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The following PDF was originally published as follows:
Burgess, Chris
2012 '‘It’s Better if they Speak Broken Japanese’: Language as a
Pathway or
an Obstacle to Citizenship in Japan?', in Language and
Citizenship in Japan.
edited by Nanette Gottlieb. London and New York: Routledge,
pp.37-57.
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‘It’s Better if they Speak Broken Japanese’: Language as a
Pathway or an Obstacle to
Citizenship in Japan?1
Chris Burgess
“How much ice have we got left?”
“’Bout twenty pounds, master. Will only last today I think. I
find it very difficult
to keep ice cool now.”
“Don’t talk like that, damn you – ‘I find it very difficult’.
Have you swallowed a
dictionary? ‘Please, master, can’t keeping ice cool’ – that’s
how you ought to
talk. We should have to sack this fellow if he gets to talk
English too well. I
can’t stick servants who talk English. D’you hear, butler?”
“Yes, master,” said the butler, and retired.
Conversation in the club, Burmese Days, Orwell (1955: 26)
Introduction
In Japan, the Japanese language has long been viewed as
something more than simply a
means of communication. In the past, Japanese was argued to
possess a mystical spirit –
kotodama – which saw the language as inextricably intertwined
with Japanese race and
culture, that is, with Japanese identity. The idea that
non-Japanese could not properly be
expected to understand and to become fluent in the language
permeated both popular attitudes
and approaches to the teaching of Japanese as a Second/Foreign
Language (JSFL). Politicians
too continued to promote the myth in the form of regular
pronouncements on Japan as a
homogeneous nation (tan’itsu minzoku) with one race, culture,
and language. These attitudes
are reflected in – and in turn reinforce – attitudes towards
migrants and migration in general.
This chapter argues that this perception of the national
language as for ‘Japanese only’ is
closely associated with the country’s reluctance to accept and
integrate migrants into society.
In other words, language is argued to be an obstacle to
citizenship, where ‘citizen’ is defined
not in the formal legal sense of state membership (Japanese
nationality) but rather in the
1 Many of the ideas in the first part of this paper were
originally explored in Burgess (1997).
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broader sense of being a member of society who is able to
actively participate/function in and
contribute to the local communities in which they are rooted and
settled.
Recent government reforms offer some signs that the
clover-leaf-like equation of language
with race and culture might be beginning to come apart. These
developments include
revisions to the basic immigration control law, new guidelines
on teaching Japanese to foreign
residents, the ‘Global 30’ international student initiative, and
acceptance of Indonesian and
Filipino nurses and caregivers. This chapter explores these
reforms and revisions in detail in
order to assess whether attitudes which make the Japanese
language an obstacle rather than a
pathway to full participation in society (as detailed in Part 1)
are gradually disappearing or
still remain (Part 2).
1. The Clover-Leaf
1.1 ‘It’s Better if they Speak Broken Japanese’
In October 1996, Kume Hiroshi of the popular nightly show News
Station, following a piece
featuring a fluent Japanese-speaking Indian restaurant owner,
made a rather unusual
comment: “It’s better when foreigners speak broken Japanese”
(gaikokujin no nihongo wa
katagoto no hō ga ii yo ne). This caused sufficient controversy
in hyperspace and elsewhere
that TV Asahi decided to do a follow-up segment on the issue put
together by Asahi’s first
full-time foreign employee, David Zopetti.2 The story also
attracted attention outside Japan.
Articles in the New Zealand Herald (1996) and the Chicago
Tribune (Lev 1996) (the latter
entitled ‘When in Tokyo, don’t speak as the Japanese do’)
presented a number of examples of
Japanese unnerved by foreigners who speak Japanese ‘too well.’
Those non-Japanese
residents interviewed for the articles speculated that these
feelings of aversion are related to
the idea that the Japanese language is for the Japanese only, a
kind of ‘defensive superiority’
that sees people feel threatened when distinctions become
blurred and their ‘unique’ identity
is challenged.
Miller (1982: 156) explains such attitudes using the ‘Law of
Inverse Returns’:
2 Kume did eventually offer an apology – some ten years later.
“I can see now that this was rather a rude thing to
say,” wrote Kume in an e-mail to activist Arudou Debito, “I
regret the narrowness of such an ‘island nation’
mentality (shimaguni konjō)” (Asahi Shimbun 2006).
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[T]he better you get at the language, the less credit you are
given for your
accomplishments; the more fluently you speak it, the less your
hard-won skills
will do for you in the way of making friends and impressing
people. But by the
same token…the less you can do with the language, the more you
will be
praised and encouraged by Japanese society in general and by
your Japanese
friends in particular.
The Kume incident is not the only evidence that Miller’s Law of
Inverse Returns may have
some basis in reality. A survey by Keio University’s Institute
for Communications Research
carried out over a ten-year period found that greater language
proficiency among foreign
students led to increased dissatisfaction with Japanese
attitudes towards foreigners (Iwai and
Hagiwara 1987; 1988). “While most Japanese are sympathetic with
the communication efforts
of foreigners who speak Japanese only haltingly,” concludes
Hagiwara “some are nonplussed
by foreigners who speak like a native” (1990: 162). The survey
also found that the greater the
students’ language abilities “the more likely they were to hold
a negative image of the
Japanese, choosing such modifiers as ‘cold,’ ‘unfriendly,’ and
‘prejudiced’ to describe
them” (Hagiwara 1990: 161).
