By: Ganesh P. Shivakoti Asian Institute of Technology

The robustness of Montane The robustness of Montane irrigation systems of Thailand in a irrigation systems of Thailand in a dynamic human-water resources dynamic human-water resources

interfaceinterface

By:By:Ganesh P. Shivakoti Ganesh P. Shivakoti

Asian Institute of TechnologyAsian Institute of Technology

Scenario of irrigation Scenario of irrigation managementmanagement

• Rapid expansion of total irrigated area and Rapid expansion of total irrigated area and huge increase in agricultural production in huge increase in agricultural production in developing countries developing countries

• Due to the significant contribution on national Due to the significant contribution on national economy, irrigation development and economy, irrigation development and management has been the main agenda on management has been the main agenda on these countries national development plan these countries national development plan

• Farmers tend to adopt different strategies to Farmers tend to adopt different strategies to cope with the changing environment bringing cope with the changing environment bringing different patterns of institutional development different patterns of institutional development

Scenario of irrigation Scenario of irrigation managementmanagement

contd….contd…. • Level of irrigation system performance is Level of irrigation system performance is

directly related to the capacity of appropriators’ directly related to the capacity of appropriators’ self-governing abilitiesself-governing abilities

• Performance of irrigation and other resources is Performance of irrigation and other resources is enhanced by systems of polycentric governance enhanced by systems of polycentric governance with some degree of autonomywith some degree of autonomy

• Several variations in interventions and Several variations in interventions and performances of irrigation systems and major performances of irrigation systems and major policy lessons have been documented policy lessons have been documented extensivelyextensively

Need for dynamic studyNeed for dynamic study• Most of the studies on irrigation institutions as well Most of the studies on irrigation institutions as well

as other common property institutions focused on as other common property institutions focused on static arrangements static arrangements

• The issue of overtime dynamic study has become The issue of overtime dynamic study has become important important

• The rapid economic development and changes in The rapid economic development and changes in political and social setting in Asia has posed a new political and social setting in Asia has posed a new setting to irrigation management setting to irrigation management

• Socioeconomic and ecological changes, in general, Socioeconomic and ecological changes, in general, are racing well ahead of the pace of institutional are racing well ahead of the pace of institutional change. change.

Analysis of dynamism in Analysis of dynamism in the resource use patternthe resource use pattern

• Examine the changes in institutional arrangements Examine the changes in institutional arrangements within a Socio-Ecological System (SES)within a Socio-Ecological System (SES)

• Use of the framework developed by Ostrom, Anderies Use of the framework developed by Ostrom, Anderies and Janssen (2003) by identifying the entities involved and Janssen (2003) by identifying the entities involved and their inter-linkages in irrigated social ecological and their inter-linkages in irrigated social ecological systems systems

• The entities in a socio-ecological system include the The entities in a socio-ecological system include the resource itself, the resource users, public infrastructure resource itself, the resource users, public infrastructure providers, public infrastructure and external disturbanceproviders, public infrastructure and external disturbance

• This paper examines the issues of dynamics of irrigation This paper examines the issues of dynamics of irrigation systems in two irrigation systems of Northern Thailand in systems in two irrigation systems of Northern Thailand in the context of changing governance mechanisms and the context of changing governance mechanisms and evolution of technological and market forcesevolution of technological and market forces

Analysis of dynamism in Analysis of dynamism in the resource use pattern the resource use pattern

contd..contd..• The two irrigation systems, namely, Mae Sao and Thai The two irrigation systems, namely, Mae Sao and Thai

Yai are located within the vicinity of Fang and Mae Ai Yai are located within the vicinity of Fang and Mae Ai district in the northern part of Chiang Mai province of district in the northern part of Chiang Mai province of ThailandThailand

• There are several traditional irrigation systems in the There are several traditional irrigation systems in the Northern part of ThailandNorthern part of Thailand

• Government intervened in Mae Sao Irrigation System Government intervened in Mae Sao Irrigation System by providing the permanent construction (1981) while by providing the permanent construction (1981) while there was no intervention in Thai Yai systemthere was no intervention in Thai Yai system

• Analysis of irrigation dynamism in three stages: initial, Analysis of irrigation dynamism in three stages: initial, medium and long-termmedium and long-term

• Focuses on the operational and collective choice Focuses on the operational and collective choice levels within the irrigation systems levels within the irrigation systems

