds.

Sensory memory is very hard to measure since it fades as we try to measure it.

HOW DOES SENSORY MEMORY GET PROCESSED INTO MEMORY?Sensory memories disappear unless you focus your selective attention on the information.

Attention causes information to be further processed.What does this say about subliminal

messages?

PROCESS OF ENCODING: 2 TYPES

Encoding

Effortful Automatic

unconscious encoding of incidental informationspacetimefrequency

well-learned informationword meanings

we can learn automatic processingreading backwards

AUTOMATIC PROCESSING (TYPE 1)

AUTOMATIC PROCESSING: READING BACKWARDS

Reading backwards requires effort at first but after practice becomes automatic.

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Automatic processing allows us to do multiple things at once and re-illustrates the concept of parallel processing.

EFFORTFUL PROCESSING (TYPE 2)

Effortful Processing: type of encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Ex: Learning new vocabulary terms, memorizing historical events/chronology, etc.

Encoding can be aided by maintenance rehearsal: simple rote repetition of information in consciousness or even more successfully by elaborate rehearsal: processing of information for meaning which can more easily help produce long term memories.

PROSPECTIVE AND RETROGRESSIVE MEMORY (NOT IN YOUR BOOK!)

Prospective Memory: remembering to do something in the futureEx. I need to remember to get my wife an anniversary gift.

Retrospective Memory: remembering you already did something in the pastEx. I already got my wife an anniversary gift

LONG-TERM MEMORY Permanent and practically unlimited capacity

memory system which information from STM may pass

Types oflong-termmemories

Explicit(declarative)

With consciousrecall

Implicit(nondeclarative)

Without conscious recall

Facts-generalknowledge(“semanticmemory”)

Personally experienced

events(“episodic memory”)

Skills-motorand

cognitive (“procedural

memory”)

Dispositions-classical and

operant conditioning

effects

BIOLOGY OF MEMORIES Long-term potentiation (LTP): the strengthening

of neural connections are the synapses of a neuron Involves an increase in the efficiency with signals are sent

across the synapses within neural networks Requires fewer neurotransmitter molecules to fire and

increases receptor sites Flashbulb Memory: A vivid memory of an

emotional event Adrenalin is increased during event triggers release of

energyactivates amgydala and hippocampus Thalamus: Encodes sensory memory into STM Prefrontal cortex & Temporal lobes: STM Hippocampus, frontal, & Temporal lobes (other

parts of limbic system): Explicit memory Cerebellum: Implicit memory of skills

DAMAGE TO THE BRAIN Amnesia refers to the loss of

memory. Amnesiac patients typically have

losses in explicit memoryAnterograde Amnesia: type of

memory loss where patients are UNABLE TO FORM ANY NEW MEMORIES. Can’t remember anything that has occurred AFTER a traumatic head injury.

Retrograde Amnesia: type of memory loss where patients are UNABLE TO REMEMBER PAST EVENTS. May forget everything that happened BEFORE a traumatic head injury.

LEFT VS. RIGHT fMRI studies reveal that the hippocampus and

left frontal lobe are active when encoding new information

However, the right frontal lobe is more active during retrieval

Although the hippocampus may be damaged, people can still develop skills and learn new procedures

ORGANIZATION OF MEMORIES 1.) Hierarchies: Systems in which concepts are

arranged from more general to more specific classes Concepts: Mental representations of related things Prototypes: Most typical examples of a concepts

2.) Semantic Networks: More irregular and distorted systems than strict hierarchies, with multiple links from one concept to the next

3.) Schemas: Frameworks of basic ideas and preconceptions about people, objects, and events based on past experiences Script: A schema of an event

4.) Connectionism: Theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections between neurons, many which can work together to process a single memory

MEMORY RETRIEVAL Recall: a measure of memory in which the

person must retrieve information learned earlier.Ex: fill in the blank, essay questions

Recognition: a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned.Ex: multiple choice, matching

Reconstruction of Memories: Retrieval of memories that can be distorted by adding, loosing, or changing details to fit a schemaOften memories have missing pieces thus

resulting in reconstructionLoftus’ car crash experiment

KING OF MEMORY EXPERIMENTS:HERMANN EBBINGHAUS

Wanted to research capacity of verbal memory.

Looked to study to see capacity of peoples’ memories to study strings of non-sense syllables.

Ex: JIH, FUB, YOX, XIR,

FINDINGS OF EBBINGHAUS”1. Practice makes perfect. The more

rehearsal he did on day 1, the less rehearsal it took to learn the syllables again on day 2. Overlearning increased retention (overlearning effect)

2. The Spacing Effect: the tendency for studying over a long period of time produces better long term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. SPACED STUDYING BEATS CRAMMING!!!

3. Serial Position Effect: our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. Ex: Presidents

EXPLAINING THE SERIAL POSITION EFFECT

Primacy Effect: explains how we remember concepts at the beginning of a list since these are often the terms we have seen the most when reviewing.

Recency Effect: explains how we remember concepts at the end of the list a since these are the terms we have seen most RECENTLY.

MIDDLE IS FORGOTTEN MOST OFTEN.

RETRIEVAL CUES: REMINDERS ASSOCIATED WITH INFORMATION WE ARE TRYING TO RETRIEVE

Priming: activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations of memory.