Analyzing why fluency in Japanese led to dissatisfaction with
personal relationships and
negative feelings towards the Japanese, Hagiwara (1990: 161,
163) points to the xenophobic
nature of Japanese society. Hagiwara describes an ‘invisible
barrier to intimacy’ which sees
Japanese strive to maintain distance from foreign ‘guests,’ even
as the ‘guests’ seek greater
acceptance. The Japanese concept of kokusaika
(internationalization), he suggests, does not
include the idea of welcoming foreigners into Japan to live and
work in society.
Backing up Miller’s claim that the Law of Inverse Returns
applies mainly to Caucasians, the
Keio survey also found some discrepancy between Western and
Asian speakers of Japanese.
Respondents noted that whereas Westerners tended to be praised
however elementary their
language skills, Asian students were treated less kindly if they
were unable to speak well.
“Japanese seem to expect Asians to have good command of the
language,” speculates
Hagiwara (1990: 162), “perhaps because Asian speakers’ Oriental
features belie their
non-native ability with the language.” The idea that the
Japanese tend to be more surprised
and unsettled by fluent Japanese coming out of a Caucasian mouth
has been described in
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detail by a number of researchers (see, for example, Suzuki
1973: 199; 1975: 173). As Tsuda
(1990: 187) explains, when encountering a foreigner fluent in
Japanese, it is not uncommon
for Japanese to try to convince themselves that they are being
spoken to in English in order to
hide a deep anxiety and distaste. Similarly, when Japanese meet
a foreigner, even if they are
in Japan, they often have a strong conviction that they have to
speak in English (1990: 124).
Suzuki (1975: 165) explains this as follows:
Japanese have a firm belief that foreigners should not properly
be expected to understand
Japanese (gaikokujin ni nihongo wa wakaru hazu ga nai)…It has to
be said that we Japanese
have, deep in our hearts, a mysterious conviction that the
Japanese language is a thing for the
Japanese only. (my translation)
Expectations about what will/should come out of a foreigner’s
mouth – and the pain when
these expectations are not met – may differ depending on what
the foreigner looks like. The
discomfort of the listener seems to increase the less ‘Japanese’
looking the speaker appears,
suggesting some kind of link between race and language.
Nevertheless, as the Keio survey
shows, the difference is just one of degree: for both Western
and Asian students alike feelings
of dissatisfaction increased as their language skills
improved.
Tanaka ,in a study of female Asian migrants’ attitudes towards
the Japanese language, is
surprised when a Thai working in a hostess bar says she ‘hates’
the language. On interviewing
a Japanese familiar with such establishments, she is told that
customers actually prefer women
who speak broken Japanese: if they become more fluent, they lose
their ‘cuteness’ (1996: 29).
Tanaka sees this as a manifestation of unequal power relations,
with Japanese as an
‘oppressor’s language’ which fixes or positions the foreigner as
incomplete or ‘disabled.’
Tsuda comes to a similar conclusion in the context of foreign
‘guest workers’ (Gastarbeiter)
in Germany, interpreting pidginization of their German and
refusal to learn German as the
result of ideologies and policies which marginalize them however
hard they strive to be
accepted in German society (1986: 36). In sum, what may be at
work here is some kind of
‘boundary-maintaining mechanism’ (Befu and Manabe 1990: 127), a
genetic view of Japanese
identity which “denies the foreigner’s ability to assimilate
into Japanese society, understand
Japanese culture, and speak the language.”
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1.2 Japanese Identity
The genetic or biological view of Japanese
identity sees race, language/culture, and
citizenship (nationality) as synonymous. “If you
are genetically Japanese,” write Befu and Manabe
(1990: 126/7), “you are culturally Japanese and if
you are not genetically Japanese, you are not
culturally Japanese.” This ‘homogeneous nation’
(tan’itsu minzoku kokka) ideology ties together
three disparate threads, so that looking Japanese,
being a member of Japanese society, and speaking
and acting Japanese become indivisible parts of a
whole like the leaves of a clover (Figure 1). Here,
the key term is minzoku (the (Japanese) people) which
encompasses more than just race or
ethnicity. Morris-Suzuki likens it to the German Volk, a term
combining cultural and genetic
aspects which emphasizes the organic unity of the Japanese
people/nation as a community
“bound together by ties of language or tradition” (1998: 32,
87). Thus, when a person with
non-Japanese features speaks Japanese it feels ‘strange’
(okashii) to many Japanese (Suzuki
1975: 178) because the balance or harmony of the clover-leaf
minzoku construction is
disturbed: the ‘set’ is incomplete or out of kilter (see also
Kindaichi 1988: 13-14).
Kondo a third-generation (sansei) Japanese-American
anthropologist, suggests that this
‘clover-leaf’ conception of Japanese identity is widely held by
ordinary Japanese:
Most Japanese people I knew seemed to adhere to an eminently
biological
definition of Japaneseness. Race, language, and culture are
interlaced, so much
so that any challenge to this firmly entrenched conceptual
scheme – a Caucasian
who speaks flawlessly idiomatic and unaccented Japanese, or a
person of
Japanese ancestry who cannot – meets with all manner of
unpleasant reactions:
in the former case, coldness and intimations that such behavior
is unnatural and
repulsive; in the latter, with exasperation and disbelief.
