Business Writing Skills - Islamic University of Gazasite.iugaza.edu.ps/.../2016/06/Business-Writing-Skill-.pdfBusiness Writing Skills Table of Contents Page 1 19 26 31 69 Unit One

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Business Writing Skills

Table of Contents

Page

1

19

26

31

69

Unit One

The Basic Business Letter

Unit Two

Email Writing

Unit Three

Memo Writing

Unit Four

Writing Business Reports

Unit Five

Revision in Business

Writing

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Unit One

The Basic Business Letter

Parts of a business letter

Date

The date line is used to indicate the date the letter was written. However, if your letter is completed over a number of days, use the date it was

finished in the date line. When writing to companies within the United States, use the American date format. (The United States-based

convention for formatting a date places the month before the day. For example: June 11, 2001. ) Write out the month, day and year two inches

from the top of the page. Depending which format you are using for your

letter, either left justify the date or center it horizontally.

Sender’s Address

Including the address of the sender is optional. If you choose to include it,

place the address one line below the date. Do not write the sender‟s name or title, as it is included in the letter‟s closing. Include only the street

address, city and zip code. Another option is to include the sender‟s address directly after the closing signature.

Inside Address

The inside address is the recipient‟s address. It is always best to write to

a specific individual at the firm to which you are writing. If you do not have the person‟s name, do some research by calling the company or

speaking with employees from the company. Include a personal title such as Ms., Mrs., Mr., or Dr. Follow a woman‟s preference in being addressed

as Miss, Mrs., or Ms. If you are unsure of a woman‟s preference in being addressed, use Ms. If there is a possibility that the person to whom you

are writing is a Dr. or has some other title, use that title. Usually, people will not mind being addressed by a higher title than they actually possess.

To write the address, use the U.S. Post Office Format. For international addresses, type the name of the country in all-capital letters on the last

line. The inside address begins one line below the sender‟s address or one inch below the date. It should be left justified, no matter which format

you are using.

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Salutation

Use the same name as the inside address, including the personal title. If

you know the person and typically address them by their first name, it is

acceptable to use only the first name in the salutation (i.e., Dear Lucy:). In all other cases, however, use the personal title and full name followed

by a colon. Leave one line blank after the salutation.

If you don‟t know a reader‟s gender, use a nonsexist salutation, such as "To Whom it May Concern." It is also acceptable to use the full name in a

salutation if you cannot determine gender. For example, you might write Dear Chris Harmon: if you were unsure of Chris's gender.

Body

For block and modified block formats, single space and left justify each

paragraph within the body of the letter. Leave a blank line between each paragraph. When writing a business letter, be careful to remember that

conciseness is very important. In the first paragraph, consider a friendly opening and then a statement of the main point. The next paragraph

should begin justifying the importance of the main point. In the next few paragraphs, continue justification with background information and

supporting details. The closing paragraph should restate the purpose of the letter and, in some cases, request some type of action.

Closing

The closing begins at the same horizontal point as your date and one line after the last body paragraph. Capitalize the first word only (i.e., Thank

you) and leave four lines between the closing and the sender‟s name for a

signature. If a colon follows the salutation, a comma should follow the closing; otherwise, there is no punctuation after the closing.

Enclosures

If you have enclosed any documents along with the letter, such as a resume, you indicate this simply by typing Enclosures one line below the

closing. As an option, you may list the name of each document you are including in the envelope. For instance, if you have included many

documents and need to insure that the recipient is aware of each document, it may be a good idea to list the names.

Typist initials

Typist initials are used to indicate the person who typed the letter. If you

typed the letter yourself, omit the typist initials.

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_basicbusletter.html#formats#formats

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A note about format and font

When writing business letters, you must pay special attention to the format and font used. The most common layout of a business letter is

known as block format. Using this format, the entire letter is left justified and single spaced except for a double space between paragraphs. Another

widely utilized format is known as modified block format. In this type, the body of the letter is left justified and single-spaced. However, the date

and closing are in alignment in the center of the page. The final, and least used, style is semi-block. It is much like the modified block style except

that each paragraph is indented instead of left justified.

The following table shows examples of the different formats.

March 16, 2001

Ernie English 1234 Writing Lab Lane Write City, IN 12345

Dear Mr. English:

The first paragraph of a typical business letter is used to state the main point of the letter.

Begin with a friendly opening; then quickly transition into the

purpose of your letter. Use a couple of sentences to explain the purpose, but do not go in to

detail until the next paragraph.

Beginning with the second paragraph, state the supporting

details to justify your purpose. These may take the form of background information,

statistics or first-hand accounts. A few short paragraphs within the

body of the letter should be enough to support your

reasoning.

March 16, 2001


Dear Mr. English:

The first paragraph of a typical business letter is used to state the main point

of the letter. Begin with a friendly opening; then

quickly transition into the purpose of your letter. Use a couple of sentences to

explain the purpose, but do not go in to detail until the

next paragraph.

Beginning with the second paragraph, state the supporting details to justify

your purpose. These may take the form of background

information, statistics or first-hand accounts. A few

short paragraphs within the body of the letter should be

March 16, 2001


Dear Mr. English:

The first paragraph of a typical business letter is used to state the main

point of the letter. Begin with a friendly opening;

then quickly transition into the purpose of your letter. Use a couple of

sentences to explain the purpose, but do not go in

to detail until the next paragraph.

Beginning with the second paragraph, state

the supporting details to justify your purpose.

These may take the form of background

information, statistics or first-hand accounts. A few

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Finally, in the closing paragraph,

briefly restate your purpose and why it is important. If the purpose of your letter is

employment related, consider ending your letter with your

contact information. However, if the purpose is informational, think about closing with gratitude

for the reader‟s time.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter

123 Winner‟s Road New Employee Town, PA 12345

enough to support your

reasoning.

Finally, in the closing paragraph, briefly restate

your purpose and why it is important. If the purpose of your letter is employment

related, consider ending your letter with your contact

information. However, if the purpose is informational, think about closing with

gratitude for the reader‟s time.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter

short paragraphs within

the body of the letter should be enough to support your reasoning.

Finally, in the closing paragraph, briefly restate your purpose and why it

is important. If the purpose of your letter is

employment related, consider ending your letter with your contact

information. However, if the purpose is

informational, think about closing with gratitude for the reader‟s time.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter

Block Format Modified Block Format Semi-block format

If your computer is equipped with Microsoft Office 2000, the Letter Wizard

can be used to take much of the guesswork out of formatting business

letters. To access the Letter Wizard, click on the Tools menu and then

choose Letter Wizard. The Wizard will present the three styles mentioned

here and input the date, sender address and recipient address into the

selected format. Letter Wizard should only be used if you have a basic

understand of how to write a business letter. Its templates are not

applicable in every setting. Therefore, you should consult a business

writing handbook if you have any questions or doubt the accuracy of the

Letter Wizard.

Another important factor in the readability of a letter is the chosen font.

The generally accepted font is Times New Roman, size 12, although other fonts

such as Arial may be used. When choosing a font, always consider your

audience. If you are writing to a conservative company, you may want to

use Times New Roman. However, if you are writing to a more liberal

company, you have a little more freedom when choosing fonts.

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As far as punctuation after the salutation and closing is concerned, the

standard is to use a colon after the salutation (never a comma) and a

comma after the closing. There is also a less accepted format, known as

open punctuation, in which punctuation is excluded after the salutation

and the closing.