Distributed practice: Spreading memorization out over several sessions (BEST)

Massed practice (AKA Cramming): One session

Mnemonic devices: ROY G BIV Method of Loci: Association of words on a list

with visualization of places on a familiar path Peg word mnemonic: 1st memorizing a

scheme and then mentally picturing items

HUMANISM –a psychological approach that focuses on

free will

I want you to remember: So when you see the word “humanism” you think about:

Free Willy!

Make it VISUAL

Imagine the route from your room to the front door of your house

Place people / events along the wayGeorge Washington is in my bedroom

John Adams is right outside my bedroom doorThomas Jefferson is in the bathroom

James Madison is at the top of the stairs

This technique would work well for : Developmental stages, stages of eye & ear, etc. Anything CHRONOLIGICAL

METHOD OF LOCI

Whose phone numbers do you remember? Why?

Make all kinds of material meaningful.

Make it MEANINGFUL

“Columbus sailed the Ocean Blue in 1492” The helping verbs “The THALAMUS is a grand station, it sends

and receives information.”

Make it RHYTHMIC

CHUNKING

Chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often occurs automatically

The magic number is 7 + or – 2 In other words, the most we can hold in our STM is 5-9 items

TRY TO REMEMBER THESE NUMBERS:

1271941200118611776149219141963

How confident are you that you correctly

memorized all 31 numbers?

1492177618611914

12-7-194119632001

NOW, TRY TO REMEMBER THESE NUMBERS:

WHICH WAS EASIER?

WHY?

GROUPING LIKE-THINGS TOGETHER

CHUNKING

How do you remember a phone #?9528295379

You CHUNK it!

952- 829- 5379

CONTEXT EFFECTS MEMORY RETRIEVAL

Context-dependent memory: Being able to retrieve information better when you are in the same context you learned it in.

Emotional/Mood Impact of Memory: State-Dependent Memory: information

is most easily recalled when in same “state” of consciousness it was learned in.

Mood Congruent Memory: tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood.

FORGETTING Forgetting is a result of either:1. Encoding Failure

Not paying attention to certain stimuli (selective attention)

2. Storage Decay Gradual fading of the physical memory trace Neural connections are no longer there

3. Retrieval Failure from LTM

o Relearning: A measure of retention of memory that assessed the time saved compared to learning the first time when learning information again

o *if relearning takes as much time as the initial learning, the information has decayed

MOTIVATED FORGETTING

Motivated Forgetting is the idea that people unknowingly revise their history. Ex: I broke up with her; she didn't break up with

me.

What purpose might motivated forgetting serve?

MOTIVATED FORGETTING: A FREUDIAN CONCEPT

Repression: idea put forth by psychoanalytic theorists like Freud which states anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories can be banished from consciousness.

Ex: child abuse, rape, incest may be repressed and not be able to be actively recalled.

FREUD BELIEVED REPRESSION WAS A DEFENSE MECHANISM

Freud argued: individuals often “forgot” traumatic incidents to protect

their self concepts and to minimize external anxiety. “Forgotten” incidents are banished the “unconscious.” With proper therapy, patience, and effort, these

memories can be retrieved

The incidents may cause you to have unexplained phobias or problems, that wont be helped until you uncover the incident

CONTROVERSY OF REPRESSED MEMORIES

Although there have been documented cases of forgotten trauma, many psychologists argued that some repressed memories may have been constructed by therapists.

The False Memory Syndrome Foundation: argues it is possible for individuals relationships to center around a false belief.

Some psychologists have argued against the very existence of repressed memories since most memories that take place during stressful events are remembered more vividly.

ELIZABETH LOFTUS: OPPONENT OF FREUD Disagrees that memories are remembered during

therapy but rather the action of reconstruction of memories

Reconstruction: Retrieval that can be distorted by adding, dropping, or changing details to complete a picture from incomplete stored information

Confabulation: Process of combining and substituting memories from events other than the one you are trying to remember Questioning and other confusing inconsistencies during

eyewitness testimonies lead to confabulation Misinformation effect: Incorporation of misleading

information into memories of a given event Misattribution error (source amnesia): Forgetting

what really happened, or distortion of information at retrieval which results in confusing where we attained the information from.

INTERFERENCE Interference: Learning some items may disrupt

retrieval of other informationProactive(forward acting) Interference: disruptive

effect of prior learning on recall of new information (old memories prevent the retrieval of newer memories)

Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference: disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information (new memories prevent the retrieval of older memories)

Tip of the Tongue phenomenon: when we are certain we know something yet we are unable to recall it. Relates to retrieval failure, usually priming or external

cues will help you recall the information you are looking for.

VIDEOS FOR YOUR VIEWING PLEASURE

The Memoriad! Clive Wearing:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vwigmktix2Y

BINGO REVIEW Memory Phonological loop Forgetting Thalamus Retroactive interference Flashbulb memory Confabulation Recall Sensory memory LTP (long-term potentiation) Echoic memory Recognition Iconic memory Amnesia Shallow processing Retrograde Amnesia Deep processing Schemas Effortful processing Anterograde amnesia Rehearsal Chunking Central executive Mnemonic devices Episodic buffer Primacy Effect Visospatial sketchpad Recency Effect Hierarchies Mood Congruent Memory