By, Christine G. T. Ho Presented By, Savannah Schulze Caribbean Transnationalism As a Gendered Process.

By, Christine G. T. Ho

Presented By, Savannah Schulze

Caribbean Transnationalism As a Gendered Process

Colonization of the Colonization of the CaribbeanCaribbean• After the genocide After the genocide

of its native peoples of its native peoples in less than a in less than a hundred years the hundred years the Caribbean became Caribbean became a crucible for a crucible for blending blending

• Not completely Not completely fusing, peoples from fusing, peoples from Africa, Asia, and Africa, Asia, and Europe Europe

Migration in the Caribbean Migration in the Caribbean

• Migration began 5 centuries Migration began 5 centuries agoago

• The Caribbean exports more The Caribbean exports more of its people than any other of its people than any other region of the world region of the world

• Emigration is undertaken by Emigration is undertaken by so many to expand their life so many to expand their life choices and the shortage of choices and the shortage of schoolsschools

• The Caribbean governments The Caribbean governments support this migration support this migration because it acts as a safety because it acts as a safety valve for surplus laborvalve for surplus labor

• They emphasize capital They emphasize capital rather than human rather than human resources in their resources in their development plans development plans

• However, it is not just the history of However, it is not just the history of colonization in the Caribbean that is colonization in the Caribbean that is to explain the phenomenon of to explain the phenomenon of emigration in the Caribbean emigration in the Caribbean

• But an expression of the relationship But an expression of the relationship between transnationalism and global between transnationalism and global capitalism in the region capitalism in the region

Paradigm Shift Paradigm Shift

• Shift in the worldwide industrial Shift in the worldwide industrial production process production process

• Technological innovation adopted Technological innovation adopted by “late capitalism”, restructuring by “late capitalism”, restructuring and relocation to cheaper labor and relocation to cheaper labor markets markets

• Side effectsSide effects

• Downsizing, rising unemployment, Downsizing, rising unemployment, plummeting wages, a general plummeting wages, a general wage inequalitywage inequality

• Global financial institutions such Global financial institutions such as World Bank and IMF hold the as World Bank and IMF hold the keys to economic development in keys to economic development in their role as loan providers and their role as loan providers and therefore are responsible for therefore are responsible for producing social conflict, greater producing social conflict, greater poverty, and general suffering poverty, and general suffering

• ““casualizationcasualization” of labor-” of labor-converting workers with fixed converting workers with fixed salaries, relative job security, and salaries, relative job security, and fringe benefits into temporary fringe benefits into temporary workers with no such privileges workers with no such privileges

• Result Result

• As Caribbean governments As Caribbean governments respond to the changing structure respond to the changing structure of global capital, the resulting of global capital, the resulting eroded salaries and declining eroded salaries and declining living standards provoke mass living standards provoke mass exodus of social classes in search exodus of social classes in search of a better life of a better life

• The impact of global capitalism The impact of global capitalism not only varies from class to class not only varies from class to class but differs according to gender but differs according to gender

• Caribbean elite tend to Caribbean elite tend to migrate as entire families migrate as entire families and settle permanentlyand settle permanently

V.S.V.S.

• Working class women in Working class women in the Caribbean not only the Caribbean not only migrate independently but migrate independently but practice circular migrationpractice circular migration

• Objectives of this EssayObjectives of this Essay1.Locate gender within 1.Locate gender within

capitalist relations of capitalist relations of production by examining the production by examining the role of Caribbean women as role of Caribbean women as workers and mothers workers and mothers

2. Family and political 2. Family and political economy, Caribbean family economy, Caribbean family units are constantly being units are constantly being reshaped by changing needs reshaped by changing needs of global capitalism of global capitalism

3. Human dimension-human 3. Human dimension-human costs entailed in costs entailed in transnationalismtransnationalism

4. Relation of 4. Relation of transnamtionalism to global transnamtionalism to global capitalismcapitalism

Women in the Caribbean as Women in the Caribbean as MothersMothers• Understanding West Indian kinship systemUnderstanding West Indian kinship system• Important to understand Caribbean women workers Important to understand Caribbean women workers

because the family is related to the capitalist because the family is related to the capitalist economic system of which it is a part economic system of which it is a part

