1 Photojournalism: Its Development and The Impact of Citizen-led Journalism on its Evolution. By Rosie Hartley 1200804 Submitted to Norwich University of the Arts on 30 th January 2015, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of BA (Hons) Photography. Copyright 2015 Rosie Hartley.
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1
Photojournalism: Its Development and The Impact of Citizen-led
Journalism on its Evolution.
By
Rosie Hartley
1200804
Submitted to Norwich University of the Arts on 30th January 2015, in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of BA (Hons) Photography.
Copyright 2015 Rosie Hartley.
2
Abstract
This research report looks at the ethics within photojournalism, using case
studies of Steve McCurry’s ‘Afghan Girl’ (Fig. 2), Kevin Carter’s “Sudanese
Girl’ (Fig. 3), Nick Ut’s ‘The Terror of War’ (Fig. 1) and citizen-led media sites,
such as LiveLeak, with an aim of understanding photojournalism’s
development and evolutionary changes. The report has a focus on
manipulation of imagery within the mainstream media, from staged video by
CNN to the release of images that contain incorrect information with the New
York Post and attempts to answer the question about why we are shown
manipulated imagery. The report found that the manipulation and censorship
of imagery within the mainstream media has influenced the audience into
becoming the journalists and, due to the quality of their images, amateur
photographers and ‘iPhoneographers’ are replacing professional
photojournalists, but that also found that citizen-led journalism isn’t without its
own censorship or manipulation issues.
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Table of Contents Chapter One: The Ethical Implications of Photojournalism 7
Nick Ut’s “The Terror of War” 8 Steve McCurry’s “Afghan Girl” 9 Kevin Carter’s “Sudanese Girl” 11
Chapter Two: Amateur versus Professional 13 Chapter Three: LiveLeak – Providing information or breaching privacy? 18 Chapter Four: The Audiences Understanding of Visual Manipulation 23 Conclusion 28 Bibliography: 29
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Table of Illustrations
Figure: 1 Title: The Terror of War Author/Artist: Ut, Nick Year: 1972 Available: http://www.talkvietnam.com/2014/11/nick-ut-honoured-at-lucie-awards/ Date Accessed: 11/12/2014
Figure: 2 Title: Afghan Girl Author/Artist: McCurry, Steve Year: 1984 Available: http://www.shootingfilm.net/2012/11/afghan-girl-story-of-most-recognized.html Date Accessed: 11/12/2014
Figure: 3 Title: Sudanese Girl
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Author/Artist: Carter, Kevin Year: 1993 Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kevin-Carter-Child-Vulture-Sudan.jpg Date Accessed: 09/01/2015
Figure: 4 Title: Lessons from the Storm Author/Artist: Lowy, Benjamin/Time Magazine Year: 2012 Available: http://topics.time.com/hurricane-sandy/ Date Accessed: 20/01/2015
Figure: 5 Title: Untitled Author/Artist: al-Otaibi, Abdul Aziz Year: 2014 Available: http://www.buzzfeed.com/ryanhatesthis/the-viral-image-of-the-syrian-boy-sleeping-between-the-grave#.gp9bXNwW7 Date Accessed: 09/01/2015
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Introduction
The privilege of ethical, un-manipulated imagery in media is one that not
many people can say they have experienced, however with the uprising of
citizen-produced journalism and photojournalism this appears to be changing,
affecting what is being seen both on user-updated websites and in the
mainstream media. This report will initially look at the ethical implications of
photojournalism by studying Nick Ut’s ‘The Terror of War’ (1972), Steve
McCurry’s ‘Afghan Girl’ (1984) and Kevin Carter’s ‘Sudanese Girl’ (1993), and
then at comparing professional photographers to amateur photographers and
iPhoneographers and the effects that the latter has had on photojournalist’s
jobs. It will then look at the rise of freedom of speech websites such as
LiveLeak and how they’re redefining the media by providing an uncensored
look at the world around us and, finally the audiences understanding of
censorship and manipulation of imagery in the mainstream media. By looking
at these factors, this allows us to begin the conversation that what is being fed
to us as truth needs to be questioned as it is often tailored, either to fit a
political agenda or for sensationalism.
