BUILDING TECHNOLOGYLAYOUT AND EXCAVATION SPIRIT LEVEL -
INSTRUMENT OR TOOL CAPABLE OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL LINE CHECK.
PLUMB BOB - ITS USES FOR VERTICAL LINE CHECK. PLASTIC HOSE FILLED
W/ WATER A METHOD OF LEVELLING (HORIZONTAL) BATTERBOARDS WITHOUT
TRANSIT. 3-4-5 MULTIPLES W/ THE USE OF STEEL TAPE MEASURE A MANUAL
METHOD OF SQUARING THE CORNERS OF BUILDING LINES IN BUILDING
LAYOUT. SHEET PILLING A BARRIER FORMED TO PREVENT THE MOVEMENT OF
SOIL TO STABILIZE FOUNDATION.LAYOUT AND EXCAVATIONSLAYOUT IS
SOMETIMES CALLED STAKING OUT WHICH MEANS THE PROCESS OF RELOCATING
THE POINT OF BOUNDARIES AND PROPERTY LINE OF THE SITE WHERE THE
BUILDING IS TO BE CONSTRUCTED. IT INCLUDES CLEARING, STAKING,
BATTER BOARDS AND ESTABLISHES THE EXACT LOCATION OF THE BUILDING
FOUNDATION AND WALL LINE ON THE GROUND. STAKE ARE WOODEN STICKS
USED AS POSTS SHARPENED AT ONE END DRIVEN INTO THE GROUND TO SERVE
AS BOUNDARIES OR SUPPORTS OF THE BATTER BOARDS. BATTER BOARD WOOD
STICK OR BOARD NAILED HORIZONTALLY AT THE STAKE WHICH SERVE AS THE
HORIZONTAL PLANE WHERE THE REFERENCE POINT OF THE BUILDING
MEASUREMENTS ARE ESTABLISHED. STRING IS EITHER PLASTIC CHORD OR
GALVANIZED WIRE ACROSS THE BATTER BOARDS USED TO INDICATE THE
OUTLINE OF THE BUILDING WALL AND FOUNDATION.LAYOUT METHODS AND
PROCEDURES1. BEFORE THE CONSTRUCTION BEGINS, SEE TO IT THAT A
BUILDING PERMIT IS FIRST SECURED FROM THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES
CONCERNED.2. RELOCATE THE BOUDARIES OF THE CONSTRUCTION SITE. IT IS
SUGGESTED THAT THE RELOCATION OF THE PROPERTY LINE SHALL BE DONE BY
GEODETIC ENGINEER SPECIALLY FOR THOSE LOTS WITHOUT EXISTING
REFERENCE POINTS OR ADJOINING STRUCTURES.3. CLEAR THE SITE OF ANY
EXISTING STRUCTURE, TREES, AND OTHER ELEMENTS THAT WILL OBSTRUCT
THE CONSTRUCTION WORK.4. CONSTRUCT AND ALLOCATE A SPACE FOR
LABORERS QUARTERS, CONSTRUCTION OFFICE, BODEGA FOR THE MATERIALS
AND WORKING TOOLS AND TEMPORARY WASTE DISPOSAL.5. APPLY FOR A
TEMPORARY CONNECTIONS OF ELECTRIC AND WATER SUPPLY. ELECTRIC
CURRENT IS IMPORTANT FOR THE POWER NEEDS OF THE TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
AND IS NECESSARY ON OVERTIME SCHEDULES ESPECIALLY IN THE TIME OF
CONCRETING. WATER IS ALSO A PRIME NEED IN CONSTRUCTION.6. CONSTRUCT
A TEMPORARY FENCE AROUND THE CONSTRUCTION.7. VERIFY THE MEASUREMENT
IN THE PLAN IF THE DISTANCES INDICATED ARE FORM: CENTER TO CENTER
OUTER TO CENTER OUTER TO OUTER INSIDE TO INSIDE8. FIX THE BATTER
BOARD TO ITS HORIZONTAL POSITION WITH THE AID OF LEVEL INSTRUMENT
PREFERABLY PLASTIC HOSE WITH WATER.9. AFTER ESTABLISHING THE
REFERENCE POINT AND LINE OF THE FOOTING, TRANSFER THE INTERSECTING
POINTS OF THE STRING ON THE GROUND BY THE AID OF PLUMB BOB AND
INDICATE THE SIZE AND WIDTH TO BE EXCAVATED.EXCAVATION EXCAVATION
WORK IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IS CATEGORIZED INTO TWO TYPES: THE
MINOR AND MAJOR EXCAVATION DEPENDING UPON THE SIZE AND NATURE OF