Brief overview of study Brief overview of study methodologymethodology

• Viriyasakultron (1984) analyzed different aspects of Viriyasakultron (1984) analyzed different aspects of irrigation management comparing the situation irrigation management comparing the situation before and immediately after the government before and immediately after the government intervention in Mae Sao Community Irrigation Projectintervention in Mae Sao Community Irrigation Project

• This research has considered the same aspects and This research has considered the same aspects and used same set of questionnaire used before used same set of questionnaire used before

• Includes Thai Yai Irrigation System along with the Includes Thai Yai Irrigation System along with the Mae Sao Community Irrigation SystemMae Sao Community Irrigation System

• A total of 61 sample households comprising 22 from A total of 61 sample households comprising 22 from head water distribution area and 21 from tail water head water distribution area and 21 from tail water distribution area of Mae Sao system, and 18 distribution area of Mae Sao system, and 18 households from the Thai Yai Irrigation Systemhouseholds from the Thai Yai Irrigation System

Irrigation and agricultural Irrigation and agricultural production activitiesproduction activities

• Sharp decline in activities like cleaning and repairing Sharp decline in activities like cleaning and repairing the ditch, and offering to the spirit of weir immediately the ditch, and offering to the spirit of weir immediately after constructing the new weir in Mae Sao community after constructing the new weir in Mae Sao community irrigation system irrigation system

• Changes in activities varied in head water distribution Changes in activities varied in head water distribution area and tail water distribution area within the Mae area and tail water distribution area within the Mae Sao systemSao system

• Higher decline in ritual activities such as offering to the Higher decline in ritual activities such as offering to the spirit of weir and praying for rain ceremonies in Mae spirit of weir and praying for rain ceremonies in Mae Sao system compared to the traditional Thai Yai Sao system compared to the traditional Thai Yai system system

• The The structural improvement of the irrigation structural improvement of the irrigation systemsystem has reduced the participation of people in has reduced the participation of people in different activities different activities

Table 1. Irrigation and agriculture production activities Table 1. Irrigation and agriculture production activities before-after intervention and 20 years later in Mae Sao before-after intervention and 20 years later in Mae Sao Community Irrigation System, Chiang Mai, ThailandCommunity Irrigation System, Chiang Mai, Thailand

Activities

Participation (in percentage)

Before 1981 After intervention in 1984

20 years after intervention (2003)

Clearing and repairing the ditch

98.0 62.2 67.4

Offering to the spirit of weir 37.9 2.9 18.6

Preparing seed bed of rice 99.0 97.0 72.1

Allocation of water 74.4 74.0 67.4

Diverting water to paddy field 97.0 95.1 67.4

Plowing for transplanting paddy

98.0 97.0 74.4

Sowing 87.4 83.0 79.1

Requesting water from another weir

1.9 1.9 14.0

Source: Viriyasakultron (1984) and Field Survey (2003)

Table 2. Irrigation and agricultural production activities Table 2. Irrigation and agricultural production activities before and after new weir constructionbefore and after new weir construction

Activities

Mae Sao Head(n = 22)

Mae Sao Tail(n = 21)

Thai Yai(n = 18)

Total(n = 61)

Before AfterBefor

e AfterBefor

e AfterBefor

e AfterCleaning and repairing of ditches 95 70 95 71.4 75 71.4 89.3 70.9Offering to the spirit of

weir 10 0 61.1 40 40 35.7 35.8 25Praying for rain ceremonies 5.3 0 31.6 10 0 0 13.5 3.9Making seed bed 81 83.3 90.5 80 80 66.7 84.2 77.4Allocation of water 65 61.1 100 90 76.5 68.8 81 74.1Diverting water into paddy fields 80 7.8 90.5 75 80 66.7 83.9 73.6Plowing for transplanting 90 88.9 100 80 86.7 73.3 92.6 81.1Sowing 80 88.9 100 90 87.5 73.3 88.9 84.9Requesting water from another weir 10.5 0 33.3 30 0 0 15.7 11.8

Participation in irrigation Participation in irrigation activitiesactivities

• Decrease in people’s participation in irrigation Decrease in people’s participation in irrigation activities significantly immediately after the activities significantly immediately after the construction of the new weirconstruction of the new weir

• Sharp decline were in building of weir from 86.4 to Sharp decline were in building of weir from 86.4 to 10.7 percent and in reconstruction or repair and 10.7 percent and in reconstruction or repair and cleaning of weir from 88.3 to 23.3 percent cleaning of weir from 88.3 to 23.3 percent