(1986: 76),
Figure 1: The Clover Leaf
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Thus, regardless of whether the speaker has a Japanese or
non-Japanese face, dissonance is
felt when the face and voice do not match expectations. One
might speculate that if the
mismatch is not so pronounced – say, in the case of a Korean or
Chinese who, physically, may
pass as a Japanese – the dissonance is less acute. However, this
may only last until the race of
the speaker is discovered. This point is important because there
is evidence that the clover
leaves are not necessarily all the same size. Tsuda who has done
extensive research on
Nikkeijin – Brazilians and others of Japanese descent – in
Japan, argues that race (blood) is
the major defining characteristic of Japanese identity:
“Japanese blood” takes precedence over ‘culture’ as the first
and foremost
fundamental criterion that determines who can be considered
“Japanese.”. This
is shown in the case of the Korean-Japanese and other foreigners
of
non-Japanese descent, who can never be considered ethnically
Japanese even if
they are born and raised in Japan and have become culturally
indistinguishable
from the Japanese … Therefore, although the Japanese-Brazilians
are not
considered ethnically Japanese because of their Brazilian
cultural characteristics,
a consciousness of shared descent remains dominant among most
Japanese. My
Japanese informants frequently mentioned how they feel
shitashimi (familiarity
and friendship) toward the Nikkeijin in contrast to other
foreigners of
non-Japanese descent and claimed that ethnic prejudice toward
them was much
less. There was a strong sense that the Nikkeijin could somehow
be
comprehended despite their different behavioral patterns and
language. (1998:
322),
This belief3 is made possible by the fact that Japanese is
(generally) only spoken in Japan and
that Japan, not having experienced the influx of migrants
characteristic of many other
industrialized countries, remains relatively homogeneous in
population.
Elsewhere (Burgess 2010), I have presented evidence that
‘homogeneous Japan’ is indeed the
3 It is important here to stress that what we are talking about
are beliefs and perceptions. Clearly, there is no
connection between race and language/culture: a child will come
to speak whatever language they are exposed to.
However, as I argue in detail elsewhere (Burgess 2010),
perceptions and beliefs, even if they are objectively
unfounded, play a key role in structuring both national identity
and social reality.
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dominant discourse amongst the average Japanese. The 2003
International Social Survey
Programme (ISSP) on national identity contains a number of
questions which sheds light on
Japanese attitudes concerning homogeneity and ethnic
identification. For example, the ISSP
data show that 95% of Japanese feel close to their minzoku, with
Japanese attaching more
importance to ancestry (blood) than those in other countries
(Burgess 2010: Tables 2, 3, 4).
However, in terms of the individual elements (clover-leaves)
that make up ‘Japaneseness,’
despite Tsuda’s claim that ‘blood’ is the major defining
characteristic, questionnaire data
actually show language to be ranked higher:
TABLE 1: Criteria Considered Important for Determining
Japaneseness
Shikama (2002) ISSP (2003) Tanabe (2008)
Self-definition (=feeling
Japanese)
82.1% 87.6% 84.8%
Citizenship (kokuseki) 71% no data 84.5%
Japanese Language
(competence)
80.5% 78.4% 75.4%
Parents/ancestry/blood 31.6% 72.1% 69.7%
Source: Shikama (2005); ISSP from Burgess (2010: Table 2);
Tanabe data from Sugimoto
(2010: 195)
Other surveys have investigated the pervasiveness of the
‘homogeneous Japan’ discourse in
Japan. In a 1987 study, 63% of respondents answered that
foreigners were incapable of
completely understanding Japanese culture (Befu and Manabe 1990:
Table 6, 132). Part of the
reason for this is undoubtedly the perception that the Japanese
language (and by association,
Japanese culture) is somehow ‘difficult’ or ‘vague’ (Haugh 1998:
34, 43). In those writings on
Japanese identity known as Nihonjinron, for example, the
Japanese language is portrayed as a
“uniquely difficult and impenetrable barrier” (Gottlieb 2005:
4), a “semantic bamboo curtain
between Japan and the outside world” (Dale 1986: 60). The
expectation is that only those who
have been born and brought up in Japan can properly be expected
to attain native-speaker like
proficiency.4
4 This belief is reinforced by the reality that it takes
Japanese at least nine (usually twelve) years to become fully
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Dorinne Kondo, the Japanese-American anthropologist introduced
earlier, illustrates the
strength of such expectations – and the painful consequences
when they were flouted – in
excruciating detail:
As a Japanese-American, I created a conceptual dilemma for the
Japanese I
encountered. For them, I was a living oxymoron, someone who was
both
Japanese and not Japanese … How can someone who is racially
Japanese lack
‘cultural competence’? During my first few months in Tokyo, many
tried to
resolve this paradox by asking which of my parents was ‘really’
American.
Indeed it is a minor miracle that those first few months did not
lead to an acute
case of agoraphobia, for I knew that once I set foot outside the
door, someone
somewhere (a taxi driver? a salesperson? a bank clerk?) would
greet one of my
linguistic mistakes with an astonished ‘Eh?’ I became all too
familiar with the
series of expressions that would flicker over those faces:
bewilderment,
incredulity, embarrassment, even anger, at having to deal with
this odd person
who looked Japanese and therefore human, but who must be
retarded, deranged,
or – equally undesirable in Japanese eyes – Chinese or Korean.