Business Letters: Accentuating the Positives

Your letters will be more successful if you focus on positive wording rather

than negative, simply because most people respond more favorably to

positive ideas than negative ones. Words that affect your reader positively

are likely to produce the response you desire in letter-writing situations. A

positive emphasis will persuade the reader and create goodwill. In

contrast, negative words may generate resistance and other unfavorable

reactions. You should therefore be careful to avoid words with negative

connotations. These words either deny--for example, NO, DO NOT,

REFUSE, and STOP--or convey unhappy or unpleasant associations--for

example, UNFORTUNATELY, UNABLE TO, CANNOT, MISTAKE, PROBLEM,

ERROR, DAMAGE, LOSS, and FAILURE.

When you need to present negative information, soften its effects by

superimposing a positive picture on a negative one.

1) Stress what something IS rather than what it IS NOT.

2) Emphasize what the firm or product CAN and WILL DO rather than

what it CANNOT.

3) open with ACTION rather than APOLOGY or EXPLANATION.

4) avoid words which convey UNPLEASANT FACTS.

Compare the examples below. Which would be more likely to elicit

positive reader response?

Negative Positive

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In response to your question about

how many coats of Chem-Treat are needed to cover new surfaces: I

regret to report that usually two are required. For such surfaces you

should figure about 200 square feet per gallon for a good heavy coating

that will give you five years or more of beautiful protection.

In response to your question about how many coats of Chem-Treat are

needed to cover new surfaces: One gallon is usually enough for one-coat

coverage of 500 square feet of previously painted surface. For the

best results on new surfaces, you will want to apply two coats.

Penquot sheets are not the skimpy, loosely woven sheets ordinarily

found in this price class.

Penquot sheets are woven186

threads to the square inch for durability and, even after 3-inch

hems, measure a generous 72 by 108 inches.

We cannot ship in lots of less than

12.

To keep down packaging costs and

to help customers save on shipping

costs, we ship in lots of 12 or more.

In addition, you should reemphasize the positive through embedded

position and effective use of space.

Embedded Position

Place GOOD NEWS in positions of high emphasis: at the beginnings and

endings of paragraphs, letters, and even sentences.

Place BAD NEWS in secondary positions: in the center of paragraphs,

letters, and, if possible, sentences.

Effective Use Of Space

Give more space to GOOD NEWS and less to BAD NEWS.

Evaluate the examples below to determine whether or not they present

negative information favorably.

1. To make the Roanoke more stable than other lamps of this size, our

designers put six claw feet instead of the usual four on the base and thus

eliminated the need for weighting. Claw feet, as you know, are

characteristic of 18th-century design.

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2. No special training programs are normally offered other than that of

the College Graduate in Training rotational training period. We do not

expect our employees to continue their education, but we do have an

excellent tuition refund program to assist in this regard (see Working with

General Motors, page 8). Where an advanced degree is essential,

individuals are recruited with those particular advanced degrees. Both

Butler and IUPUI offer courses leading to an MBA degree.

3. With our rigid quality standards, corrections of Adidas merchandise run

less than .02 percent of our total line. Because of an oversight in our

stitching department, a damaged needle was inadvertently used and

caused the threads to come loose in these particular bags. Since we now

have a check on all our machine needles before work each day, you can

be assured that the stitching on our Adidas carrying bags will last the

lifetime of the bags. Thank you for calling our attention to the loose

stitching.

4. We are sorry that we cannot furnish the club chairs by August 16.

5. I have no experience other than clerking in my father's grocery store.

6. ABC Dog Biscuits will help keep your dog from getting sick.

Sales Letters: Four Point Action Closing

Securing Action

Having convinced your reader that your product or service is worth the

price, you want to get action before the reader has a change of mind ,

before forgetfulness defeats you, before the money goes for something

else--before any of the things that could happen do happen. Therefore, a

good persuasive closing is essential.

A good action closing--or clincher--should include the following four points:

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1) clearly state what action you wish the reader to take. 2) make that

action easy through facilitating devices and careful wording. 3) date the

action--if possible and appropriate. 4) provide a reader benefit as

stimulus for action.

1) Clearly State What Action You Wish The Reader To Take

Should the reader order your product or service? Call your office to set up

an appointment? Fill out a form? Visit a local dealership or store to see a

demonstration? Invite the visit of a sales representative? On finishing

your letter, your reader should know just exactly what you want done

and how it should be done.

At times, you may have to name two actions and ask the reader to take

one or the other. If you possibly can, avoid doing so. Some people faced

with a choice resolve their dilemma by doing nothing.

2) Make That Action Easy Through Facilitating Devices And Careful Wording

Facilitating devices: order blanks, order cards, and postcards or

envelopes already addressed and requiring no postage--remove some of

the work in taking action. Also, your phone number (with area code and

extension) are useful if you want the reader to call you. Finally, state your

office hours and location if you want the reader to come to see you in

person. References to these facilitating devices--preferably directing the

reader to use them--reassure the reader that what you are asking is

simple and requires little time and effort.

Careful wording: through careful wording, you can also emphasize that

what you are asking the reader to do is simple. "Write and let us know

your choice" suggests more work than "Check your color choice on the

enclosed card." "Jot down," "just check," "simply initial" are also

examples of wording that suggest ease and rapidity in doing something.

Such wording helps reduce reader reluctance to take action.

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3) Date The Action--If Possible And Appropriate

Name the date whenever you need the reader's response by a certain

time. Tactfully tell the reader why you need it then--perhaps to meet the

deadline for a sale.

4) Provide A Reader Benefit As Stimulus For Action

Always mention some benefit(s) the reader will gain by prompt action.

Such a reminder of the desirability of your product or service--some-

times called a clincher--comes appropriately at the ending of your letter.

It not only provides motivation for the reader, but it also has decided

psychological value as well because it emphasizes service attitude--rather

than the greed stressed if you end with dollars and cents talk or the

mechanics of ordering.

You should always include elements 1, 2, and 4 of the four point action

closing when you are writing a letter relating to sales. You should use

dated action, item 3, ONLY when it is appropriate for your writing

situation.

Some examples of closing paragraphs follow. Determine whether or not

they include all elements of the four point action closing needed for a

tactful, yet persuasive letter ending.

1. Mr. J. B. Nickle, our Memphis representative, will be glad to call at a

time convenient for you. Fill out and mail the enclosed postcard, and he

will come to your home and explain how your Stair Traveler can make

your daily living more pleasurable.

2. You can begin to enjoy the unusual reception of a famous Foremost set

by placing your order now.

3. Call our toll-free number, or mail the enclosed postcard indicating a

day and time convenient for our representative to visit you. He'll give you

a list of SIB users in the Lafayette area and explain additional advantages

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of using Superior's Ice Breaker. You can then order your winter's supply

and join more than 150,000 apartment and industrial firms who have

used SIB for ice-free parking lots.

4. If you have any technical questions concerning our products, please

call us toll free at (800) 555-9525 and ask for Technical Service. Our staff

will be pleased to lend whatever assistance they can.

5. We are enclosing an order blank and postage paid envelope for your

convenience.

Appendix A

Letter Samples

Model for an Acceptance Letter

May 10, 2001

Ernie English

1234 Writing Lab Lane

Write City, IN 12345

The acceptance letter is a simple and pleasant letter to write. In the first

paragraph, thank the company for the offer and directly accept the

position.