• Matrifocal- “mother-centered” close emotional ties Matrifocal- “mother-centered” close emotional ties between mother and childrenbetween mother and children

• Not to be confused with female-headedness of Not to be confused with female-headedness of households households

• Patterns of relationship within the household, whether Patterns of relationship within the household, whether or not a husband-father present or not a husband-father present

• Exists because Caribbean kinship ideology valorizes Exists because Caribbean kinship ideology valorizes the mother-child bond above all others the mother-child bond above all others

• Children become “old age insurance” for elderly Children become “old age insurance” for elderly mothers mothers

More on Caribbean Kinship More on Caribbean Kinship

• Another Caribbean cultural ideal is that child care Another Caribbean cultural ideal is that child care is a collective responsibility rather than the sole is a collective responsibility rather than the sole obligation of biological parents obligation of biological parents

• Whoever is in the best position to accept Whoever is in the best position to accept responsibility for a child does so responsibility for a child does so

• Usually groups of females (sometimes fictive) kin, Usually groups of females (sometimes fictive) kin, common for a child to be shifted between common for a child to be shifted between households and live with kin other than their households and live with kin other than their biological parents biological parents

• Treated as “distorted” forms of the nuclear familyTreated as “distorted” forms of the nuclear family• Most studies have been conducted among lower-Most studies have been conducted among lower-

class families and have attributed their class families and have attributed their unorthodox structure to povertyunorthodox structure to poverty

• Poverty thesis also overlooks Poverty thesis also overlooks the dual-union system practiced the dual-union system practiced by all classes by all classes

• Institutionalized centuries ago Institutionalized centuries ago during slavery as a system of during slavery as a system of concubinage coupled with legal concubinage coupled with legal marriagemarriage

• Dual unions were practiced by Dual unions were practiced by the ruling class and aspired to the ruling class and aspired to as an ideal by other classes as an ideal by other classes

• Reserves legal marriage for Reserves legal marriage for status equals and nonlegal status equals and nonlegal unions for partners of lower unions for partners of lower statusstatus

• Persist today, allowing young Persist today, allowing young upper- and middle class men to upper- and middle class men to marry women of equal status marry women of equal status while simultaneously having while simultaneously having “outside” sexual relations with “outside” sexual relations with women of lower class status women of lower class status and fathering children by them and fathering children by them

• In contrast, most lower-class In contrast, most lower-class men practice nonlegal unions men practice nonlegal unions and refrain from legal and refrain from legal marriage until later in life, marriage until later in life, partly because they lack the partly because they lack the financial resources but mainly financial resources but mainly because of the sharp because of the sharp separation in ideology and separation in ideology and practice between sexual practice between sexual relations and legal marriage – relations and legal marriage – the latter symbolizing a rise the latter symbolizing a rise in community status in community status

• Polygynous tendencies among Polygynous tendencies among men of all classes are men of all classes are widespread and accepted by widespread and accepted by all all

• Blame for this deviation from Blame for this deviation from the Christian moral code is the Christian moral code is placed on the lower classplaced on the lower class

““Segregated” gender roles Segregated” gender roles

• Men and women lead more or less separate lives Men and women lead more or less separate lives • Mates are not suppose to provide emotional support or to Mates are not suppose to provide emotional support or to

share in domestic chores, child care, or recreational activitiesshare in domestic chores, child care, or recreational activities• The result of this sharp gender cleavage has been the burden The result of this sharp gender cleavage has been the burden

of Caribbean women who end up with double workloads and of Caribbean women who end up with double workloads and the lack of male support, both emotional and financial the lack of male support, both emotional and financial

• Socialist feminists argue that as long as an ideology of gender Socialist feminists argue that as long as an ideology of gender inequality persists, gender relations will remain unequal inequality persists, gender relations will remain unequal

• Women’s oppression is founded on their economic dependence Women’s oppression is founded on their economic dependence on men and men’s control over their labor power and other on men and men’s control over their labor power and other resourcesresources

• Patriarchy is a chiefly ideological structure and can only be Patriarchy is a chiefly ideological structure and can only be destroyed by nonmaterial means “psychocultural revolution” destroyed by nonmaterial means “psychocultural revolution”