(1990: 11),
For those around her, Kondo posed a challenge to their sense of
Japanese identity; in the end,
the only way they could feel comfortable with her was if she
acted Japanese, that is
completely assimilated (Kondo 1990: 13).
The Nikkeijin provide a final example of the clover-leaf
construction of Japanese identity in
action. Interestingly, while Nikkeijin return migrants initially
tend to be viewed as Japanese in
the popular imagination, they are apt to be subsequently
downgraded to ‘pseudo-Japanese’
after direct contact. For example, Tsuda, in a detailed
ethnographic study entitled Strangers in
the Ethnic Homeland, notes that when the workers were initially
hired they were expected to
behave and speak like Japanese even though they were
culturally/linguistically Brazilian or
Peruvian. But as Japanese got to know their new co-workers,
attitudes changed. The phrase
proficient with the adult writing system; for Galan (2005), this
is a serious barrier to non-Japanese because it
restricts access to information which is crucial for social
integration.
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that cropped up again and again was ‘culturally disappointing’
in the sense that the Nikkeijin
(like Kondo) fail to live up to expectations raised by their
Japanese ‘blood’(2003: 292).
Elsewhere, he notes that his Japanese informants used words such
as gakkari (disappointed),
kitai hazure (not what I expected), shitsubō (disillusioning),
and ‘feeling betrayed’ to
describe their reactions (1998: 331-2). According to Tsuda,
cultural differences, such as the
inability to speak language and act Japanese, “become a stigma –
an attribute that discredits
them because it makes them incongruous with social expectations”
(1998: 331).
1.3 Kokugo vs. Nihongo
The apparent belief – at least amongst some Japanese – of a
clover-leaf genetic view of
Japanese identity raises the question of whether such a view has
influenced the teaching of
Japanese. One distinction which is relevant here is the
kokugo/nihongo distinction. Generally,
in Japan today, kokugo (literally national language) describes
the Japanese language which
Japanese people learn and nihongo the Japanese language which
non-Japanese people learn.
The distinction has often been controversial. While some private
organizations – such as the
Kokugo Gakkai, since 2004 the Nihongo Gakkai – have changed
their name in response to
criticism that the term kokugo is parochial (Asahi Shimbun
2002), government organizations
have tended not to. For example, the Agency for Cultural Affairs
(ACA, Bunkachō) continues
to use both terms, distinguishing ‘National Language Policy’
from ‘Japanese Language
Education for Foreigners’
(www.bunka.go.jp/kokugo_nihongo/index.html). Also, the National
Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics (NINJAL) is
still the Kokuritsu Kokugo
Kenkyūjo in Japanese even though its research activities include
“Japanese-language
education in multicultural communities” (National Institute for
Japanese Language and
Lingusitics 2011: 4). The reasoning is that kokugo does not
refer only to the Japanese
language but also incorporates elements of culture (Asahi
Shimbun 2003b). Behind this ‘plus
alpha’ concept of kokugo is that notion that kokugo has a key
role in forming nihonjin
(Japanese people) (Asahi Shimbun 2003a).
The linkage between kokugo and ‘learning to be Japanese’ has
some historical basis.
Elaborating on the historical roots of kokugo, the Asahi Shimbun
(2003b) notes that supporters
of kokugo sometimes cite the academic tradition of kokugaku
which goes back to the Edo
Period (1603-1868). Kokugaku (‘national learning’) was an
intellectual movement which
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emerged in late eighteenth century Japan. Kokugaku was
essentially a contrastive movement,
stressing differences between indigenous culture (for example,
native Shinto) and the foreign
(the creeds of Confucianism and Buddhism). For example, Motoori
Norinaga (1730-1801),
perhaps the most well known of the nativist scholars, focused on
Yamato kotoba (Japanese?
language), reviving the idea of a unique ‘spirit’ or kotodama
which distinguished Japanese
from other languages. “These scholars,” notes van-Wolferen,
“were the first to introduce the
modern notion of a Japanese uniqueness and superiority traceable
to the original innocence
and purity of the race” (1989: 331).
Kokugo itself, in the modern sense of ‘the spiritual blood of
the Japanese people,’ was a Meiji
Period (1868-1912) construction, a tool for nation-building in a
rapidly modernizing – and
expanding – Japan (Lee 2010; Ramsey 2004). Thus,
Japanese-language education in colonies
such as Taiwan and Korea was not nihongo kyōiku but rather
kokugo kyōiku (Gottlieb 2005:
15, 48). In other words the ideology of empire which saw Asia as
part of Japan included
imperial subjects as nationals (kokumin) and labeled language
classes accordingly. This bears
comparison with Japanese public schools where rapid assimilation
– the Japanizing of
non-Japanese (Nukaga 2003: 82) – remains the dominant ideology
in the kokugo classroom
(Burgess 2011). The fact that for various minority groups in
Japan – such as oldcomers,
newcomers, and returnees – kokugo and nihongo are not
necessarily synonymous has become
a core problem for many educators and researchers of minority
education (Tsuneyoshi et al.
2011).