Next, restate the contract provisions as you understand them. These are

points that you and your contact at the company have discussed in

relation to your employment. They may include salary, location, benefits,

or any other items. Restate any instructions you were given in their

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acceptance letter to you. These might include the date that you will begin

working, the salary discussed, or the hours you would be working. It is

extremely important to restate these details because they provide

documentation of an understanding between you and the company before

an actual contract is signed.

Finally, end with a statement of your happiness at the opportunity to join

the company. Be thankful and courteous, watching your tone so as not to

sound too overconfident.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter

123 Winner‟s Road

New Employee Town, PA 12345

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Cover Letter Model

Write to a specific person, ideally to the person conducting the

interview or hiring for the position.

Date

First and Last Name

Their position/title Company Name

Address Address

City, State, Zip-code

Dear Ms./Mr./Dr. Last Name,

The first paragraph of your cover letter should get the reader's attention,

stimulate interest, and be appropriate for the job you are seeking. You should make your goal clear to readers, and preview the rest of your letter. It is also

appropriate to mention where you learned of the job opening.

Focus on your two or three strongest qualifications for a position in your

cover letter. Even only one strong qualification is enough to discuss in a cover letter. Each qualification you discuss should be placed in its own paragraph,

and your letter as a whole should not exceed one typed page.

Each body paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that highlights one qualification. This qualification should be illustrated with specific details, and

you should demonstrate how this qualification will benefit the employer. Ask

the reader to refer to your resume, if possible.

Your conclusion should ask for a personal interview (be flexible regarding a date and time for the interview), be specific about how the interviewer should

contact you, and include a thank you.

Sincerely,

Your Signature

Your Name

Enclosure: resume

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Follow-up to an Interview Letter Model

April 2, 2001

Ernie English



Dear Mr. English:

The purpose of the follow-up to an interview is to convey your

thankfulness at being given an interview. In the opening paragraph, thank

the interviewer for their time. Thank them for allowing you to learn about

the position and the company.

In the body of your letter, present a personal analysis of your interview

and visit. It is important to avoid clichés and generalizations such as, "My

visit to your company was very informational and interesting." Write

about your impressions of the company and your review of the interview

proceedings. You may also want to point out any new information that

you learned about the company during your visit. If there is any new

information about your education or work experience that you believe

would be increase your chance of getting the position, present those as

well.

In your conclusion it is important to be positive and reflect goodwill. The

letter‟s intent is to show the interviewer that you are thorough, courteous,

efficient and, most importantly, that you are sincerely interested in the

job. It is likely that sending this letter will set you apart from the crowd.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter


Model for Writing an Inquiry about a Cover Letter and Resume

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March 16, 2001

Ernie English

1234 Writing Lab Lane Write City, IN 12345

Dear Mr. English:

This document should loosely reflect your cover letter. In this opening

paragraph, restate the position for which you applied, and state that you

are still interested. You may also wish to include a forecasting statement.

This is a brief sentence explaining why you feel qualified to fill the position

at hand.

In the second paragraph, briefly restate the qualifications listed in your

cover letter. Since brevity is always important in employment related

letters, remember to include only your most recent and relevant

qualifications. In order to avoid restating your resume, give situational

examples of your qualifications. If there have been any new additions to

your resume, add those as well. Here too, avoid simply restating your

resume since it will be included with your letter.

Finally, in the closing paragraph, restate your contact information and

when you are available. Close the letter so that the employer knows that

you are still sincerely interested in the job.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter

123 Winner‟s Road


Model for Writing a Rejection of a Job Offer

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May 10, 2001

Ernie English



Dear Mr. English:

The purpose of this letter is to reject a job offer presented to you by a

company. It is important to be polite, while at the same time firmly

rejecting the offer. In the opening paragraph, thank the employer for

the offer. Convey that although you appreciated the offer, you are

unable to accept the position. You may also wish to use an indirect

approach, by stating the reasons for your refusal before rejecting the

offer.

You should then give the employer the reasons for your refusal. The

rejection of an offer is somewhat unimportant to the applicant, but it is

extremely important to the employer. It allows the company to formally

move on to the next applicant. More importantly, it tells the employer

how to make the offer more appealing for the next applicant. After all,

how can they be expected to fix a problem if they don‟t know what it is?

After you have stated your reasons for rejecting their offer, politely

refuse the offer (if you haven‟t already done so).

End your letter with a sense of goodwill. This is important because you

may wish to apply for a position with the company at a later date. Also,

be sure to thank them for the time they invested while working with

you.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter 123 Winner‟s Road


Model for Writing a Reference Request Letter

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February 10, 2001

Louie Lab

1234 University St.

University City, IN 12345

Dear Mr. Lab:

You will need to write a reference request letter before you create a reference sheet to distribute to potential employers. It is meant to give

the reference some warning that an employer may be contacting them. It

also insures that they have the most up-to-date information about your qualifications and education. In the first paragraph, your primary goal is

to reintroduce yourself to your potential reference. Simply give a quick review of the relationship and situations the two of you shared. This

opening should be courteous and polite. Provide a little information about yourself. This is especially important if you have not spoken with your

potential reference in some time. State your field of study, year in school, and/or career aspirations.

Next, you should formally ask to use this person as a reference. Briefly

discuss the position for which you are applying and how the reference will

be used. Will it be utilized as an addition to your resume or presented at the interview? This information will give your reference a better

understanding of the information that would be expected from them if an employer contacted them.

Finally, close the letter with a sentence that assumes you have permission

to use the reference unless you hear otherwise. You may wish to include a self-addressed stamped card so that the person may send you an answer.

Also, include a copy of your resume with the letter. This will provide helpful information about your qualifications and allow the reference to

speak intelligently to potential employers. Thank the reference for

allowing you to use them in your job search and end with a friendly closing.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter

123 Winner's Road New Employee Town, PA 12345

Model for Writing a Request for Further Negotiations

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April 25, 2001

Ernie English



Dear Mr. English:

A request for further negotiations letter is much like your acceptance or

rejection letter. The difference is that the request for further negotiations

shows that you would accept the offer contingent on the result of

negotiations. To begin the letter, thank the employer for the offer. Then

state your wish to discuss things further. You can do this in two ways: a

direct request for further negotiations or a conditional statement.

Next, it is important to stress the points of your contract that require

further discussion. List them all, so that the company can prepare their

responses once instead of in a number of letters such as this. Also, it may

be helpful for you to state the reasons for the discussion of each point.

This will give the employer a better understanding of your specific needs.

Depending on the type and number of points you are discussing, it may

be beneficial to format them in a list. This is sometimes an easier way to

read and organize the information than paragraph form.

In closing, it may be helpful to suggest that the employer contact you

with their initial reactions to your unresolved issues. List your contact

information and when you may be reached. Restate your general

appreciation for the offer and maintain a sense of goodwill.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter 123 Winner's Road


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Reply to a Rejection Model Letter

May 7, 2001

Ernie English



Dear Mr. English:

Writing this letter is optional, but doing so is a good idea. It leaves the

door open for you to apply to the firm sometime in the future when your

qualifications have changed and is a way of maintaining a good

relationship with the company. In the opening, thank the company for

their time and consideration of your application and qualifications.