Women in the Caribbean as Women in the Caribbean as Workers and as Mothers Workers and as Mothers • By denying women male financial support By denying women male financial support

and protection, the system also demands of and protection, the system also demands of them economic independence and them economic independence and responsibility for their families responsibility for their families

• However, because many are unskilled However, because many are unskilled laborers, their wages are often not enough laborers, their wages are often not enough to make ends meet, and this forces them to to make ends meet, and this forces them to appeal to men to supplement their incomes appeal to men to supplement their incomes

• Result-while women strongly aspire for Result-while women strongly aspire for economic independence, they are actually economic independence, they are actually dependent on their men dependent on their men

Women’s work is Women’s work is Problematic Problematic • Work is problematic Work is problematic

partly because the partly because the income-earning income-earning activities of working activities of working class women do not class women do not lend themselves easily lend themselves easily to measurement and to measurement and partly because they partly because they perform a wide range perform a wide range of economic activities of economic activities

• Many women only work Many women only work intermittently, their intermittently, their income is extremely low, income is extremely low, and they tend to work in and they tend to work in the informal sector, the informal sector, many as “higglers” or many as “higglers” or vendorsvendors

• ““unrecognized work” unrecognized work” such as that in the such as that in the informal economy, on informal economy, on which many women which many women depend on for their depend on for their livelihood are invisible in livelihood are invisible in labor statistics labor statistics

Capitalism Continues to be Capitalism Continues to be ResponsibleResponsible• Shift from agricultural to industry in the post-World Shift from agricultural to industry in the post-World

War II period War II period • Agricultural work for women declined without the Agricultural work for women declined without the

development of alternatives for those displaced, development of alternatives for those displaced, forcing most into domestic labor forcing most into domestic labor

• Domestic work, either in private homes or in hotel Domestic work, either in private homes or in hotel industryindustry

• More than 88% of Caribbean women have no more More than 88% of Caribbean women have no more than primary school education and therefore not than primary school education and therefore not competitive in the job marketcompetitive in the job market

• Women accept low wages and inflexible work hours Women accept low wages and inflexible work hours in assembly plants of export processing industries, in assembly plants of export processing industries, producing goods solely for export to advanced producing goods solely for export to advanced industrialized countriesindustrialized countries

Feminist ExplanationsFeminist Explanations

• Emergence of the Emergence of the private/public dichotomy are private/public dichotomy are helpful in tracing the origins helpful in tracing the origins of women’s economic of women’s economic dependence on men dependence on men

• Long ago, The extended Long ago, The extended family/household was the family/household was the “primitive” seat of production “primitive” seat of production in which an assortment of kin in which an assortment of kin worked togetherworked together

• The labor of women was a The labor of women was a crucial as that of men in crucial as that of men in reproducing themselves from reproducing themselves from generation to generation, as a generation to generation, as a result of which women result of which women enjoyed high status despite a enjoyed high status despite a division of labor based on sex division of labor based on sex

• TodayToday• Industrial capitalism changed Industrial capitalism changed

all that by shifting the locus of all that by shifting the locus of economic production away economic production away from the household into the from the household into the public workplace public workplace

• As men’s productive activity As men’s productive activity outside the home became outside the home became more highly valued than more highly valued than women’s reproductive activity women’s reproductive activity and as the work of women and as the work of women (childbearing, child rearing, (childbearing, child rearing, preserving, cooking, cleaning) preserving, cooking, cleaning) came to be regarded as came to be regarded as nonproductive, women’s status nonproductive, women’s status declined accordingly declined accordingly

• Men gained power over women Men gained power over women and patriarchy was born and patriarchy was born

GlobalizationGlobalization

• Increased participation of women in the Increased participation of women in the worldwide labor force. Has this worldwide labor force. Has this enhanced the general status of women? enhanced the general status of women?