THE FOUNDATION TO BE CONSTRUCTED. EXCAVATION FOR A SMALL
CONSTRUCTION WITH INDEPENDENT WALL, OR COMBINED FOOTING IS
CLASSIFIED UNDER THE MINOR EXCAVATION, WHILE THE REST WHICH
REQUIRES SIZEABLES OR TOTAL EXTRACTION OF THE EARTH FALL UNDER THE
CATEGORY OF MAJOR CONSTRUCTION.MINOR EXCAVATION EXCAVATION UNDER
THIS CATEGORY ARE THOSE CONSTRUCTION HAVING INDEPENDENT FOOTING AND
HOLLOW BLOCK WALL FOOTING WHERE THE DIGGING OF THE SOIL FOR THE
FOOTING EXTEND TO A DEPTH FROM 1.00 TO 1.50 METER AND ABOUT HALF A
METER DEPTH FOR THE WALL FOOTING.MAJOR EXCAVATION BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION THAT REQUIRES WIDE EXCAVATION OR TOTAL EXTRACTION OF
THE SOIL ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO CATEGORIES DEPENDING UPON THE
CONDITION OR LOCATION OF THE SITE. WHEN THE AREA OF THE
CONSTRUCTION SITE IS BIG THAT THERE IS ENOUGH SPACE TO ACCOMMODATE
WORKING ACTIVITIES, STORING OF MATERIALS AND DUMPING GROUND FOR THE
EXCAVATED SOIL. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION ON A BUSY COMMERCIAL CENTER
WITH ADJACENT EXISTING STRUCTURE IS CONSIDERED TO THE MOST
COMPLICATED AMONG THE VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION WORKS SINCE THIS
REQUIRES CAREFUL STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF THE RIGHT APPROACH.PROBLEMS
MIGHT BE ENCOUNTER:1. THE MANNER OF THE EXCAVATION TO BE EMPLOYED
WHICH WILL NOT AFFECT OR DAMAGED THE ADJOINING STRUCTURE.2. THE
KIND OF EQUIPMENT TO BE USED IN THE DIGGING AND EXTRACTING THE
GROUND MAY NOT BE A PROBLEM BUT THE PLACE WHERE TO STATION THE
EQUIPMENT DURING THE OPERATION.3. HOW AND WHERE TO DISPOSE THE
EXTRACTED SOIL INVOLVES THE EFFECTIVE MANNER OF MANEUVERING THE
PAYLOAD AND DRUMPTRUCKS IN HAULING WITHOUT OBSTRUCTING THE
PEDESTRIAN AND VEHICULAR TRAFFIC FLOW.4. WHERE TO DISPOSE THE
UNDERGROUND WATER TO BE DRAINED BY THE WATER PUMP DURING THE
PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION WHICH MIGHT CAUSE MUDDY ROAD AND CREATE
INCONVENIENCE TO TRAFFIC.5. THE KIND OF SHEETING AND BRACING TO BE
USED IN SHORING OR UNDERSPINNING TO PROTECT THE ADJOINING STRUCTURE
MUST BE CONSIDERED.FOUNDATION AND FOOTINGTHE FUNCTION OF A
FOUNDATION IS TO TRANSFER THE STRUCTURAL LOADS FROM A BUILDING
SAFELY INTO THE GROUND. ALL FOUNDATIONS SETTLE TO SOME EXTENT AS
THE SOIL AROUND BENEATH THEM ADJUST ITSELF TO THESE LOADS. UNIFORM
SETTLEMENT IS USUALLY OF LITTLE CONSEQUENCES IN A BUILDING, BUT A
DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT CAN CAUSE SEVERE STRUCTURAL DAMAGE.3 MAJOR
PARTS OF A BUILDING: SUPERSTRUCTURE WHICH IS THE ABOVE GROUND
PORTION OF THE BUILDING. SUBSTRUCTURE WHICH IS THE HABITABLE
BELOW-GROUND PORTION. FOUNDATION WHICH ARE THE COMPONENTS OF THE
BUILDING THAT TRANSFER ITS LOAD INTO THE SOIL.3 TYPES OF
SUBSTRUCTURES: SLAB ON FILL CRAWLSPACE BASEMENT2 BASIC TYPES OF
FOUNDATIONS: SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ARE THOSE THAT TRANSFER THE LOAD
TO THE EARTH AT THE BASE OF THE COLUMN OR WALL OF THE SUBSTRUCTURE.