Use the body of your letter to discuss your positive impressions of the

company. You might mention interviews that you had with company

representatives, information you learned about the company during your

application process, and any specific people who were particularly helpful

or kind to you during the process.

Close the letter by mentioning the possibility of future contact with the

company. Remain optimistic and thankful that the company considered

your application.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter


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Unit Two

Email Writing

Email Etiquette

What is email etiquette?

Email etiquette refers to a set of dos and don‟ts that are recommended by

business and communication experts in response to the growing concern

that people are not using their email effectively or appropriately.

Since email is part of the virtual world of communication, many people

communicate in their email messages the same way they do in virtual

chat rooms: with much less formality and sometimes too aggressively.

Email etiquette offers some guidelines that all writers can use to facilitate

better communication between themselves and their readers.

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One overall point to remember is that an email message does not have

non-verbal expression to supplement what we are "saying." Most of the

time we make judgments about a person‟s motives and intentions based

on their tone of voice, gestures, and their proximity to us. When those

are absent it becomes more difficult to figure out what the message

sender means. It is much easier to offend or hurt someone in email and

that is why it is important to be as clear and concise as possible.

How do I know if I am using the correct etiquette?

There are a number of things to consider before clicking the "send" button

on your email.

How should I format my email? To whom am I sending my email?

Can I send attachments?

How long should my email be? Am I flaming someone? (And what does "flaming" mean?)

When should I not send an email?

How should I format my email?

You are most likely familiar with the general rules about formatting email

but here are some tips to keep in mind.

Be sure that your email is formatted to wrap your text after about 70

characters. This keeps the email from looking disjointed. When you do not

have a wrap around option for 70-80 characters then your email will

mostly likely look like this:

Dear John,

I am really interested in leasing

your apartment but I need just a little bit more information. Do you

have time to meet with me tomorrow afternoon

around three or so?

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_emailett.html#format#formathttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_emailett.html#audience#audiencehttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_emailett.html#attach#attachhttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_emailett.html#length#lengthhttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_emailett.html#flame#flamehttp://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/pw/p_emailett.html#nosend#nosend

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Usually, settings for character length will be found in the "preferences"

option on the tool bar of your email client. Consult your help menu for

more information.

Here are some additional formatting tips to consider.

Try to keep the email brief (preferably to one page) so that readers

do not have to scroll. ***

Return emails in the same day that you would a phone call.

Use capitalization and punctuation in the same way that you would

in any other document.

Format your email to be sent in plain text rather than HTML

because some email clients may not read HTML.

Write a salutation or greeting for each new subject email. ***

However, if you exchange several emails over the same topic (for

example, a meeting day and time) it is not necessary to include a

greeting because it is as though you are carrying on a conversation.

When we carry on conversations, we do not say hello each time we

speak.

Be sure to write an appropriate and specific subject in the subject

line so that the recipient knows what to expect. For example: "April

22 production team meeting agenda" instead of "meeting."

To whom am I sending my email?

It is always important to know who will receive your email, including the

number of people you have on the mailing list. This helps you in two

ways. First, it helps you think about the tone of your writing

For example, while you still want to follow the traditional rules of writing,

emails that you send to your employer or professor may be more formal

and brief than to a colleague or classmate. You will need to decide

whether you need to use a person‟s title or if writing the first name is

appropriate.

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Second, if you send an email to more than four people regularly you

should create mailing groups so that the recipients do not need to scroll

through names before they can get to the content of the email. It also

helps to keep some email addresses anonymous, as some perceive it as

rude for their names and email addresses to be posted for strangers to

see.

You will need to talk with the technical support in your office or use the

"help" option on your computer if you do not know how to create a

mailing group. A mailing group is a list of email addresses assigned to one

name (like, [email protected]). You want to use names that

make sense to you so that you can remember them. This is especially

helpful when you are managing several mailing group lists.

Emails are public documents, despite the fact that you may send an email

to someone privately. Therefore, only include those statements in email

that you can openly defend should your message be circulated or shown

to other parties. Using emoticons (smiley faces, winks, etc.), and other

virtual gestures may be appropriate in some cases, but not in all cases! It

is always essential to consider the type of relationship you have with the

receiver of your message before including virtual non-verbals. If your

relationship is more casual, then using the symbols is fine. If your

relationship is more formal, then it is best to refrain from using them.

Can I send attachments?

Yes, as long as you are sure that your recipient can receive them.

Sending attachments is a normal practice when you are submitting

documents for review or exchanging information in the workplace. Here

are some tips to consider before attaching a document.

Title the document that you are attaching in a way that is easy for

the recipient to find once he or she downloads it to his or her files.

For example, if you are sending a document that is a goal

statement then title it "goalstatement.doc."

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In the content of your email, tell your recipient what type of

software was used to create the document, the year/version, and

the title of the attachment.

For example: "The file attached is called „goalstatement.doc‟ and it

is in MSWord 2000."

Make sure that you do not send overly large attachments unless

you are sure that your recipient's Internet connection and email

client can handle them. For example, a user on a 56K dialup would

have to spend a long time downloading a 5M PowerPoint file,

whereas a co-worker on a fast work connection would have no

problem.

Don't send unnecessary attachments -- if you've already presented

all of the relevant information in an email message, don't attach a

Word document repeating the same information.

How long should my email be?

In general, the email should be approximately one page printed or the

length of your computer screen before scrolling. However, there are times

when email messages need to be longer to convey important information.

Oftentimes organizations seeking to reduce their paper costs will use

email as their primary source of communication. Longer emails generally

consist of: Orientation schedules and information, memos, convention

information, newsletters, and policy changes.

When you need to write a long email try to include three essential

elements at the top of the email: (a) an executive summary at the top of

the document, (b) how soon a response is required from the recipient(s),

and (c) a table of contents.

An executive summary

This is a short summary of everything in the email document including

the main goal of the email or the "bottom line." *

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For example: "Welcome to ZDF Company. This email contains important

information about your orientation week. You will find the five day

schedule, names of the speakers, the menu, hotel arrangements, and

testimonials from employees who previously participated."

Required response

Because your reader is most likely going to read the first few lines of your

document thoroughly and browse through the rest, if you need to have

him or her respond by a certain time with certain information, that should

be stated within the executive summary.

For example: "Please let me know by Wednesday whether you are

attending the meeting."

Table of contents

A table of contents allows the reader to pick and choose what sections of

the email are most relevant to him or her.* A person is most likely to

comply with your requests when you make it easy for him or her to

navigate your materials.

For example:

Table of Contents

- Five Day Schedule

- Speaker List

- Menu

- Registration Form

- Hotel Arrangements

- Travel Reimbursement Policy

Am I flaming someone? (And what does "flaming" mean?)

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Flaming is a virtual term for venting emotion online or sending

inflammatory emails. It is best to avoid flaming because it tends to create

more conflict and tension. Flames are virtual food fights and are

unproductive and injurious to the parties involved.

What you say cannot be taken back. Misinterpretations happen very easily

in neutral emails because there is a lack of nonverbal expression to cue

the recipient about your motives and intentions. You can imagine how

much misinterpretation can occur when you are expressing frustration

and/or anger.

Things to consider before venting in email:

Would I say this to this person‟s face?

Am I putting the receiver in awkward position?

How would I feel if I got this email message?

Usually, by the time you consider the above questions you will be calm

enough to write your message with a different approach. Catching

someone by surprise in a flaming message is a quick way to alienate your

reader mainly because they will react with anger or embarrassment.