7
Chapter One: The Ethical Implications of Photojournalism
“Never expose someone to ridicule and humiliation; they have to live with the
fallout the photograph will bring, whereas you may have moved on to the next
tory and suffer no consequences.” (Demotix, 2014)
The power of journalism and photojournalism is one that is almost
unparalleled, not much else can whip people up into a frenzy than a well-
thought headline or front page image, whether this be coverage be good,
such as in Stephen Sutton’s case, the nineteen-year-old suffering from
terminal cancer who managed to raise £5m for the Teenage Cancer Trust
(Cooper, 2014. Ellis, 2014), or bad in the case of the Rupert Murdoch owned
New York Post who published images of who they believed to be the main
suspects in the April 2013 bombing of the Boston Marathon, despite the
authorities not yet having released information on who they deemed to be
suspects (Fung and Mirkinson, 2013). The image highlighted two people the
New York Post believed to be the men in an image being passed around by
the Authorities and landed the subjects in desperate bid to prove their
innocence, with Salah Barhoun, a seventeen-year-old, telling ABC News that
he went to the police to clear his name (Rahmanzadeh, Leong, Riley, Leuci
and Schwartz, 2013). In a clear exploitation and twisting of the truth, The New
York Post landed in hot water amidst claims of irresponsible journalism,
having already been criticized, not only for claiming that a Saudi man was
responsible for the bombings, who later turned out to have nothing to do with
them, but also for misrepresenting the numbers of the amount of people who
8
died in the attack (Fung and Mirkinson, 2013). Irresponsible and unethical
journalism can change the way the subject is perceived, but when the subject
can make or break a photojournalist’s story, the discussion of ethics in
photojournalism and where the lines blur on exploitation can be a difficult one.
Nick Ut’s “The Terror of War”
(see fig. 1)
Winning the Pulitzer Prize in 1972, Nick Ut’s photograph of the napalm
bombing of Vietnam was one of the most horrifying images of the Vietnamese
war. The image depicts nine-year-old Kim Phuc in the center of the frame,
running naked through a group of clothed children and armed soldiers and
crying for help with a huge black cloud of smoke behind her. It was revealed
that during the fighting, South Vietnamese fighter planes mistook the refugee
camp below for ‘Viet Cong’ fighters and started dropping bombs. As the
planes drop their final bombs on the refugee’s, Ut remembers “I said, 'Oh my
God, the napalm.' They had bombed all morning, but not with napalm.” (Ut,
2014) Published through the Associated Press (AP) to newspapers
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worldwide, including the front page of the New York Times, the image forced
people to address a difficult question about whether photojournalists should
help their subjects. There was, and still is little information available to help
inform photographers on how to help their subjects during the scenes they are
photographing. Whilst helping their subjects might help save lives, in doing so
there is a risk that they would become “complicit with their subject, and
remove some of the distance necessary for journalistic objectivity.” (Bersak,
2006) This didn’t stop Ut however who after snapping this photograph
immediately put his camera away and went to help the little girl, transporting
her to the nearest hospital and now remains in contact with Phuc and her
family in Ontario, Canada (Jones, 2014).
Steve McCurry’s “Afghan Girl”
(See Fig. 2)
10
Steve McCurry’s ‘Afghan Girl’, taken in a refugee camp in 1984 and published
on the front page of The National Geographic, sees the image of a young,
unknown, Pakistani take up the entirety of the frame. Her piercing eyes
capture and hold the audience’s attention to the point where not noticing her
torn clothing and dirty face could almost be forgiven. The image “became the
National Geographic Society's most recognized photograph in its 114-year
history” (The Washington Post, 2001) The image of the girl affected by war
sling-shotted McCurry’s career, as he quickly became one of the best-known
photographers of our time, but this wasn’t without backlash as he was often
confronted with people accusing him of exploiting the girl (Recka, 2012). In
2002, when the woman was eventually found and named as Sharbat Gula, it
was revealed that she was deeply unhappy with McCurry having taken her
photograph, not understanding what this was as she had never been
photographed, or even seen a camera, before (Newman, 2002). McCurry
stated at an exhibition opening in 2011 “We’re continually in contact with her
today and we make sure she’s taken care of and that she’s been
compensated for the picture – that’s been an on-going process since 2002.”
(McCurry, 2011.)