DEEP FOUNDATIONS TRANSFER THE LOAD AT A POINT FAR BELOW THE
SUBSTRUCTURE.FOUNDATION IS THAT PORTION OF THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
THAT CARRY OR SUPPORT THE SUPERSTRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING.FOOTING IS
THAT PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION OF THE STRUCTURE WHICH DIRECTLY
TRANSMIT THE COLUMN LOAD TO THE UNDERLYING SOIL OR ROCK, FOOTING IS
THE LOWER PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION STRUCTURE.FOUNDATION BED -
REFERS TO THE SOIL OR ROCK DIRECTLY BENEATH THE FOOTING.PILE
FOUNDATION WHEN A FOUNDATION BED IS TOO WEAK TO SUPPORT A RAFT
FOOTING, THERE IS AN URGENT NEED TO PROVIDE A SUITABLE MATERIALS
WHERE TO TRANSFER THE EXCESS LOAD TO A GREATER DEPTH WHEREIN PILES
IS THE ANSWER.PILE IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER OF SMALL CROSS-SECTIONAL
AREA WITH REASONABLE LENGTH DRIVEN DOWN THE GROUND BY MEANS OF
HAMMERS OR VIBRATORY GENERATOR.PILE IS DISTINGUISHED FROM A CAISSON
BY BEING DRIVEN INTO PLACE RATHER THAN DRILED & POURED.PILES
ARE GENERALLY DRIVEN CLOSELY TOGETHER IN CLUSTERS CONTAINING FROM
TWO TO TWENTY-FIVE PILES. EACH CLUSTER IS LATER JOINED AT THE TOP
BY A REINFORCED CONCRETE PILE CAP.PILE CAP DISTRIBUTES THE LOAD OF
THE COLUMN OR WALL EQUALLY AMONG THE PILES.CAISSONS IS SIMILAR TO A
COLUMN FOOTING IN THAT IT SPREADS THE LOAD FROM A COLUMN OVER A
LARGE ENOUGH AREA OF SOIL. FOUNDATION WALL THAT PART OF THE
BUILDING FOUNDATION WHICH FORMS THE PERMANENT RETAINING WALL OF THE
STRUCTURE BELOW GRADE. GRADE BEAM THAT PART OF A FOUNDATION SYSTEM
W/C SUPPORTS THE EXTERIOR WALL OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE AND BEARS
DIRECTLY ON THE COLUMN FOOTING. RETAINING WALL A WALL OR LATERALLY
BRACED, THAT BEARS AGAINST AN EARTH OR OTHER FILL SURFACE AND
RESISTS LATERAL AND OTHER FORCES. CANTILEVER WALL A REINFORCED
CONCRETE WALL WHICH RESIST OVERTURNING BY THE USE OF CANTILEVER
FOOTING. GRAVITY WALL A MASSIVE CONCRETE WALL THAT RESIST
OVERTURNING BY VIRTUE OF ITS OWN WEIGHT. BEARING WALL A WALL
CAPABLE OF SUPPORTING AN IMPOSED LOAD.FOOTING ARE CLASSIFIED INTO
TWO TYPES:WALL FOOTING OR STRIP FOOTING IS A STRIP OF REINFORCED
CONCRETE WIDER THAN THE WALL WHICH DISTRIBUTES THE LOAD TO THE
SOIL. A STEEL PERCENTAGE EQUALS TO 0.2 TO 0.3% OF THE CROSS
SECTIONAL AREA OF CONCRETE IS SAID TO BE ADEQUATE EXCEPT ON UNUSUAL
CASES.COLUMN FOOTING IS CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING TYPES:1.
ISOLATED OR INDEPENDENT FOOTING IS A KIND OF FOOTING REPRESENTS THE
SIMPLEST AND MOST ECONOMICAL TYPE, IN THE FORM OF: SQUARE BLOCK
FOOTING SQUARE SLOPE FOOTING SQUARE STEPPED FOOTING2. COMBINED
FOOTING IS USED WHEN TWO OR MORE COLUMNS ARE SPACED CLOSELY TO EACH
OTHER THAT THEIR FOOTING WILL ALMOST OR COMPLETELY MERGE. ITS
EITHER : RECTANGULAR TRAPEZOIDAL3. CONTINUOUS FOOTING IS SOMETIMES
CLASSIFIED AS WALL FOOTING WHICH SUPPORT SEVERAL COLUMNS IN A ROW.
ITS EITHER: INVERTED SLAB FOOTING INVERTED TEE FOOTING 4. RAFT OR
MAT FOOTING ITS OCCUPIES THE ENTIRE AREA BENEATH THE STRUCTURE AND
CARRY THE WALL AND THE COLUMN LOADS. UNIFORM SLAB THICKENED SLAB
BEAM & GIRDERCONCRETE CONCRETE IS AN ARTIFICIAL STONE MADE OUT
FROM THE MIXTURE OF CEMENT, SAND, GRAVEL AND WATER. THIS IS KNOWN
AS SOLID MASS OR PLAIN CONCRETE. CONCRETE IN WHICH REINFORCEMENT IS
EMBEDDED IN SUCH A MANNER THAT THE TWO MATERIALS ACT TOGETHER IN
RESISTING FORCES IS CALLED REINFORCED CONCRETE. SLUMP TEST A READY
MEANS OF DETERMINING THE CONSISTENCY OF FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE.
DESIGNING OF CONCRETE MIXTURE IS BASED ON THE WATER-CEMENT RATIO.
0.68 lb. OF WATER / lb. OF CEMENT WILL PRODUCE CONCRETE CAPABLE OF
DEVELOPING 2,500 PSI IN 28 DAYS. LESS WATER PRODUCE STRONGER
CONCRETE. MORE WATER PRODUCE LESSER STRENGTH. ADMIXTURE ACCELERATES
OR RETARDS CONCRETE SETTING. SIZES OF MEASURING BOX FOR : 40 kg.