The other side of an assimilatory kokugo, one that urges
non-Japanese students to quickly
become more ‘Japanese-like,’ is an exclusionary nihongo which
works against the integration
of non-Japanese into Japanese society. Indeed, Tai suggests that
the field of nihongo education
was created to exclude foreigners and protect kokugo for the
Japanese nation (2003: 19). A
key question here is: why teach Japanese to foreigners? Given
that during the Edo Period
learning (and thereby teaching) Japanese was actually
prohibited, this question is not as
strange as it first appears (Miller 1982: 262). Even when it was
no longer legally forbidden to
study Japanese, Suzuki (1999: 171) argues that the Japanese
themselves had very little
enthusiasm for nihongo education: rather, they were forced to
respond or react to outside
pressure from those who wanted to learn Japanese:
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There are hardly any Japanese who see the Japanese language in
an international
light ... once one steps outside of Japan, the fact that
Japanese is not used is
obvious – no-one thinks this is strange. Thus, even now, when
Japanese are
suddenly faced with foreigners who want to study Japanese – that
is an external
movement, what one might call ‘outside pressure’ – this is not
part of our own
problem consciousness. Rather, with regard to these external
demands, we
respond negatively and reluctantly: we still think, ‘Do you
really want to study
this thing? Isn’t it a waste of time?’ (my translation)
It is certainly no coincidence that the post-war development of
JSFL in Japan coincided with
the development of Japan’s economy. Thus, the 1970s saw the
formation of bodies such as the
Japan Foundation, set up to promote knowledge of Japan’s culture
and language overseas
(Gottlieb 2001: 27). Soon after, the notion of kokusaika
emerged, a complex discourse that
helps answer the question: ‘why teach Japanese?’
Elsewhere (Burgess 2004), I describe kokusaika in detail as a
defensive nationalist reaction to
foreign pressure whose major concern is the promotion of the
‘correct understanding’ of Japan
abroad. In other words, kokusaika is less about transcending
cultural barriers than it is about
protecting them. In this context, nihongo kyōiku can be argued
to be less about ‘opening up’
the country – accepting and integrating migrants – than about
maintaining boundaries.
Evidence for this comes from Nihon Jijō, classes on Japanese
culture and society which are
often taught in parallel with the language, particularly to
international university students. The
problem is that the content of Nihon Jijō is frequently
over-generalized and simplified,
presenting ethnocentric and stereotypical images of Japan/ese
not dissimilar to the
Nihonjinron images discussed earlier (Nagata 1998: 94-95). Thus,
at the same time they are
attempting to learn the language, foreigners are faced with an
ideological world-view that is at
base homogeneous, conservative, and closed. Similarly, in terms
of JSFL textbooks, critics
have noted how “essentialistic characterization” of Japanese
(culture) as exceptionally polite,
indirect, or formal acts as a barrier to the development of
learner sociolinguistic competence
(Matsumoto and Okamoto 2003: 43).
Further evidence that JSFL creates rather than dissolves
boundaries comes in the form of a
second question: what kind of Japanese should be taught to
foreigners? This is the question
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that participants of the March 1978 inaugural Nihongo Kyōiku
Gakkai International
Conference addressed (Miller 1982: 273+). Miller (1982: 272)
rephrases the question as
follows: “what kinds of Nihongo were of so little
socio-linguistic consequence to Japanese
society that it was safe to allow foreigners to get at them?” He
notes that, much to the
consternation of the non-Japanese present, the Japanese
participants argued for a special,
limited type of foreigners’ Japanese. This proposal was codified
in a (1979) paper by
Nomoto,Kikuo former head of the National Institute for Japanese
Language, who outlined a
‘simplified Japanese’ (kan’yaku nihongo) for foreigners – ‘in
order for Japanese to become an
international language.’ More recently, the idea of yasashii
nihongo (‘easy Japanese’) – often
contrasted with futsū (‘normal’) no nihongo – has been promoted
to help communicate
evacuation and safety information to non-Japanese in
emergencies, such as earthquakes
(Hirosaki University 2011).
It is difficult to escape the conclusion that the kan’yaku and
yasashii nihongo movements,
although well meaning, are simply a different version of the
‘broken Japanese is best’
argument that seeks to maintain the kokugo/nihongo
insider/outsider distinction.5 Both are
rooted in the perception that because of its ‘difficulty’ and
linkage with race, foreigners
cannot be properly expected to understand the Japanese language.
The idea that foreigners
cannot understand Japanese is in turn connected to the belief
that they should not understand
Japanese. Notions of ‘difficulty’ and ‘spirit’ hide the fact
that foreigners – migrants – are not
particularly welcome in a Japanese society which remains
relatively closed. In other words,
historically produced ideologies have constructed concrete
policy which in turn has reinforced
ideologies of homogeneity. The question is: in a rapidly
globalizing Japan, are there any signs
that the ideology-policy circle might be breaking up?
2. Separating the Leaves of the Clover?
A discourse – a system of knowledge – is rarely dominant enough
that it is held to be true by
all people in a particular society. Multiple discourses exist at
any one time and their
dominance changes over time. In a rapidly globalizing Japan, one
where Japanese-speaking
foreigners are no longer unusual, is the ‘clover-leaf’ discourse
that equates race, language,
5 Nagata (quoted in Gottlieb 2005: 53) describes kan’yaku
nihongo as ‘linguistic apartheid.’