• Paid employment of women has Paid employment of women has restricted most women to poorly paid restricted most women to poorly paid work that does not free them from a work that does not free them from a “double day” or from the dominant “double day” or from the dominant ideology that they are merely ideology that they are merely supplementary wage earnerssupplementary wage earners

Female Workers in Puerto Rico, Female Workers in Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and the Dominican Republic, and CubaCuba• In Puerto Rico, the early stages of Operation Bootstrap In Puerto Rico, the early stages of Operation Bootstrap

(late 1940s) displaced men from agriculture while (late 1940s) displaced men from agriculture while employing women in labor-intensive industries such as employing women in labor-intensive industries such as food processing and apparel assembly food processing and apparel assembly

• Failed to generate enough jobs for Puerto Rican men, Failed to generate enough jobs for Puerto Rican men, as a result men migrated in great numbers to the U.S.as a result men migrated in great numbers to the U.S.

• High-tech and high finance phase began in the 1970s High-tech and high finance phase began in the 1970s as the garment industry virtually disappeared, having as the garment industry virtually disappeared, having moved in search of cheaper labor to places such as the moved in search of cheaper labor to places such as the Dominican Republic , forcing working class Puerto Dominican Republic , forcing working class Puerto Rican women to subsist on lowered wages Rican women to subsist on lowered wages

• The two countries serve merely as sources of cheap The two countries serve merely as sources of cheap labor for American light industrylabor for American light industry

How Common is it to How Common is it to Outsource? Outsource?

CubaCuba

• Committed to programs of social justice and Committed to programs of social justice and equality equality

• Cuba has implemented a state policy of full Cuba has implemented a state policy of full employment for men and encourage women employment for men and encourage women into workforce into workforce

• Offer free education, health care, child care, Offer free education, health care, child care, transportation, and subsidized housing, transportation, and subsidized housing, food, and recreational facilitiesfood, and recreational facilities

• Whereas in both the Dominican Republic and Whereas in both the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico female workers are treated as a Puerto Rico female workers are treated as a cheap labor reserve, in Cuba they are notcheap labor reserve, in Cuba they are not

Nevertheless…Nevertheless…

• Nevertheless, all three Nevertheless, all three countries women are countries women are considered considered supplementary wage supplementary wage earners, and gender earners, and gender discrimination persists discrimination persists in Cuba through in Cuba through occupational occupational segregationsegregation

• In the Caribbean the In the Caribbean the new international new international division of labor has division of labor has intensified chronic intensified chronic poverty, widespread poverty, widespread unemployment, and unemployment, and underemploymentunderemployment

• Forcing Caribbean Forcing Caribbean women either to work women either to work under more oppressive under more oppressive conditions than ever conditions than ever or turn to emigrationor turn to emigration

Human Cost of Gendered Human Cost of Gendered Transnationalism Transnationalism • Caribbean family units are constantly being Caribbean family units are constantly being

reconfigured to suit the changing needs of reconfigured to suit the changing needs of global capitalism as it continually destroys global capitalism as it continually destroys forms of its own existenceforms of its own existence

• Because they lack child care support in the Because they lack child care support in the destination country, the working class destination country, the working class women who migrates from the Caribbean women who migrates from the Caribbean leave children behind leave children behind

• Greatest toll by Caribbean transnationalism Greatest toll by Caribbean transnationalism is marriage and the relationship breakdown is marriage and the relationship breakdown

• Strained parent child relationships Strained parent child relationships

ConclusionsConclusions• Given the direction of global capitalism Given the direction of global capitalism

restructuring, the prospects for Caribbean restructuring, the prospects for Caribbean migrants are not bright migrants are not bright

• Migration is not merely a matter of geography but Migration is not merely a matter of geography but one of social mobility one of social mobility

• Caribbean migrants face racial discrimination in all Caribbean migrants face racial discrimination in all spheres of life, they learn that race is linked to spheres of life, they learn that race is linked to political and economic domination in North political and economic domination in North America and EuropeAmerica and Europe

• Migrants persist in retaining a stronger Caribbean Migrants persist in retaining a stronger Caribbean identity than at home, because they lack political identity than at home, because they lack political and economic security and economic security

• They share in a sense of loss, displacement, exile, They share in a sense of loss, displacement, exile, and alienation resulting from the destabilizing and alienation resulting from the destabilizing effects of capitalismeffects of capitalism