Below are some examples of flaming messages and then some

suggestions on ways to re-word them in more sensitive and thoughtful

ways.

Flame/inappropriate message Not a flame/appropriate message

"This project really sucks and I cannot believe that he is making us do this.

I‟m sick and tired of all these dumb assignments. He needs to get a life!"

"This assignment came at a tough time. I wasn‟t expecting so

much work. I can‟t wait till the end of the semester."

"If you don‟t fix this problem then I am going to quit TOMORROW!!!!!!!! I

am sick and tired of Martha‟s incompetence!!!"

"I‟m growing increasingly frustrated by the current

situation. Can we set up a time to talk about this more?"

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When should I not send an email?

There are many subjects that are too sensitive to discuss over email

mainly because misinterpretation could have serious consequences. Some

topics that should generally be resolved outside of email are:

Disciplinary action

Conflicts about grades or personal information

Concerns about fellow classmates/workmates

Complaints

When it appears that a dialogue has turned into a conflict, it is best to

suggest an end to the swapping of email and for you to talk or meet in

person. If you receive a flaming email try to respond in a short and simple

response. If that does not appease the flamer than make contact with him

or her outside the virtual realm.

Unit Three

Memo Writing

Memos have one purpose in life: "Memos solve problems."

Memos solve problems either by informing the reader about new

information, like policy changes, price increases, etc., or by persuading

the reader to take an action, such as attend a meeting, use less paper, or

change a current production procedure. Regardless of the specific goal,

memos are most effective when they connect the purpose of the writer

with the interests and needs of the reader. This handout will help you

solve you memo-writing problems by discussing what a memo is,

presenting some options for organizing memos, describing a the parts of

memos, and suggesting some hints that will make your memos more

effective.

What Is a Memo?

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When you think of a memo, what do you think of? Is it a little piece of

paper with a cute letterhead that says something like:

"From the desk of ..." or "Don't forget ..." or "Reminders ..."

The message itself may be very simple--something like:

"Buy more paper clips" or "Meet with President at 2:30" or "Mom, we're

out of fudge pops."

While these memos are informative or persuasive, and may serve their

simple purposes, more complex memos are often needed in an office

setting. But don't let that worry you. Even though business memos may

be more formal and complicated, the intention in writing one is still the

same. You want to achieve your purpose with your reader effectively. This

handout will show you how.

Basic Memo Plans

Standard office memos can be approached in different ways to fit your

purpose. Here are three basic plans:

1. The direct plan, which is the most common, starts out by stating

the most important points first and then moves to supporting

details. This plan is useful for routine information and for relaying

news.

2. The indirect plan makes an appeal or spews out evidence first

and arrives at a conclusion based on these facts. This plan is best

used when you need to arouse your reader's interest before

describing some action that you want taken.

3. A combination approach can be used for the balanced plan. This

plan is particularly useful when relaying bad news, as it combines

information and persuasion.

Parts of a Memo

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Standard memos are divided into segments to organize the information

and to help achieve the writer's purpose.

Heading Segment

The heading segment follows this general format:

TO: (readers' names and job titles)

FROM: (your name and job title)

DATE: (complete and current date)

SUBJECT: (what the memo is about, highlighted in some way)

Troubleshooting hints:

Make sure you address the reader by his or her correct name and

job title. You might call the company president "Maxi" on the golf

course or in an informal note, but "Rita Maxwell, President" would

be more appropriate for a formal memo.

Be specific and concise in your subject line. For example, "Rats"

as a subject line could mean anything from a production problem

to a personal frustration. Instead use something like, "Curtailing

Rat Extremity Parts in our Product."

Opening Segment

The purpose of a memo is usually found in the opening paragraphs and is

presented in three parts: the context and problem, the specific

assignment or task, and the purpose of the memo.

1. The context is the event, circumstance, or background of the

problem you are solving. You may use a paragraph to establish

the background and state the problem or simply the opening of a

sentence, such as, "In our effort to reduce rat parts in our

product...." Include only what your reader needs, but be sure it is

clear.

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2. In the task statement you should describe what you are doing to

help solve the problem. If the action was requested, your task

may be indicated by a sentence opening like, "You asked that I

look at...." If you want to explain your intentions, you might say,

"To determine the best method of controlling the percentage of

rat extremities, I will...."

3. Finally, the purpose statement of a memo gives your reason for

writing it and forecasts what is in the rest of the memo. This is

not the time to be shy. You want to come right out and tell your

reader the kind of information that's in store. For example, you

might say: "This memo presents a description of the current

situation, some proposed alternatives, and my

recommendations." If you plan to use headings for your memo

segments, you can refer to your major headings in this forecast

statement to provide a better guide for your reader.


Include only as much information as is needed by the decision-

makers in the context, but be convincing that a real problem

exists. Do no ramble on with insignificant details.

If you are having trouble putting the task into words, consider

whether you have clarified the situation. You may need to do

more planning before you're ready to write your memo.

Make sure your purpose-statement forecast divides your subject

into the most important topics that the decision-maker needs.

Summary Segment

If your memo is longer than a page, you may want to include a separate

summary segment. This segment provides a brief statement of the key

recommendations you have reached. These will help your reader

understand the key points of the memo immediately. This segment may

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also include references to methods and sources you have used in your

research, but remember to keep it brief.

You can help your reader understand your memo better by using

headings for the summary and the discussion segments that follow it. Try

to write headings that are short but that clarify the content of the

segment. For example, instead of using "Summary" for your heading, try

"New Rat-Part Elimination System," which is much more specific. The

major headings you choose here are the ones that will appear in your

purpose-statement forecast.

Troubleshooting hint:

You may want to wait until after the report is drafted and all conclusions

and recommendations have been decided before writing the summary.

Discussion Segments

The discussion segments are the parts in which you get to include all the juicy details that support your ideas. Keep these two things in mind:

1. Begin with the information that is most important. This may

mean that you will start with key findings or recommendations.

2. Here you want to think of an inverted pyramid. Start with your most general information and move to your specific or supporting

facts. (Be sure to use the same format when including details: strongest--->weakest.)


For easy reading, put important points or details into lists rather than paragraphs when possible.

Be careful to make lists parallel in grammatical form.

Closing Segment

Now you're almost done. After the reader has absorbed all of your

information, you want to close with a courteous ending that states what

action you want your reader to take. Make sure you consider how the

reader will benefit from the desired actions and how you can make those

actions easier. For example, you might say, "I will be glad to discuss this

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recommendation with you during our Tuesday trip to the spa and follow

through on any decisions you make."

Necessary Attachments

Make sure you document your findings or provide detailed information

whenever necessary. You can do this by attaching lists, graphs, tables,

etc. at the end of your memo. Be sure to refer to your attachments in

your memo and add a notation about what is attached below your closing,

like this:

Attached: Several Complaints about Product, January - June 1997

Good luck on your memo. If you look at this handout closely, you will see that,

except for the heading segment, it follows the guidelines and hints presented

here. These hints will also help you make your memo more successful.

Unit Four

Writing Business Reports

Business reports are required in disciplines such as accounting, finance,

management, marketing and commerce. Often the type of assignment set

is a practical learning task requiring you to apply the theories you have

been studying to real world (or realistic) situations; for example, in the

field of accounting and finance you may be asked to analyse a company‟s

financial data and to write a report detailing you findings; in the field of

marketing you may be asked to research and develop a marketing

campaign for a product and to write a report presenting the proposal to

the company; in the field of management you may be asked to report on

the management structure of a company and make recommendations for

its improvement. Learning how to report on financial information,

marketing and management strategies and issues to others is an

important component of business writing skills.