CEMENT 300mm X 300mm X 300mm 50 kg. CEMENT - 320mm X 320mm X 330mm
CONCRETE MIXTURE:CLASS MIXTURE 40kg. 50kg. SAND GRAVELAA 1:11/2: 3
12 9.5 0.5 cu.m. 1.0 cu.m.A 1:2:4 9 7 0.5 1.0B 1:21/2:5 7.5 6 0.5
1.0C 1:3:6 6 5 0.5 1.0 MORTAR MIXTURE:CLASS MIXTURE 40kg. 50kg.
SANDA 1:2 18 14.5 1.0 cu.m.B 1:3 12 9.5 1.0C 1:4 9 7 1.0D 1:5 7.5 6
1.0POST AND COLUMNPOST REFERS TO A PIECE OF TIMBER OF EITHER
CYLINDRICAL, SQUARE OR OTHER GEOMETRICAL CROSS SECTION PLACED
VERTICALLY TO SUPPORT A BUILDING.COLUMN REFERS TO VERTICAL
STRUCTURE USE TO SUPPORT A BUILDING MADE OF STONE, CONCRETE, STEEL
OR COMBINATION OF THE ABOVE MATERIALS.STOREY IS THE SPACE IN A
BUILDING BETWEEN FLOOR LEVELS OR BETWEEN A FLOOR AND A ROOF
ABOVE.REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN ARE CLASSIFIED AS: SHORT COLUMN
WHEN THE UNSUPPORTED HEIGHT IS NOT GREATER THAN TEN TIMES THE
SHORTEST LATERAL DIMENSION OF THE CROSS SECTION. LONG COLUMN WHEN
THE UNSUPPORTED HEIGHT IS MORE THAN TEN TIMES THE SHORTEST LATERAL
DIMENSION OF THE CROSS SECTION.TYPES OF COLUMNS ARE: TIED COLUMN
HAS REINFORCEMENT CONSISTING OF VERTICAL OR LONGITUDINAL BARS HELD
IN POSITION BY LATERAL REINFORCEMENT CALLED LATERAL TIES. SPIRAL
COLUMN IS THE TERM GIVEN WHERE A CIRCULAR CONCRETE CORE IN ENCLOSED
BY SPIRALS WITH VERTICAL OR LONGITUDINAL BARS. THE VERTICAL
REINFORCEMENT IS PROVIDED WITH EVENLY SPACED CONTINUOUS SPIRAL HELD
FIRMLY IN POSITION BY AT LEAST THREE VERTICAL BAR SPACERS.
COMPOSITE COLUMN WHERE STRUCTURAL STEEL COLUMN IS EMBEDDED INTO THE
CONCRETE CORE OF A SPIRAL COLUMN. COMBINED COLUMN WITH STRUCTURAL
STEEL ENCASED IN CONCRETE OF AT LEAST 7 cm. THK. REINFORCED WITH
WIRE MESS SURROUNDING THE COLUMN AT A DISTANCE OF 3 cm. INSIDE THE
OUTER SURFACE OF THE CONCRETE COVERING. LALLY COLUMN IS A
FABRICATED STEEL PIPE PROVIDED WITH A FLAT STEEL BARS OR PLATE
WHICH HOLD A GIRDER, GIRTS OR BEAM. THE STEEL PIPE IS SOMETIMES
FILLED WITH GROUT OR CONCRETE FOR CORROSION.METAL REINFORCEMENTTHE
DIFFERENT KINDS OF STRESSES THAT MAY ACT ON THE STRUCTURE ARE:1.
COMPRESSION STRESS2. TENSION STRESS3. SHEAR STRESS4. TORSION STRESS
REINFORCEMENT NEED TO PROVIDE ON BEAM TO RESPONSE TO POSITIVE AND
NEGATIVE BENDING WHICH MAY CAUSE FAILURE OR COLLAPSE OF THE
STRUCTURE. REINFORCED CONCRETE IS A COMBINATION OF CONCRETE AND
STEEL. CONCRETE IS STRONG IN SUPPORTING COMPRESSION LOAD BUT WEAK
IN RESISTING TENSION FORCES. STEEL POSSESSES THE STRENGTH TO RESIST
BOTH COMPRESSION AND TENSION. BALANCE BEAM WHEN THE AREA OF THE
CONCRETE AND STEEL ARE JUST ENOUGH TO CARRY THE COMPRESSION AND
TENSION FORCES SIMULTANEOUSLY. INFLECTION POINTS REFER TO THE
PORTION OF A BEAM WHERE BENDING MOMENT CHANGES FROM POSITIVE TO
NEGATIVE. NO BENT BARS WHEN BARS ARE NOT BENT, AN ADDITIONAL
STRAIGHT REINFORCING BARS ARE PLACED ON THE TOP OF THE BEAM ACROSS
THE SUPPORTS EXTENDED TO THE REQUIRED LENGTH. BENT REINFORCING BARS
ARE BENT UP ON OR NEAR THE INFLECTION POINT AND ARE EXTENDED AT THE
TOP OF THE BEAM ACROSS THE SUPPORT TOWARDS THE ADJACENT SPAN. 4cm.