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culture, and nation sustainable? A number of recent policy
initiatives – particularly those
relating to migration and settlement – suggest, on the surface
at least, that the biological view
of Japanese identity is becoming increasingly untenable. But are
the leaves of the clover
really separating?
2.1 Multicultural Japan?
In a 2007 paper, I argued that Japan does not appear to be
multicultural in terms of either its
ideology, policies, or people. Since then, there have been
significant policy developments that
demand my conclusions be re-examined. As I argue elsewhere
(Burgess 2010), public policy
and ideology are closely related, so that any concrete changes
to policy can influence popular
discourse. In turn, new policy – particularly immigration policy
– can affect numbers of
migrants.
In November 2007, a number of changes were made to the
Immigration Control and Refugee
Recognition Act. One of the most significant was that all
non-Japanese entrants (except for
special permanent residents6) were to be fingerprinted and
photographed on entry, a move
billed as an anti-terrorist measure. In a 2008 article, I argued
that the revisions had given
Japan some of the strictest border security measures in the
world. In an unrelated
development, in January 2008 then Foreign Minister Komura
proposed adding a
Japanese-language requirement for long-term foreign residents.
“Being able to speak Japanese
is important to improve the lives of foreign residents in
Japan,” Komura told reporters, “while
it is also essential to Japanese society” (Japan Times
2008b)However, while framed as an
incentive for foreigners to learn Japanese, the move can also be
seen as placing new
restrictions by imposing a tough language-ability requirement
(Burgess 2008).. More
significantly, the idea appears exclusionary, with Nikkeijin,
since 1990 given special
dispensation to live and work in Japan due to their Japanese
‘blood,’ mooted as the targets of
the test. As seen above, the original belief that Japanese blood
descendants would not be so
different from other Japanese and would assimilate and learn the
language relatively quickly
has proved to be unfounded.7 Thus, the test – reported to be
equivalent to Level 1 of the
6 ‘Special Permanent Residence’ is a visa category typically
held by resident Koreans whose descendants came
(or were forced to come) to Japan during the colonial period. 7
In 2006, then Senior Vice Justice Minister Kano called the
government's current policy of granting preferential
treatment to people of Japanese descent a ‘mistake’ and said the
policy must be ‘reconsidered’ (Japan Times
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14
Japanese Language Proficiency Test 8which entails an estimated
900 hours of study – appears
to be a tool for repatriating Nikkeijin by blocking visa
extensions. This contrasts sharply with
the global norm that sees language tests as a path, not a
barrier, to citizenship.9
On top of the ‘stick’ approach, there is also a ‘carrot’
approach to removing the
‘disappointing’ Nikkeijin. Since April 2009, ‘repatriation
grants’ have been offered to
thousands of unemployed Nikkeijin if they and their families
wish to return to their home
countries (Cabinet Office 2009). Morris-Suzuki (2002) notes that
Japan’s ‘exclusionary’
migration system in which only a few specific categories of
skilled foreign migrants are
allowed has more or less existed unchanged since 1899. Indeed,
foreigners coming to Japan
remain ‘entrants’ (temporary residents) not ‘(im)migrants’;
Sassen (1994: 64) notes that the
concept of immigration does not exist in Japanese law.10
Pak calls the government position
the ‘no immigration principle,’ an institutionalization of the
tan’itsu minzoku idiom which
underlies the state system for controlling foreigners (1998:
140-42). She quotes an official
from the Immigration Bureau on this point:
We do not accept immigrants. The Immigration Act does not
provide conditions
for the acceptance of immigrants. To this extent, it provides a
different kind of
legal framework than those of the United States, Canada, and
Australia, etc. who
do accept immigrants. A representative example of such
difference is that we
have no provision for granting permanent residency at the time
of initial entry.
Furthermore, this means that on the policy side it is necessary
to do as much as
possible to prevent foreigners in general from staying long or
settling down.
2006). 8 The Japanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT) is a test
‘to evaluate and certify the Japanese proficiency of
non-native speakers’ (www.jlpt.jp/e/about/purpose.html). 9 For
example, since 2007 anyone seeking indefinite leave to stay in the
UK has had to demonstrate “adequate”
knowledge of the English language and British society (Daily
Yomiuri 2010a). Also in 2007 (revised in 2009),
Australia unveiled a new citizenship test that includes
assessment of English skills and knowledge of Australian
history, values, and culture
(www.citizenship.gov.au/learn/cit_test/test_changes/new_test/).
What is notable
about both these initiatives, as the cultural aspect suggests,
is that both aim to assist integration; this contrasts
with the Japanese proposal, which has no culture component and
an extremely high language hurdle. 10
A radical proposal in 2008 by a group of LDP lawmakers to raise
the ratio of immigrants in Japan to about
10% over the next 50 years was reportedly the first time the
government used the term ‘immigrant’ (imin) in the
international sense (Japan Times 2008a). The proposal also
promoted the establishment of an ‘immigration
agency’ within three years to unify the management of
foreigner-related affairs. Unsurprisingly, nothing more
was heard of the proposal. As I have argued elsewhere (Burgess
2007), such proposals are, in a number of senses,
politically and popularly ‘unsayable’ and unthinkable.