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Your aim of writing the report will most probably guide you as to the type

of information that should be included in your report and the steps you

should follow.

Business reports will obviously differ according to the specific question

and task they seek to answer. It is important, however, to be clear what

the overall purpose of your report is: is it to inform, to make a proposal,

or to solve a problem?

In business, the information provided in reports needs to be easy to find,

and written in such a way that the client can understand it. This is one

reason why reports are divided into sections clearly labelled with headings

and sub-headings. Technical information which would clutter the body of

the report is placed in the appendix.

The structure of a report and the purpose and contents of each section is

shown below.

TITLE PAGE report title

your name

submission date

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY overview of subject matter

methods of analysis

findings

recommendations

TABLE OF CONTENTS list of numbered sections in report

and their page numbers

INTRODUCTION terms of reference

outline of report‟s structure

BODY headings and sub-headings which

reflect the contents of each

section. Includes information on

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method of data collection (if

applicable), the findings of the

report and discussion of findings in

light of theory

CONCLUSION states the major inferences that

can be drawn from the discussion

makes recommendations

REFERENCE LIST list of reference material consulted

during research for report

APPENDIX information that supports your

analysis but is not essential to its

explanation

Executive summary

The executive summary provides the reader with an overview of the

report‟s essential information. It is designed to be read by people who will

not have time to read the whole report or are deciding if this is

necessary; therefore, in your executive summary you need to say as

much as possible in the fewest words (Weaver & Weaver, 1977). The

executive summary should briefly outline the subject matter, the

background problem, the scope of the investigation, the method(s) of

analysis, the important findings arguments and important issues raised in

the discussion, the conclusion and recommendations. The executive

summary should not just be an outline of the points to be covered in the

report with no detail of the analysis that has taken place or conclusions

that have been reached.

The executive summary stands as an overview at the front of the report

but it is also designed to be read alone without the accompanying report

(this would often occur in the workplace); therefore, you need to make

sure it is self sufficient and can be understood in isolation. It is usually

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written last (so that it accurately reflects the content of the report) and is

usually about two hundred to three hundred words long (i.e. not more

than a page).

Table of contents

In a report longer than several pages a table of contents should be

included as it assists the reader to locate information quickly. It also gives

the reader a schematic overview of the structure and contents of the

report.

A table of contents should include all section headings and subheadings:

worded exactly as they appear in the report

numbered exactly as they appear in the report

with their page numbers.

The table of contents should be on its own page.

As well as a table of contents, you may wish to include:

List of Figures (optional, separate page)

This list is used mainly for reports containing numerous figures. It

includes the figure number, caption and page number, ordered as they

appear in the text.

List of Tables (optional, separate page)

This list is used mainly for reports containing numerous tables. It includes

the table number, caption and page number, ordered as they appear in

the text.

List of appendices (optional, separate page)

This list is used mainly for reports containing numerous appendices. It

includes the appendix letter (each separate appendix should be lettered

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i.e. Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.), its title and page number, ordered as

they appear at the end of the report.

Nomenclature (optional)

Where symbols are used extensively, a list of symbols and definitions

should appear at the beginning of the report. If there is no list, symbols

should be defined in the text when first used.

Introduction

The introduction presents:

the background to the issue (i.e. why was the report commissioned),

the objective or purpose of the report

a definition of the research problem/topic

a definition of the report‟s terms of reference (the what, where, and when

of the research problem/ topic)

an outline of the report‟s structure

an overview of the report‟s sections and their relationship to the research

problem

an outline and justification of the scope of the report (the boundaries the

report is working within)

a description of the range of sources used (i.e. personal investigation,

interviews, statistics and questionnaires)

acknowledgment of any valuable assistance received in the preparation of

the report

While there will be some duplication in the contents of the executive

summary and the introduction, the purpose of the executive summary is

to provide a summary of the findings of each section of the report. The

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purpose of the introduction, however, is to outline what the report will

cover and how these issues address the research problem.

Body of the report

The body section expands and develops the material in a logical and

coherent manner, reflecting the structure outlined in the Introduction. It

contains a description of the findings and a discussion of them. It should

also relate the findings to any theory of relevance. The following

questions are examples of some of the types of questions the body of

your report should seek to answer:

What were the most significant findings or factors involved in the topic/

problem?

Did the findings support the theory?

Have you found some disagreement with the theory?

Did you uncover any unexpected or new issues that need to be considered?

This section is usually the longest part of the report. The material must be

presented logically. The type of headings you use to organize the

information in the body of your report will depend on the purpose of the

report you are preparing. Make sure the headings and sub-headings you

choose are informative. The following general structures are just

examples of ways it may be appropriate to structure your report.

Type 1: Findings/ Discussion

• Sub-heading 1

• Statement of issue 1

• findings

• discussion of whether it supports or contrasts with theory

• discussion of significance to theory/ practice

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• Sub-heading 2


• findings



Type 2: Findings

• Sub-heading 1


• findings

• Sub-heading 2

• statement of issue 2

• findings

Discussion

• Issue 1



• Issue 2



If your report requires any collection or analysis of data, it would

generally contain a method section in the body of the report briefly

describing how the data was collected: literature search, web pages,

interviews, financial and other business reports, etc. Details of types of

calculations or analysis undertaken would also be detailed.

The body of a report will also probably contain supporting evidence such

as tables, graphs or figures. Only include those that are essential for

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reader understanding, the rest can be placed in an appendix that is

referred to in the text; for example,

Appendix C contains the YoY predicted growth in shareholder accounts for

the company.

Using headings in your report

Headings should be clearly, logically and accurately labelled since they

reveal the organization of the report and permit quick reference to

specific information. They also make the report easy to read.

Headings should be specific and descriptive NOT vague and general.

Sometimes a main heading will be general but the specificity is developed

through subheadings. Given the need for specificity, headings would tend

to be more like an abbreviated sentence rather than a single word. A

good rule of thumb is that the heading should be "long enough to be an

inclusive label but short enough to be immediately clear". You should also

try to make headings grammatically and logically consistent; for example,

if your main heading was

Types Of Schemas

and your subheadings under this section were:

Schemas for scenes

Schemas for events

Schemas for stories

Problems and their schemas

it would be much better to change the final subheading to

Schemas for problems

so that consistency in your headings is maintained.

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Also avoid using headings that are catchy rather than informative; for

example, the following subheadings, although catchy and cute, detract

from the serious informative intent of the following report.

4. Key products and services of the McDonald's corporation

The following outline of McDonald's key products and services will thoroughly examine all

aspects of consumer buyer behaviour …..

4.1 The Big Mac: two all beef patties, special sauce, lettuce,

cheese, pickles and onions on a sesame seed bun!

The Big Mac hamburger brand was introduced to the McDonalds's product range in 1968

and has worldwide recognition. The longevity, popularity and recognisability of this

product impact on consumer buying behaviour in several ways…..

4.2 McFlurry: just like a snowstorm in your mouth!

The McFlurry is a relatively new item to the McDonald's product range and as such it is

relevant to analyse several different aspects of consumer buyer behaviour such as …..