ALLOWANCE PROTECTIVE COVERING OF STEEL BARS FROM THE OUTSIDE OF THE
MAIN REINFORCEMENT. ADVANTAGE OF THE BEND BARS, ITS RESIST THE
DIAGONAL TENSION. BUILDING CODE REQUIRED THAT A BALANCE BEAM SHALL
PROVIDE, THAT THE CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT SHALL
BE EQUAL TO .005 TIMES THE CROSS SECTIONAL PRODUCT OF THE WIDTH AND
THE DEPTH OF THE BEAM. USED LATERAL TIES 10mm dia. IF LONGITUDINAL
BARS 32mm SMALLER 12mm dia. IF LONGITUDINAL BARS 36mm BIGGER THREE
FACTORS FOR SPACING OF THE LATERAL TIES: SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 16
TIMES THE DIA. OF THE LONGITUDINAL OR MAIN REINFORCING BARS. SHOULD
NOT BE MORE THAN 48 TIMES THE DIA. OF THE LATERAL TIES. NOT MORE
THAN THE SHORTEST DIMENSION OF THE COLUMN.WOOD CONSTRUCTION SCAB A
SHORT FLAT PIECE OF LUMBER WHICH IS BOLTED, NAILED OR SCREWED TO
TWO BUTTING PIECES IN ORDER TO SPLICE THEM TOGETHER. FISH PLATE A
WOOD OR METAL PIECE USED TO FASTEN TOGETHER THE ENDS OF TWO MEMBERS
WITH NAILS OR BOLTS. SPLICE PLATE A METAL PLATE USED FOR FASTENING
TWO OR MORE MEMBER TOGETHER. COGGED JOINT A CARPENTRY JOINT BY TWO
UNEVEN TIMBERS, EACH OF WHICH IS NOTCHED AT THE PLACE WHERE THEY
MEET. NOTCHING JOINING OF TIMBERS, USUALLY MEETING OR CROSSING AT
RIGHT ANGLES, BY CUTTING A DAP IN ONE OR BOTH PIECES. CROSSLAP
JOINT A JOINT CONNECTING TWO WOOD MEMBERS WHICH CROSS EACH OTHER,
HALF THE THICKNESS OF EACH IS CUT SO THAT THE THICKNESS WILL THE
SAME AS THAT OF EACH MEMBER. SQUARE SPLICEA TYPE OF HALF LAPPED
USED TO RESIST TENSION. BRIDLE JOINT A JOINT IN WHICH TWO TONGUES
PROJECT FROM THE SIDES OF THE TENONED MEMBER, THESE TONGUES FIT
INTO CORRESPONDING SLOTS IN THE MORTISED MEMBER. TENON THE
PROJECTING END OF A PIECE OF WOOD, OR OTHER MATERIALS WHICH IS
REDUCED IN CROSS SECTION, SO THAT IT MAY BE INSERTED IN A
CORRESPONDING CAVITY IN ANOTHER PIECE IN ORDER TO FORM A SECURE
JOINT. YACAL LUMBER PREFFERED WHEN IN CONTACT WITH CONCRETE. BOARD
FOOT THE VOLUME OF A PIECE OF WOOD ONE INCH. THICK, ONE FOOT WIDE
AND ONE FOOT LONG. BOLIDEN SALT TREATMENT IN WOLMANIZED LUMBER. DAP
A NOTCH IN A TIMBER FOR RECEIVING ANOTHER TIMBER. DADO A
RECTANGULAR GROOVE CUT ACROSS THE FULL WIDTH OF A PIECE OF WOOD TO
RECEIVE THE END OF ANOTHER PIECE. SOLIGNUM TRADE NAME FOR
ANTI-TERMITE SURFACE APPLICATION ON WOOD.FLOOR STRUCTUREWOOD FLOOR
SYSTEMFLOOR FRAMING IS THAT PLATFORM STRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING
SUSPENDED BY POSTS, COLUMNS, WALLS AND BEAMS.THE DESIGN OF A
PLATFORM FLOOR SYSTEM DEPENDS UPON THE FOLLOWING CONSIDERATIONS:1.
LIVE LOAD REFERS TO THOSE MOVABLE LOADS IMPOSED ON THE FLOOR.2.