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15
(120)
Although the Japan Business Federation (Keidanren) has pushed
for an easing of Japan’s
prohibition against unskilled labor migration, the government
has shown, to date, no sign of
loosening this long-held policy.11
All Basic Plans for Immigration Control – released in 1992,
2000, 2005, and 2010 – have emphasized the “smooth acceptance of
foreigners” and
“rejection of unfavorable foreigners”12
as the “very mission of immigration control”
(Ministry of Justice 2006).
Whereas control of migrants has visibly toughened over the last
few years, there have
nevertheless been a few signs that the government is beginning
to also consider issues of
integration. Up to now local governments have tended to take the
lead in formulating
‘multicultural’ policies, known as ‘multicultural community
building’ (tabunka kyōsei) (Pak
2000). For example, in 2001, 13 municipalities formed the
Committee for Localities with a
Concentrated Foreign Population (Gaikokujin Shuju Toshi Kaigi);
thereafter, starting with the
‘Hamamatsu Declaration’ of October the same year, the group –
currently consisting of 28
cities and towns – repeatedly called on the central government
to develop a coordinated and
coherent integration policy (Yamawaki 2002). By 2009, despite
some discussions and the
creation of a 2006 document entitled ‘Comprehensive Measures
Concerning Foreign
Residents,’ the municipalities called again for the central
government to set up a new agency
aimed at improving the livelihoods of foreign residents (Daily
Yomiuri 2009). Prompted by
rising unemployment amongst Nikkeijin in particular, the Cabinet
Office did set up an office
in charge of policies for resident foreigners in January 2009,
with a website in April of the
same year (Cabinet Office 2009). However, it is important (as
the website makes clear) to
place this move in the context of an unprecedented economic
downturn, raising serious doubts
whether it will remain and transform itself into an integration
agency once the economy picks
up. Elsewhere, I have argued that Japanese-style
multiculturalism, at least at the national
11
There are clearly differences in opinion about immigration
between various state actors such as the Ministry
of Justice, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the Ministry of
Labour. Nevertheless, the principle of keeping
immigration to a minimum has tended to dominate government
policy making. 12
In recent years, the stress has arguably been on the latter. The
2004 five-year plan to halve the number of
‘illegals’ was a great success: numbers of estimated overstayers
fell from 207,299 in 2005 to 91,778 in 2010
(Ministry of Justice 2010a).
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16
level, is better viewed as a successor to kokusaika, i.e., as
the latest ideological tool to
maintain a homogeneous discourse of national identity (Burgess
2004).
One of the most concrete recent examples of practical rather
than cosmetic multiculturalism is
the bilateral economic partnership agreements (EPA) signed with
the Philippines and
Indonesia which have seen the arrival of almost one thousand
nurses and caregivers since
2008 (Daily Yomiuri 2010b). Although qualified in their home
country, while working as
trainees the newcomers have to pass a national examination in
Japanese within three years
(four in the case of caregivers) if they wish to remain in the
country. Unfortunately, the
technical language in the test has proved to be an almost
impossible barrier, with only a
handful of foreign applicants passing to date compared to – in
the case of the nursing exam –
around 90% of Japanese test-takers (Japan Times 2010a). Even
those who pass the
examination are only permitted to work in Japan for a limited
number of years, despite a
serious labor shortage in the area, restrictions even the
conservative Yomiuri Shimbun
described as “excessive” (2010a).13
Interestingly, the government’s solution to the difficulty
of the Japanese examination was not to add kana glosses to
difficult kanji (Chinese
characters), allow use of dictionaries, use more common
vocabulary, or provide explanations
in Japanese but to provide English explanations and translations
of medical terms (Daily
Yomiuri 2011b; Yomiuri Shimbun 2010b).14
The increasing use of English in Japan can be read as a tacit
admission of the impenetrability
of Japanese to foreigners, making settlement and integration
more rather than less difficult.
For example, in 2008, the government announced a plan to
increase the number of foreign
students studying in Japan to 300,000 by 2020. The 300,000
foreign student plan provided the
stimulus for the launch of – and the driving force behind – the
Global 30 Project, a 15 billion
yen project for upgrading thirty existing institutions into an
‘internationalized’ core (Burgess
et al. 2010). A key feature of the Global 30 is the expansion of
course programs by which
13
A later editorial was entitled ‘Don’t let Japanese (language) be
‘nontariff barrier’’ CHECK QUOTE MARKS
HERE(Daily Yomiuri 2011a). The 4th
Basic Plan for Immigration Control promises to re-examine such
‘barriers.’
The hurdles the nurses and caregivers face contrast rather
ironically with the government’s recent efforts to
promote ‘medical tourism’ (Daily Yomiuri 2010c). This is part of
a wider strategy of creating a ‘tourism nation’
to boost the economy
(www.mlit.go.jp/kankocho/en/about/keiki.html). It is difficult to
escape the conclusion that
the government is more interested in temporary short-term stay
than long-term permanent settlement. 14
Exasperated at the Health Ministry’s intransigence, then Foreign
Minister Maehara warned that “in the future,
Japanese elderly people may need to master English so they can
receive services by foreign caregivers” (Daily
Yomiuri 2011c).
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17
degrees can be earned through English-only classes. However,
this expansion of English-only
classes– and promotion of English in research institutions –
could have serious implications
for employment after graduation. If non-Japanese students are
able to graduate from a
Japanese university never having taken content classes in
Japanese, their employment
prospects in Japan will inevitably be limited and Japan will
likely lose much of the very
‘top-class talent’ the project aims to retain. Even in 2008,
only half the number of foreign
students who wanted to secure employment in Japan after
graduation actually did so (Yomiuri
Shimbun 2009). In other words, the spread of English may have
actually made it more
difficult for foreign graduates to secure employment and settle
in Japan.