• In Mae Sao system, the participation in different In Mae Sao system, the participation in different activities was higher in head water distribution area activities was higher in head water distribution area than the tail water distribution than the tail water distribution

• In traditional Thai Yai system also there is declining In traditional Thai Yai system also there is declining participation of the people participation of the people

• The government intervention changed the The government intervention changed the nature of nature of collective actioncollective action of the people of the people

Table 3. Participation of farmers in irrigation activities Table 3. Participation of farmers in irrigation activities before and after intervention in Mae Sao Community before and after intervention in Mae Sao Community

Irrigation System, Chiang Mai, ThailandIrrigation System, Chiang Mai, Thailand

Irrigation Activities Participation (percentage)

Before intervention After intervention in 1984

20 years after intervention (2003)

Building of weir 86.4 10.7 25.6

Reconstruction or repair & cleaning of weir 88.3 23.3 48.8

Meeting to elect weir leader 93.2 73.8 67.4

Membership of WUA 4.8 1.9 20.9

Participation in resolution of conflict about water use 8.7 2.9 23.3

Source: Viriyasakultron (1984) and Field Survey (2003)

Table 4. Participation in irrigation activities before and Table 4. Participation in irrigation activities before and after the completion of the new weirafter the completion of the new weir

ActivitiesMae Sao Head

(n = 22)Mae Sao Tail

(n = 21)Thai Yai (n = 18)

Total(n = 61)

Before After Before After Before After Before After

Building a weir 74 65 81 24 81 50 79 65Reconstruction or repair and cleaning of weir

75 53 76 57 75 50 75 54

Meeting to elect weir leader 67 72 81 76 69 50 72 67Membership of water management committee

21 6 33 40 44 31 32 27

Participation in conflict resolution of water 17 7 44 45 13 12 25 24

Role of local leader in changing Role of local leader in changing contextcontext

• Local leaders (Kae Muang) has played a very important Local leaders (Kae Muang) has played a very important role in traditional irrigation systemsrole in traditional irrigation systems

• People still give emphasis on the role of Kae Muang and People still give emphasis on the role of Kae Muang and think that it is not possible to manage without local leaderthink that it is not possible to manage without local leader

• The role of Kae Muang is considered more important in The role of Kae Muang is considered more important in Thai Yai system and tail water distribution area of Mae Thai Yai system and tail water distribution area of Mae Sao system Sao system

• The group responsibility for irrigation management was The group responsibility for irrigation management was higher in Mae Sao system as compared to Thai Yai systemhigher in Mae Sao system as compared to Thai Yai system

• The effectiveness of group efforts was higher in Mae Sao The effectiveness of group efforts was higher in Mae Sao system as compared to Thai Yai systemsystem as compared to Thai Yai system

Table 5. Group responsibility for irrigation Table 5. Group responsibility for irrigation management (in percentage)management (in percentage)

Responsibility Mae Sao Head(n = 22)

Mae Sao Tail(n = 21)

Thai Yai (n = 18)

Total(n = 61) 

Hardly responsible 9.1 4.8 0 4.9Responsible to certain Extent only 27.3 33.3 50 36.1

Largely responsible 50 52.4 22.2 42.6Fully responsible 13.6 9.5 27.8 16.4Total 100 100 100 100

Note: Figures in parentheses indicate percentage

Table 6. Effectiveness of groups in managingTable 6. Effectiveness of groups in managing irrigation system (in percentages) irrigation system (in percentages)

Note: Figures in parentheses indicate percentage

Effectiveness Mae Sao Head(n = 22)

Mae Sao Tail(n = 21)

Thai Yai (n = 18)

Total (n = 61)

Hardly effective 9.1 4.8 0 4.9With limited effectiveness 31.8 28.6 44.5 34.4Effectively 50 57.1 33.3 47.6Most effectively 9.1 9.5 22.2 13.1Total 100 100 100 100

Role of local leader Role of local leader continuedcontinued

• Despite of the group responsibility and Despite of the group responsibility and effectiveness of group work people still thought that effectiveness of group work people still thought that the Kae Muang is necessary for managing irrigation the Kae Muang is necessary for managing irrigation systemsystem

• Local leader are performing their job satisfactorily Local leader are performing their job satisfactorily • People are satisfied with the performance of Kae People are satisfied with the performance of Kae

MuangMuang• In both Mae Sao and Thai Yai system, Kae Muang In both Mae Sao and Thai Yai system, Kae Muang

are playing important role in managing the are playing important role in managing the irrigation systemirrigation system