DEAD LOAD REFERS TO THE STATIC LOAD SUCH AS THE WEIGHT OF THE
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS WHICH GENERALLY CARRY THE LIVE LOAD.3. TYPES
OF MATERIALS TO BE USED THE CHOICE FROM THE VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS SUCH AS LUMBER, CONCRETE, AND STEEL.4. THE SIZING AND
SPACING OF THE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS DEPENDS UPON ITS STRENGTH AND
CAPABILITY TO CARRY THE LOAD AT A CERTAIN SPACING.5. SPAN OF THE
SUPPORTS PERTAINS TO THE DISTANCES BETWEEN THE POSTS, COLUMNS OR
SUPPORTING WALLS.THE PLATFORM - FLOOR FRAMING STRUCTURE IS
CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING TYPES:A. THE PLANK AND BEAM FLOOR
TYPEB. THE PANELIZED-FLOOR SYSTEMC. THE CONVENTIONAL FLOOR FRAMING
SYSTEMTHE DIFFERENT PARTS OF A PLATFORM FLOOR SYSTEM ARE: GIRDER IS
A PRINCIPAL BEAM EXTENDING FROM WALL TO WALL OF A BUILDING
SUPPORTING THE FLOOR JOISTS OF FLOOR BEAMS. SILL THAT PART OF THE
SIDE OF A HOUSE THAT RESTS HORIZONTALLY UPON THE FOUNDATION. FLOOR
JOISTS ARE THOSE PARTS OF THE FLOOR SYSTEM PLACED ON THE GIRDERS
WHERE THE FLOOR BOARDS ARE FASTENED. HEADER AND TRIMMER HEADER IS A
SHORT TRANSVERSE JOISTS THAT SUPPORT THE END OF THE CUT-OFF JOIST
AT A STAIR WELL HOLE. TRIMMER IS A SUPPORTING JOIST WHICH CARRIES
AN END PORTION OF A HEADER. FLOORING THE TONGUE AND GROOVE WHICH
ARE POPULARLY KNOWN AS T & G IS GENERALLY SPECIFIED FOR WOOD
FLOORING. TAIL BEAM OR TAIL PIECE A SHORT BEAM, JOIST OR RAFTER
WHICH IS SUPPORTED BY A HEADER JOIST AT ONE END AND A WALL AT THE
OTHER. LEDGER STRIP A STRIP OF LUMBER WHICH IS NAILED TO THE SIDE
OF THE BEAM, FORMING A SEAT FOR THE JOISTS. DRAFTSTOP PLATE IS A
PIECE OF LUMBER USES TO DRESS UP THE EDGE OF THE JOISTS. SOLE PLATE
A HORIZONTAL TIMBER WHICH SERVES AS A BASE FOR THE STUDS IN A STUD
PARTITION. SILL PLATE A HORIZONTAL TIMBER, AT THE BOTTOM OF THE
FRAME OF AWOOD STRUCTURE WHICH REST ON THE FOUNDATION. TOP PLATE A
HORIZONTAL TIMBER AT THE UPPER PORTION OF THE STUDS IN ASTUD
PARTITION. CRIPPLE STUD IN ABUILDING FRAME, A STRUCTURAL ELEMENT
THAT IS SHORTER THAN USUAL, AS A STUD ABOVE AND BELOW OPENING.
BLOCK OR SOLID BRIDGING SHORT MEMBERS WHICH ARE FIXED VERTICALLY
BETWEEN FLOOR JOISTS TO STIFFEN THE JOISTS. CROSS BRIDGING DIAGONAL
BRACING IN PAIRS, BETWEEN ADJACENT FLOOR JOISTS TO PREVENT THE
JOISTS FROM TWISTING. HANGER OR STIRRUP A METAL SEAT, ATTACHED TO A
GIRDER TO RECEIVE AND SUPPORT A JOIST. BALLOON FRAMING CONSTRUCTION
HAS STUDS CONTINOUS TO ROOF SUPPORTING SECOND FLOOR JOISTS. WESTERN
FRAMING THAT HAS SUBFLOOR EXTENDED TO THE OUTER EDGE OF THE FRAME
AND PROVIDE A FLAT WORK SURFACE AT EACH FLOOR. REINFORCED CONCRETE
FLOOR SYSTEMBEAM - IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER THAT SUPPORTS THE
TRANSVERSE LOAD WHICH USUALLY REST ON SUPPORTS AT ITS END. GIRDER
IS THE TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT SUPPORTS ONE OR MORE SMALLER
BEAM. BEAM ARE CLASSIFIED AS :A) SIMPLE BEAMB) CONTINUOUS BEAMC)
SEMI CONTINUOUSSIMPLE BEAM REFERS TO THE BEAM HAVING A SINGLE SPAN
SUPPORTED AT ITS END WITHOUT A RESTRAIN AT THE SUPPORT. SIMPLE