What is the significance of the process of Englishification for
Japanese language education?
In simple terms, it is becoming easier and easier for foreign
visitors and residents alike to get
by in Japan using English alone. In other words, it is becoming
more difficult to stay
motivated to learn Japanese, which is becoming increasingly
unnecessary to function in
Japanese society, particularly in urban areas. Broken Japanese,
if not preferable, is sufficient.
In other words, Englishification – and for that matter the
spread of multilingual support in
general (Nagy 2009: 182) – can, ironically, act as a barrier to
foreign integration and
settlement, maintaining the very boundaries between Japanese and
foreigners that ideologies
of homogeneity and uniqueness originally promulgated.
2.2 JSFL
Following the establishment in 1972 of the Japan Foundation,
which is largely concerned with
the teaching and testing of Japanese outside Japan (Japanese as
a Foreign Language, JFL), the
expansion of overseas Japanese-language facilities has continued
to receive significant
government funding. But while much effort has been put into
compiling textbooks for
individual countries and creating international standards for
Japanese language education
abroad, national teaching guidelines and curriculum detailing
how to teach Japanese to
foreigners living inside Japan still do not exist. Data on
numbers of learners, teachers, and
schools reveal the neglected state of Japanese as a second
language (JSL) education within
Japan:
Figure 2: JSL Teachers, Students, and Schools in Japan
2003-2008
-
18
Source: ACA 2010a: 48
While (legal) foreign residents totaled almost 2.2 million in
2009 (Ministry of Justice 2010b)
as Figure 2 shows the number of students of Japanese was only
166,631. This is not due to
lack of demand: the ACA estimates that about one million foreign
residents need to study
Japanese (Daily Yomiuri 2010d). Yet, no system of public
language education for migrants, as
found in places like Australia and Germany, exists in Japan
(Yomiuri Shimbun 2010c).
Moreover, the number of teachers, while seemingly high at almost
31,000, hides the fact that
only a small minority (4,000) are able to enjoy relatively
stable working conditions as
full-time instructors: the remainder are either part-time
instructors (11,000) or volunteers
(16,000) (Daily Yomiuri 2010e).15
The fact that volunteers tend to play the main role in
teaching Japanese to foreigners in turn reflects the fact that
no official license or qualification
exists for JSFL teachers (Japan Times 2010b).
Only in 2007, with the establishment of the Nihongo Kyōiku
Shōiinkai, a committee of the
Japanese Language Subdivision of the Agency for Cultural
Affairs, did the government begin
to move. Since October 2008, this committee has been working on
draft guidelines – a
standard curriculum – on teaching Japanese to foreign residents;
when the final report was
issued in May 2010, the media noted that this was the first
attempt of its kind to compile
15
The percentage of volunteer teachers has actually risen in
recent years, from 51.6% in 1998 to 54% in 2009
(Japan Times 2010b).
-
19
government standards on the extent to which foreign residents
should learn Japanese (ACA
2010b; Daily Yomiuri 2010d; 2010f). However, it is important to
stress that this was just a
preparatory curriculum; there is much more work to be done
before the curriculum is finalized
and actually put to use in the classroom.16
In the final analysis, the question is how seriously
the government takes teaching the Japanese language to
foreigners, something that is
inextricably tied up with government attitudes towards
migration.
Conclusion: The Right to Speech
For Bourdieu, a key element of language is the power
relationship between two speakers.
Bourdieu defines competence as the ‘right to speech,’ the
capacity to command a listener. “A
person speaks not only to be understood,” he writes, “but also
to be believed, obeyed,
respected, distinguished” (1977: 649). Building on this idea,
Norton-Peirce argues that
learners expect something in return for their hard work in
learning a new language: “if
learners invest in a second language, they do so with the
understanding that they will acquire
a wider range of symbolic and material resources” (1995: 17).
Thus, migrants are more likely
to acquire a target language “when the host society is perceived
as holding positive attitudes
towards them and immigration in general” (Scully 2002: 413). In
contrast, negative attitudes
towards migrants result in limited opportunities to practice the
language, silencing them and
creating social and psychological distance between (increasingly
marginalized) learners and
the target community (Norton 2000: 116).
In Japan, a ‘no-immigration’ policy at the governmental level
both reflects and reinforces a
clover-leaf ideology of Japanese identity that generates various
beliefs relating to
Japanese-speaking foreigners and the ‘difference’ between kokugo
and nihongo. Positive and
coherent policies towards migration, settlement, and JSFL
education would undoubtedly
undermine that ideology and see many of these beliefs fade away
over time. Unfortunately,
even in a rapidly globalizing Japan, there is little sign that
this is happening, suggesting that
the Japanese language remains more of an obstacle than a pathway
to citizenship: a barrier to
being accepted as a member – a citizen – of Japanese society
with the full range of rights and
16
For example, the guidelines, aimed at foreigners who have just
started living in Japan, recommend a 60-hour
three-month course of study (ACA 2010b: 5). This contrasts with
some 900 hours for Level 1 of the Japanese
Language Proficiency Test.
-
20
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