• In the changed context their role has not In the changed context their role has not decreased, rather, they have gained importance in decreased, rather, they have gained importance in the centrally planned modern irrigation systemthe centrally planned modern irrigation system

• People give importance to certain qualifications People give importance to certain qualifications while selecting the Kae Muangwhile selecting the Kae Muang

Table 7. The desired qualifications of the Kae MuangTable 7. The desired qualifications of the Kae Muang

Characteristics Mae Sao Head(n = 22)

Mae Sao Tail (n = 20)

Thai Yai(n =14) 

Total (n = 55)

Well known man 22.7 5 7.1 12.5Knowledgeable in irrigation work 13.7 0 7.1 7.1Person having field at the end of canal 0 10 0 3.6Honest man 22.7 10 21.5 17.9Just man 0 5 7.1 3.6Responsible man who works for community 18.2 20 14.3 17.9Person with practical knowledge 0 10 21.5 8.8Wealthy man 9.1 0 0 3.6Big land owner 9.1 20 7.1 12.5Others 4.5 20 14.3 12.5

Conflict in water managementConflict in water management• Different kinds of conflicts were found in water Different kinds of conflicts were found in water

management which was more in tail water management which was more in tail water distribution area of the Mae Sao community distribution area of the Mae Sao community irrigation system and Thai Yai irrigation system irrigation system and Thai Yai irrigation system

• The most prominent kind of conflict were The most prominent kind of conflict were having not enough water (57.6%) followed by having not enough water (57.6%) followed by water availability only in the head distribution water availability only in the head distribution area (15.2%) and delivery of water (12.1%)area (15.2%) and delivery of water (12.1%)

• These conflicts were due to water scarcity, These conflicts were due to water scarcity, water delivery mechanism, stealing of water, water delivery mechanism, stealing of water, abundance of supply, problem of drainage, abundance of supply, problem of drainage, irrigation schedule and ineffective law.irrigation schedule and ineffective law.

Conflict in water management Conflict in water management contd..contd..

• Mostly water users from the same village were Mostly water users from the same village were involved in the conflict followed by conflict involved in the conflict followed by conflict between users of the different village and between users of the different village and conflict with Kae Muang conflict with Kae Muang

• Kae Muang are playing important role in Kae Muang are playing important role in settling and managing the conflictsettling and managing the conflict

• In case of such conflict situation water users In case of such conflict situation water users mainly prefer to consult with the Kae Muang mainly prefer to consult with the Kae Muang and in some cases with the Irrigation officer and in some cases with the Irrigation officer and Local Government Officersand Local Government Officers

• Among these persons Kae Muang was the Among these persons Kae Muang was the most effective person to solve the conflictsmost effective person to solve the conflicts

Conflict in water management Conflict in water management contd..contd..

• People mostly consult the Kae Muang when conflict People mostly consult the Kae Muang when conflict occurs and they rely on their own rules for solving occurs and they rely on their own rules for solving the conflictthe conflict

• People believe that disputants themselves agree to People believe that disputants themselves agree to compromise and there is no requirement of agency compromise and there is no requirement of agency intervention on solving the conflictintervention on solving the conflict

• However they urge that it is necessary to make However they urge that it is necessary to make certain changes in law and order for future certain changes in law and order for future improvements in conflict resolution improvements in conflict resolution

• The conflict situation was found mainly in dry The conflict situation was found mainly in dry seasonseason

• In case of conflict people generally used to In case of conflict people generally used to compromise each other through group meeting and compromise each other through group meeting and the conflicts do not get widened and people manage the conflicts do not get widened and people manage the conflicts by different meansthe conflicts by different means

Rules and regulations in Rules and regulations in irrigation managementirrigation management

• People in Northern Thailand still respect the People in Northern Thailand still respect the old customs concerning water managementold customs concerning water management

• The water users of the Mae Sao community The water users of the Mae Sao community irrigation system do not use the irrigation irrigation system do not use the irrigation laws issued by the government laws issued by the government

• Rather, they conform to their water Rather, they conform to their water management customsmanagement customs

• People consider these rules as customs and People consider these rules as customs and have become a part of the institutions of the have become a part of the institutions of the communitycommunity

Rules and regulations in Rules and regulations in irrigation management irrigation management contd…contd…

• People still respect local customs rather than People still respect local customs rather than modern laws and local rules and customs are still modern laws and local rules and customs are still in use after the completion of the new weir and are in use after the completion of the new weir and are effectiveeffective