BEAMS IS SOMETIMES CALLED AS SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM.RESTRAINT MEANS
A RIGID CONNECTION OR ANCHORAGE AT THE SUPPORT.CONTINUOUS BEAM IS A
TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT REST ON MORE THAN TWO
SUPPORTS.SEMI-CONTINUOUS BEAM REFERS TO A BEAM WITH TWO SPANS WITH
OR WITHOUT RESTRAINT AT THE TWO EXTREME ENDS.WEB REINFORCEMENTWEB
REINFORCEMENT IS THE SAME AS THEIR STIRRUPS USED IN THE BEAM TO
HOLD THE REINFORCEMENT IN ITS DESIGNED POSITION. THE WEB
REINFORCEMENT IS NOT ONLY INTENDED TO HOLD THE REINFORCEMENT AND
PROVIDE LATERAL SUPPORT BUT ALSO SERVES TO RESIST DIAGONAL TENSION
AND COUNTERACT THE SHEAR ACTION ON THE STRUCTURE. THE VERTICAL
STIRRUPS SHOULD ENCIRCLE THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT AND HOOK BENT WITH
A DIAMETER NOT LESS THAN 5 TIMES THE DIAMETER OF THE STIRRUPS AT
ITS END AND SECURED PROPERLY TO PREVENT SLIPPING OF THE MAIN
REINFORCEMENT IN THE CONCRETE.REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB:REINFORCED
CONCRETE FLOOR SLABS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING TYPES:1. ONE
WAY SOLID SLAB AND BEAM.2. TWOWAY SOLID SLAB BEAM.3. RIBBED
FLOORS.4. FLAT SLAB OR GIRDERLESS FLOORS SOLID OR RIBBED.EACH TYPE
OF THE FLOOR SYSTEM HAS ITS OWN ADVANTAGES IN APPLICATION DEPENDING
UPON THE FOLLOWING FACTORS:1. SPACING OF THE COLUMNS.2. THE
MAGNITUDE OF THE LOADS TO BE SUPPORTED3. LENGTH OF THE SPAN4. THE
COST OF THE CONSTRUCTIONONE WAY SLAB ONE WAY SLAB IS THE COMMON
TYPE OF REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEM WHICH THE REINFORCEMENTS
RUNS ONLY IN ONE DIRECTION. MADE OF SOLID SLAB SUPPORTED BY TWO
PARALLEL BEAMS. IT IS COMPARATIVELY ECONOMICAL FOR A MEDIUM AND
HEAVY LIVE LOADS ON SHORT SPANS RANGING FROM 2.00 TO 3.50 METERS
LONG. ALTHOUGH THE REINFORCEMENTS ARE ALSO PLACED IN THE SLAB
PARALLEL WITH THE BEAMS PERPENDICULAR WITH THE MAIN REINFORCEMENTS
CALLED TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENTS. USUALLY NO. 3 STEEL BAR IS USED
TO COUNTERACT THE EFFECT OF SHRINKAGE AND CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE.
IT ALSO DISTRIBUTES POSSIBLE CONCENTRATION OF LOADS OVER A LARGER
AREA.TWO WAY SLAB SLAB WHICH ARE SUPPORTED ON FOUR SIDES WHERE THE
FLOOR PANEL IS NEARLY SQUARE IS GENERALLY ECONOMICAL TO EMPLOY THE
TWO DIRECTIONS OF REINFORCING BARS PLACED AT RIGHT ANGLE WITH EACH
OTHER.THE CODE SPECIFIES THAT THICKNESS OF THE SLAB SHALL NOT BE
LESS THAN 4 INCHES OR 10 CM. NOR LESS THAN THE PERIMETER OF THE
SLAB DIVIDED BY 180. THE SPACING OF THE REINFORCEMENT SHALL NOT BE
MORE THAN 3 TIMES THE SLAB THICKNESS.RIBBED FLOOR SLAB IS AN
ECONOMICAL TYPE OF FLOOR CONSTRUCTION BUT IS APPLICABLE ONLY TO
MEDIUM SPAN LENGTH WITH LIGHT OR MEDIUM LOAD.A RIBBED FLOOR SLAB
CONSISTS OF SMALL ADJACENT T-BEAM WHEREIN THE OPEN SPACES BETWEEN
THE RIBS ARE FILLED BY CLAY TILES, GYPSUM TILES OR STEEL FORMS. THE
TILES ARE GENERALLY 30 X 90 CM. WITH DEPTH OF 10 TO 40CM. O.C.
PLACED @ 5CM. O.C. MAKING THE RIBS 10 CM. WIDE.THE CONCRETE SURFACE
LAYER PLACED ON TOP OF THE TILES RANGES FROM 5 TO 6.5 CM. THICK.