Using figures such as diagrams, tables, graphs, charts or maps can be a

very useful way to show and emphasize information in your report. They

can be used to compile data in an orderly way or to amplify a point and

are a useful tool to help your readers understand complex or numerous

data.

Figures essential to the report should be smoothly and correctly

integrated and should be explained and referred to in the main body of

the report. A useful way to do this is to lead into the figure by telling the

reader what to focus on in the figure and then lead out of the figure

perhaps by linking the important point that was illustrated to the next

salient point; for example:

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Figures that are supportive rather than essential to your explanation can

be placed in the appendix section so that the continuity of your writing is

not broken up. If a figure such as a table of data is essential for

understanding but is very lengthy, you may wish to include an excerpt of

the most relevant part of the figure in the text and the full figure in an

appendix.

The inclusion of tables and figures does not absolve you from making

your report coherent. Regardless of whether the figures are integrated

into the text or are in an appendix, it is important that you do discuss the

information represented in the diagrams, tables, graphs, charts and maps

and not just let them 'speak for themselves'. A good rule of thumb is to

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42

produce text and figures that can both stand alone: the text should be

readable without figures, and vice versa. In your discussion of the

information represented in the figures you should highlight information

which you consider significant, point out trends or relationships or

compare data presented in separate figures; for example,

The Keeling plant's production capacity was reached in May this year. In contrast, the

Hergort plant has not yet reached 75% of its production capacity (see Table 13).

Make sure the figure is worthwhile. If the text is crystal clear without the

insertion of a figure there is no point including it, despite how good it may

look. If the text does not make sense without the insertion of the figure,

you are expecting the figure to do your job for you. In fact, the figure is

not meant to make your point but to illustrate, emphasize and

supplement it.

Information that is not essential to explain your findings, but that

supports your analysis (especially repetitive or lengthy information),

validates your conclusions or pursues a related point should be placed in

an appendix (plural appendices). Sometimes excerpts from this

supporting information (i.e. part of the data set) will be placed in the

body of the report but the complete set of information ( i.e. all of the data

set) will be included in the appendix. Examples of information that could

be included in an appendix include figures/tables/charts/graphs of results,

statistics, questionnaires, transcripts of interviews, pictures, lengthy

derivations of equations, maps, drawings, letters, specification or data

sheets, computer program information.

There is no limit to what can be placed in the appendix providing it is

relevant and reference is made to it in the report. The appendix is not a

catch net for all the semi-interesting or related information you have

gathered through your research for your report: the information included

in the appendix must bear directly relate to the research problem or the

report's purpose. It must be a useful tool for the reader.

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Each separate appendix should be lettered (Appendix A, Appendix B,

Appendix B1, Appendix B2, Appendix C, etc). The order they are

presented in is dictated by the order they are mentioned in the text of the

report. It is essential to refer to each appendix within the text of the

report; for example,

For the manufacturer's specification, see Appendix B

or

Appendix C contains the YoY shareholder account growth rates. The rates are high. The increasing growth rate of

accounts will significantly affect the valuation of the company.

Conclusion

The conclusion summarizes the major inferences that can be drawn from

the information presented in the report. It answers the questions raised

by the original research problem or stated purpose of the report and

states the conclusions reached. Finally, the conclusion of your report

should also attempt to show „what it all means‟: the significance of the

findings reported and their impact.

The conclusion/s presented in a report must be related to, resulting from

and justified by the material which appears in the report. The conclusion

must not introduce any new material. It should report on all the

conclusions that the evidence dictates as it is NOT the job of a conclusion

to “gloss over conclusions that are puzzling, unpleasant, incomplete or

don‟t seem to fit into your scheme”. Doing this would indicate writer bias

and mean your conclusion may mislead the reader.

In the workplace, conclusions are quite often read by managers before

the main text of the report and hence, should summarize the main points

clearly. This section also may include:

reference to original aim(s) and objective(s) of report,

application(s) of results,

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limitations and advantages of the findings,

objective opinion, evaluation or judgement of the evidence

Quite often the present tense is used in the conclusion; for example, “The

healthy lifestyles concept analyzed in this report is a good candidate for

next phase of the marketing campaign for Choice chocolate”.

The conclusions may be ordered in several ways. The main conclusion

may be stated first and then any other conclusions in decreasing order of

importance. Alternatively, it may be better to organize the conclusions in

the same order as the body section was organised. Another strategy

would be to present the positive conclusions together and then the

negative conclusions. The organizational strategy you use may vary; the

important thing is that the organization of your conclusion is logical.

The conclusion must arise from the evidence discussed in the body of the

report. It should not, therefore, subjectively tell the reader what to do:

this job is performed by the recommendations section.

(NOTE: Sometimes the conclusion and recommendations can be

presented together in one section but they should be presented in

separately labelled subsections).

It is essential to include a reference list or bibliography of the reference

material you consulted during your research for the report. A

bibliography is a list of all the reference material you consulted during

your research for the report while a reference list is a list of all the

references cited in the text of your report, listed in alphabetical order at

the end of the report. Each reference in the reference list needs to contain

all of the bibliographic information from a source. You should also check

with your lecturer or tutor for any Faculty guidelines on referencing

formats.

Throughout the text of your report you will also need to provide

references when you have included an idea in your report which is not

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your own original idea. You don't need to reference an idea, however, if it

is common knowledge (i.e. enzymes are proteins) or if it has been

established by you in your experiment (i.e. in scientific reports reporting

on an experiment). A reference is the bracketed or footnoted piece of

information within the text of your writing that provides an

acknowledgment that you are using someone else's ideas. There are

several systems of referencing such as the Harvard or author-date

system, footnotes or endnotes. Different faculties, departments and even

lecturers will generally have preferences about how you should reference

and you should seek these out before submitting your assignment.

Reference List1

To provide full details of your source information you should provide a

reference list or bibliography at the end of your assignment. A reference

list refers to all the books, articles and web sites that you actually

referred to in your assignment. A bibliography refers to all the material

you read in preparation for your assignment, even those you did not

provide direct or indirect quotations from. Your lecturer or tutor will

instruct you on whether your assignments require a reference list or a

bibliography. The reference list or bibliography must be set out in the

particular format required by your discipline or department. Below is an

example of a reference list that would be attached to the end of your

assignment.

Gould, S.J. 1977, Ontogeny and Phylogeny.

Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press.

Lovejoy, C.O. 1980, 'The origin of man', Science,

vol. 211, pp.340-350.

book titles and journal

names are in are in italics.

(If handwriting your

assignment, use

underlining).

http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/academic/4cx.htmlhttp://unilearning.uow.edu.au/academic/4cx.htmlhttp://unilearning.uow.edu.au/academic/4div.html#1#1

46

Savage-Rumbaugh, E.S. 1986, Ape Language:

From conditioned response to symbol. New

York: Columbia University Press.

hanging indents: in these

examples hanging indents

have been used; however,

this is not an essential

requirement.

Wolpoff, M.H., Zhi, W.X. & Thorne, A.G. 1984,

'Modern homo sapiens origins: A general theory

of hominid evolution involving the fossil

evidence from South-East Asia'. In F.H. Smith

& F. Spencer. (Eds.) The Origins of modern

humans New York: Alan R. Liss Inc.

Article and chapter

titles are in plain text

within single quotation

marks.