11
Kevin Carter’s “Sudanese Girl”
(See Fig. 3)
Wanting to document the rebel fighting he felt the world was overlooking,
Kevin Carter self-funded a trip to Sudan, which was experiencing a famine
(Dowling, 2008). With the United Nations having recently cut back on the
amount of aid operations in the country due to the fighting, Kevin Carter was
enabled to photograph many of the people affected by the famine. His
photograph of a Sudanese girl during this time went on to cause a lot of
questions about the ethics surrounding photojournalism and what is and isn’t
appropriate to photograph. Published in the New York Times on the 26th
March 1993 (Cate, 1999), the girls tiny, frail body right in the forefront of the
image being framed by vapid wasteland around her would almost be shocking
enough of an image, but adding in further context of the vulture sat no more
than a couple yards behind and the feeling of death being imminent punches
you in the gut, hard. It’s uncomfortable and difficult to look at, and a few
months after winning the Pulitzer Prize in 1994, Carter took his life due to
depression, barely a year after the image was taken (Dowling, 2008),
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meaning it must have been difficult for him to produce too. Ethically, Carter
received a huge amount of backlash for the image with many people accusing
him of being immoral for not helping the girl escape death, but aside from
chasing away the vulture, which he eventually did after sitting and waiting for
twenty minutes in the Sudanese sun for the vulture to open its wings to
achieve the perfect shot, would he have been able to save her? (Everything2,
2000) Carter’s image went on to become “an icon of Africa’s anguish”
(Macleod, 2001) and James Fallows claimed it “did more than any other news
story” (Fallows, 1997) by being published in hundreds of magazines, relief
organization leaflets and newspapers worldwide, even being used as an
Amnesty International poster, but the area was tragically decimated before
any further aid reached the people of Ayod (Dowling, 2008).
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Chapter Two: Amateur versus Professional
Image sharing site Instagram, which launched in 2010 and now has over 300
million monthly active users who generate an upload of 70 million photos on
average per day (Instagram, 2015), and Facebook, which started to allow
users to upload high quality images 22nd March 2012 (Facebook, 2012), have
become commonplace within almost every home. More and more people are
finding an interest in photography and sharing their day-to-day lives on a
public platform, leading to the argument that ‘iPhoneography’, a term coined
in November 2008 by Glyn Evans (http://www.iphoneography.com/, no date),
and furthermore that ‘iPhoneographers’ were shaping the way that we would
see images in our media, such as newspapers and news websites (Evans,
2013).
So what is, traditionally speaking, a professional photographer? According to
Nikon and Canon who both have ‘pro’ versions of their websites that require a
username and password to get into, a professional is someone who earns
100% of their income through photography (Rockwell, 2008). Zack Arias in a
session with CreativeLIVE thinks it’s far simpler than that stating that he
believes a professional to be “consistent, can be relied on and is a problem
solver” and that if you have a picture to show then you are a professional,
whether there is a paycheck accompanying that image or not (Arias, 2010). In
recent years, professional photojournalists and their jobs have come under
threat and there are a few excuses floating around for the reasons why, one
of the most popular being that everyone now has access to some kind of
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camera capable of producing good, broadcast-able quality images and video
blurring the lines between amateurs and professionals even further. At least,
this is the excuse Jack Womack of CNN stuck to when he fired a handful of
their Image and Sound staff in November 2011, twelve of whom were
photojournalists comprised of “four in New York, five in Washington, one in
Miami, and one in Los Angeles” (Reuters, 2011). Firing photojournalists has
become a bit of a trend ever since with the Chicago Sun-Times following suit
and sacking it’s entire 28-person strong photographic department in May 2013
(Associated Press, 2013), Sports Illustrated firing the last of it’s six full-time
photographers in January 2015 (Britton, 2015) and the Associated Press (AP)
firing it’s photographers left, right and centre, despite being one of the biggest
media houses supplying images to the mainstream news industry (Associated
Press, no date).