• There are no much variations in the practice and There are no much variations in the practice and effectiveness of these rules and customs in effectiveness of these rules and customs in different locations of the systemdifferent locations of the system

• Specification of rules and regulations by Specification of rules and regulations by peoplepeople

• They have formulated different operational rules They have formulated different operational rules for irrigation managementfor irrigation management

• After specifying such rules they have conformed it After specifying such rules they have conformed it to their existing rules and become as a part of to their existing rules and become as a part of their institution and customstheir institution and customs

Resources for operation and Resources for operation and maintenancemaintenance

• Generally people contribute cash for Generally people contribute cash for operation and maintenanceoperation and maintenance

• The labor contribution is very lowThe labor contribution is very low• After intervention labor availability has After intervention labor availability has

decreased in upstream Thai Yai areas due to decreased in upstream Thai Yai areas due to migrationmigration

• They are migrating from their area mainly due They are migrating from their area mainly due to changes on farming practices, restriction to changes on farming practices, restriction on forest activities, and high demand for labor on forest activities, and high demand for labor on downstream orchard and vegetable farms on downstream orchard and vegetable farms

Farming system and water Farming system and water managementmanagement

• The intervention affected on the different The intervention affected on the different aspects of agricultural productionaspects of agricultural production

• Mainly affected on the types and number of Mainly affected on the types and number of crops grown, their productivity and the crops grown, their productivity and the cropping patterncropping pattern

• Contract farming is on the rise for orchard and Contract farming is on the rise for orchard and vegetable cultivationvegetable cultivation

• Transformations in farming system have also Transformations in farming system have also created conflict created conflict

• Quality of water is deteriorating every year due Quality of water is deteriorating every year due to heavy use of insecticides and pesticides to heavy use of insecticides and pesticides

Conclusions and implications Conclusions and implications • The collective action declined sharply in the The collective action declined sharply in the

downstream systemdownstream system• Affected the upstream Thai Yai area in the long run Affected the upstream Thai Yai area in the long run

ultimately declining the collective actionultimately declining the collective action• In the changed context the role of local leaders have In the changed context the role of local leaders have

gained importancegained importance • People modify the irrigation laws issued by government People modify the irrigation laws issued by government

and conform to their water management customsand conform to their water management customs• They rely on their local rules and customs and are They rely on their local rules and customs and are

making necessary stipulations overtimemaking necessary stipulations overtime• Affected on the labor availability in the upstream areasAffected on the labor availability in the upstream areas• Transformation in farming systems has created conflict Transformation in farming systems has created conflict

between upstream and downstream communitiesbetween upstream and downstream communities

Conclusions and implications Conclusions and implications contd..contd..

• The processes involved in first starting collective action The processes involved in first starting collective action are different than those of maintaining them overtimeare different than those of maintaining them overtime

• During initial stage various attributes of the users During initial stage various attributes of the users including the benefits they could obtain from starting including the benefits they could obtain from starting an organization to the skill of public leaders in bringing an organization to the skill of public leaders in bringing them together affecting trust have been reflectedthem together affecting trust have been reflected

• During medium stage the process of development of During medium stage the process of development of rules, and the level of autonomy to modify the farmers’ rules, and the level of autonomy to modify the farmers’ own rules over time foundown rules over time found

• In long term stage external factors affected the In long term stage external factors affected the sustenance of these irrigation systems with special sustenance of these irrigation systems with special reference to the impact of changes in economic prices reference to the impact of changes in economic prices and labor mobility on the one hand and changes in the and labor mobility on the one hand and changes in the authority over irrigation and the availability of funding authority over irrigation and the availability of funding for irrigation on the otherfor irrigation on the other

Conclusions and implications Conclusions and implications contd..contd.. • Thus, the paper has been partially successful Thus, the paper has been partially successful

on applying the framework developed by on applying the framework developed by Ostrom, Anderies and Janssen (2003) in the Ostrom, Anderies and Janssen (2003) in the linkages and relationship between the five linkages and relationship between the five elements, namely: resource, resource users, elements, namely: resource, resource users, public infrastructure, public infrastructure public infrastructure, public infrastructure providers and external disturbances providers and external disturbances 

• This implies that it is possible to evaluate This implies that it is possible to evaluate dynamism and robustness of irrigation dynamism and robustness of irrigation systems overtime at operational and collective systems overtime at operational and collective choice levels of analysis.choice levels of analysis.