In a reference list,

sources are listed alphabetically by the surname of the author

when reference is made to more than one work by and author/s, list them

chronologically, ending with the most recent work.

1 Reference: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1995, Style Manual: For Authors, Editors

and Printers, 5th edn., Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.

The Harvard or Author-Date or System of

Referencing

The Harvard System of referencing incorporates information on:

the author of the material cited,

the date of publication

and where necessary, the page number(s).

47

This information is placed in a bracket within the sentence of the idea you

are discussing. This information allows the reader to look up the full

bibliographic information from the attached reference list.

Harvard style references can be given in three ways:

The rationale of the free market is essentially opposed to the collective

nature of unionism in the labour market (Ewer, Smith and Keane, 1991:

1).

Notice the reference comes before the punctuation ending the sentence,

in this case, a full stop.

OR

Ewer, Smith and Keane state that the rationale of the free market is

essentially opposed to the collective nature of unionism in the labour

market (1991: 1).

OR

Ewer, Smith and Keane (1991: 1) state that the rationale of the free market

is essentially opposed to the collective nature of unionism in the labour

market.

The way you decide to refer will depend upon factors such as the

authority of the source and whether you wish to focus on the idea rather

than the author.

When to include page numbers?

No Page Numbers: When you wish to use an author's central idea or

argument, for example, you must cite the author's name and the year of

48

publication, but you may leave out page numbers as the original text will

have referred to that central idea many times within the text. This will be

the case where you summarize the central argument of an entire article.

Page Numbers: When you refer to just one idea of many in a publication,

however, you must include page numbers. This allows your reader in

follow-up reading to find what might be a quite small piece of information

inside what could be a large article or book. This is often the case with

direct quotations or paraphrased sentences/ paragraphs/ sub-sections of

an article.

Look at the paragraph below to see how a writer has referenced source

material of different kinds.

The work of van Lawick-Goodall (1971),

Kortlandt and van Zon (1968), and Wright

(1972) shows that present-day

chimpanzees, orangutans and macaque

monkeys are capable of using simple tools

Name and year only (refers to

main idea of the source).

49

and bipedal locomotion. Wright (1972:

305) concluded after tool using

experiments with a captive orangutan, that

manipulative disability is not a factor which

would have prevented Australopithecines

from mastering the fundamentals of tool

technology. However, while there is an

unquestionable validity in comparing the

behaviour of present-day apes with early

hominids, it is important to note that, as

Howells (1973: 53) says, "a Pantroglodyte

is not and cannot be the ancestor of man.

He cannot be an ancestor of anything but

future chimpanzees". However, the modern

chimpanzee shows a type of intelligence

closer to that of man than is found in any

other present-day mammal. van Lawick-

Goodall argues that:

... the chimpanzee is, nevertheless, a

creature of immense significance to the

understanding of man ... He has the ability

to solve quite complex problems, he can

use and make tools for a variety of

purposes (1971: 244-245).

Page number included as the

text refers to only one idea

from the source.

Direct quote, so a page

number MUST be included.

A quote longer than three lines

is indented (quotation marks

are not included but the page

number is).

1 Reference: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1995, Style Manual: For Authors, Editors

and Printers, 5th edn., Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.

Direct Quotation

A direct quotation is one in which you copy an author's words directly

from the text and use that exact wording in your essay. Try to use direct

51

quotations sparingly: only use them when they are focused precisely on

the point you want to make and are both brief and telling, or where the

substance/ wording of the quote is what you wish to address.

When directly quoting, remember the following points:

for a short quotation, use quotation marks " " to indicate that these are

the words of another

In fact, Rumelhart suggests that schemata "truly are the building blocks of cognition" (1981:

33).

for quotations longer than three lines, take a new line and indent the

quote to separate it from the main text (in this case you do not require

quotation marks)

In fact, Rumelhart suggests that schemata

truly are the building blocks of cognition. They are the fundamental elements upon which all

information processing depends. Schemata are employed in the process of interpreting

sensory data (both linguistic and non linguistic), in retrieving information from memory, in

organizing actions, in determining goals and sub goals, in allocating resources, and generally,

in guiding the flow of processing in the system (1981: 33-34).

Rumelhart (1981) attempts to unravel the functions of schemas, explaining them through a

series of analogies.

when referencing the quote include the page number from which it was

taken

In fact, Rumelhart (1981: 33) suggests that schemata "truly are the building blocks of

cognition".

ensure that the grammar of the quote is consistent with the grammar of

your sentence

Incorrect:

51

Past attempts to deal with organisational conflict problems "lead to the development of

integrative and mixed structures such as committees, task forces and matrix structures"

(Dawson, 1986:97).

Correct:

Past attempts to deal with organisational conflict problems have led "to the development of

integrative and mixed structures such as committees, task forces and matrix structures"

(Dawson, 1986:97).

to omit words from the original quote use three period marks ... to

indicate that you have removed certain phrases or words

In fact, Rumelhart asserts that schemata "are the fundamental elements upon which all

information processing depends. Schemata are employed ... in allocating resources, and

generally, in guiding the flow of processing in the system" (1981: 33-34).

to add words to the original quote use square brackets [ ]

In fact, Rumelhart asserts that since schemata "are the fundamental elements upon which all

information processing ... [and play a large role] in guiding the flow of processing in the

system" (1981: 33-34).

to indicate a grammatical or spelling error in the original quote place (sic)

after the error

In 1845, the explorer, Eyre stated:

Whenever European colonies have been established in Australia, the native races in that

neighbourhood rapidly decreasing(sic), and already in some of the older settlements, have

totally disappeared (cited in Coupe, 1991).

An example of direct quotation in the context of a paragraph.

Another problem in the organization

which could be taken into account is that

Introduces the concept

of the 'informal group'

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of the 'informal group', which seems to

have developed within the particular

territory in crisis in the case study. An

informal group is an important part of

any organization, and they are seen as

"...central to the formation of the bonds

between workers which allow acts of

solidarity, such as those involved in

industrial action" (Dunford, 1992:106).

This is certainly the case in the case-

study, where the outspoken woman

makes a complaint and is supported

wholeheartedly by her coworkers. This

indicates a type of informal 'groupthink'

among the workers, and more care

should be given to watch over the group

and ensure individual opinions and

initiatives are encouraged.

as an issue

Explains the nature of

the informal group using

a quote

Relates the concept to

the incident in the case

study

Provides a

recommendation as to

how it should be

considered

Information that is not essential to explain your findings, but that

supports your analysis (especially repetitive or lengthy information),

validates your conclusions or pursues a related point should be placed in

an appendix (plural appendices). Sometimes excerpts from this

supporting information (i.e. part of the data set) will be placed in the

body of the report but the complete set of information ( i.e. all of the data

set) will be included in the appendix. Examples of information that could

be included in an appendix include figures/tables/charts/graphs of results,

statistics, questionnaires, transcripts of interviews, pictures, lengthy

derivations of equations, maps, drawings, letters, specification or data

sheets, computer program information.

There is no limit to what can be placed in the appendix providing it is

relevant and reference is made to it in the report. The appendix is not a

53

catch net for all the semi-interesting or related information you have

gathered through your research for your report: the information included

in the appendix must bear directly relate to the research problem or the

report's purpose. It must be a useful tool for the reader.

Each separate appendix should be lettered (Appendix A, Appendix B,

Appendix B1, Appendix B2, Appendix C, etc). The order they are

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