It seems, however, that it isn’t just Jack Womack who is willing to speak out
on his beliefs that amateur photographers are now capable of the high
standard of professional photographers. On talking about the discontinuation
of the Flickr Pro subscription to their website, which allowed ‘Pro’s’ more
storage space and bigger image uploads, Marissa Mayer, the current
president and CEO of Yahoo!, stated in a press conference:
... was a decision that we would not have the Flickr Pro piece anymore,
and that all - there's no such thing as Flickr Pro, because today, with
cameras as pervasive as they are, there is no such thing really as
professional photographers, when there's everything is professional
photographers. (Mayer, 2013)
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(See Fig. 4)
Whilst many people were arguing, and probably will continue to argue, that
‘photographers’ with iPhone’s are incapable of producing images to the same
high standard that professional photojournalist’s with bulky, high-tech
cameras can (Frost, 2013), Time Magazine did something unprecedented for
it’s 12th November 2012 issue. Hiring five iPhoneographers, Michael
Christopher Brown, Benjamin Lowy, Ed Kashi, Andrew Quilty and Stephen
Wilkes, to go out and document Hurricane Sandy as it thrashed the northeast
coast of America. Time’s photographic director Kira Pollack also gave each of
them, who all use Instagram heavily, access to the Time’s official Instagram
account to upload their images to (Bercovici, 2012). Pollack says that
although using Instagram as a tool for covering news quickly and effectively
was an experiment, she claims it was not one that came about through the
‘trendiness’ of Instagram. Pollack states, “We just thought this is going to be
the fastest way we can cover this and it’s the most direct route.” The collection
16
of images was later featured on Lightbox, the photography blog for Time
Magazine, and was “one of the most popular galleries we’ve ever done”
driving 13% of the websites traffic, subsequently the magazine’s Instagram
account went on to gain 12,000 new followers within a 48-hour’s of the
images being uploaded (Bercovivi, 2012).
One of the images from the experiment, taken by Benjamin Lowy, ended up
on the front page of the issue, which documented Hurricane Sandy, and for
many people highlighted the main issue of using iPhone photos in
replacement of high-quality produced images from a DSLR designed for the
job, the reproduction resolution (Pollack, 2012). Pollack argues that this
wasn’t an issue upon using it for the cover however, stating “there’s almost a
painterly quality to it” (Pollack, 2012) creating a debate within itself on the
beauty of destruction. The image, which was a crop of the original image and
is one of ten uploads to Instagram every second with the hashtag sandy
(Lowy, 2012), allowed Lowy to reflect on his practice, and taking to Tumblr to
explain his conversion from a traditional photography format and into mobile
photography, he says:
For years, I have worked with bulky digital cameras, always mindful of
the technical manoeuvres from setting the shutter speed and aperture
to editing and toning on a computer screen. In the last few years I have
discovered that my iPhone has allowed me to capture scenes without
feeling that I am once again on the job. To “point and shoot” has been
a liberating experience. It has allowed me to rediscover the excitement
17
of seeing imperfections and happy accidents rendered through the lens
of my handheld device.” (Lowy, 2012.)
There are still many, however, who feel that with digital manipulation
applications, such as Instagram, and the transformation into using images
produced through such apps as a new form of journalism takes away from the
documentary core of photojournalism with the ease of editing an image with
effects and filters (Bercovici, 2012) and it seems that whilst Pollack disagrees,
she does accept that “that’s always a conversation in photojournalism and a
very important one.” (Pollack, 2012)
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Chapter Three: LiveLeak – Providing information or breaching privacy?
“There is a difference between a charitable endeavor and a breach of
privacy.” (Lam and Swan, 2014.)
With the capacity for amateurs to get as large of a platform as professional
photojournalists, provided mainly through the use of user-updated internet
sources such as Instagram, Twitter, LiveLeak and Reddit, this opens up a
huge opportunity for people who are living in affected areas to get their
images seen. Seen initially with the Occupy movement where both journalists
and photojournalists were physically barred from gaining access into Zuccotti
Park in New York (Walker, 2012), amateur photographers from inside the park
were able to take images of police brutality and upload them immediately to
Twitter, adding to the hashtag OccupyWallSt which was available to read like
a running, constantly updating news story. But at what point does the release
of information turn from being a charitable endeavor to produce a come about
of change and into an invasion of privacy?
Professional photojournalist’s are generally regarded as having to adhere to
guidelines, at least in regards as to what kinds of images can be published
(Reuters, 2008). LiveLeak is a British website founded by Hayden Hewitt in
2006 who’s aim is to give the voice back to the public and allows citizen-
created footage of war, politics and world events and politics to be published
on the website (The New Freedom, 2008). It has created a platform that
19
allows the users who uploaded these images to become the journalists and it
has become almost notorious for its uncensored imagery. A quick search of
the most popular videos available to watch pulls up some interesting results,
the first video with 8626605 views and nearly 600 comments is footage from
1st March 2008 of an A320 plan nearly crashing during a crosswind approach
in Hamburg (User: stefan171 (http://www.liveleak.com/c/stefan171), 2008).
The next is a video of twins sharing a bath together, tightly wrapped in each
other’s embrace with the caption reading, “Twins were born, but haven’t
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