THE REINFORCEMENT OF A RIBBED FLOOR SYSTEM CONSIST OF TWO BARS
PLACED AT THE LOWER PART OF THE RIB WHERE ONE IS BENT AND THE OTHER
REMAINED STRAIGHT, OR SOMETIMES, STRAIGHT BARS ARE PALCED AT THE
TOP AND BOTTOM OF THE RIB. TEMPERATURE BARS ARE EITHER NO. 2 BARS
OR 6 MM. OR WIRE MESH WHICH RUNS AT RIGHT ANGLE WITH THE RIBS.FLAT
SLAB IS A RECTANGULAR SLAB DIRECTLY SUPPORTED BY COLUMNS WITHOUT
BEAMS OR GIRDERS. THESLAB IS EITHER UNIFORM IN THICKNESS OR
PROVIDED WITH SQUARE SYMMETRICAL AREA DIRECTLY ABOVE THE COLUMN
REINFORCED WITH BARS RUNNING IN TWO DIRECTIONS. THE INCREASED AREA
DIRECTLY ABOVE THE COLUMN CALLED DROP PANEL OR SIMPLY DROP. ON THE
OTHER HAND, A FLARED HEAD IS EMPLOYED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF A
FLAT-SLAB FLOOR MAKING A CAPITAL OF THE COLUMN.WHEN THE COLUMN
DESIGN IS NOT PROVIDED WITH CAPITAS, A STRAIGHT FLAT UNDERNEATH IS
PROVIDED IN THE SLAB THROUGHOUT THE SYSTEM, WHICH IS CALLED FLAT
PLATE CONSTRUCTION.THIS FLOOR SYSTEM IS ECONOMICAL IN TERMS OF
MATERIALS AND LABOR. CONSTRUCTION JOINT A JOINT WHERE TWO
SUCCESSIVE PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE MEET. CONTRACTION JOINT OR
EXPANSION JOINT A JOINT BETWEEN ADJACENT PARTS OF A STRUCTURE WHICH
PERMITS MOVEMENT BETWEEN THEM. CONTROL JOINTS EMPLOYED TO REDUCE
RESTRAINT BY ACCOMODATING MOVEMENT OF MASONRY WALL. BLOCK OUT IN
CONCRETE STRUCTURES UNDER CONSTRUCTION, A SPACE WHERE CONCRETE IS
NOT TO BE PLACED. COLD JOINT A JOINT FORMED WHEN A CONCRETE SURFACE
HARDEN BEFORE THE NEXT BATCH OF CONCRETE IS PLACED AGAINST. CREEP
PERMANENT DEFORMATION OF A MATERIAL UNDER A SUSTAIN LOAD. CAMBER
CONVEX CURVATURE IN BEAM OR TRUSS.LAYING OUT OF STAIRSTHE METHOD OF
LAYING OUT STAIRS ARE:1. DETERMINE THE CLEAR HEIGHT OF THE RISE IN
METER. ORDINARILY, THE RISE PER STEP IS 17 TO 18 CM AND THE MINIMUM
TREAD WIDTH IS 25 CM.2. DIVIDE THE RISE ( HEIGHT IN METER) BY .17
OR .18 TO DETERMINE THE NUMBER OF STEPS.3. DIVIDE THE RUN DISTANCE
IN METER BY .25 OR .30m.4. IF THE RESULT, FOUND IN STEP THREE IS
LESS THAN THE NUMBER FOUND IN STEP TWO, THE RUN LENGTH HAS TO BE
EXTENDED.5. THERE SHOULD BE NO FUNCTIONAL VALUE OF A RISER. SHOULD
THERE BE FROM THE RESULT OF STEP TWO, ADJUST A FUNCTIONAL VALUE IN
EQUAL PROPORTION TO THE NUMBER OF RISER HEIGHT, BUT IN NO CASE
SHALL THE RISE PER STEP BE GREATER THAN 19 CM OR LESS THAN 17 CM
OTHERWISE, THE STAIRS WILL NOT BE AN IDEAL ONE.IT IS IMPORTANT TO
MAKE A CROSS SECTIONAL SKETCH OF A STAIR BEFORE MAKING THE FINAL
PLAN LAYOUT INDICATING THE NUMBER OF STEPS TO AVOID ADJUSTMENTS OF
THE RUN DURING THE ACTUAL CONSTRUCTION. TYPE OF STRINGERSTHERE ARE
SEVERAL FORMS OF STRINGER CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE METHOD OF
ATTACHIND THE RISERS AND THE TREADS.1. CUT2. CLEATED3. BUILT-UP4.
RABBETED (HOUSE) BALUSTER ONE OF A NUMBER OF SHORT VERTICAL MEMBERS
OFTEN CIRCULAR IN SECTION, USED TO SUPPORT A STAIR HANDRAIL.
BALUSTRATE AN ENTIRE RAILING SYSTEM INCLUDING A TOP RAIL, VERTICAL
MEMBERS AND BOTTOM RAIL. BULL-NOSED STEP A STEP USUALLY LOWEST IN
AFLIGHT, HAVING ONE OR BOTH ENDS ROUNDED TO A SEMI-CIRCLE AND
PROJECTION BEYOND THE FACE OF THE STAIR STRING/S. BANISTER HANDRAIL
FOR A STAIRCASE. RISER A VERTICAL FACE OF ASTAIR. KICKER PLATE
STAIR ANCHOR TO CONCRETE.TYPES OF ROOFTHERE ARE SEVERAL FORMS OF
ROOF AND NUMEROUS VARIETY OF SHAPES THAT ONE HAS TO BE FAMILIAR
WITH:SHED OR LEAN-TO ROOF- IS CONSIDERED AS THE SIMPLEST FORM OF
ROOF CONSISTING OF ONE SINGLE SLOPE.GABLE OR PITCH ROOF- THE MOST
COMMON TYPE AND ECONOMICAL FORM OF ROOF MADE OF TRIANGULAR SECTIONS
CONSISTING OF TWO SLOPES MEETING AT THE CENTER OF THE RIDGE FORMING
A GABLE.SAW TOOTH ROOF- IS THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SHED MADE INTO A
SERIES TO LEAN-TO ROOF COVERING ONE BUILDING. THIS IS COMMONLY USED
ON FACTORIES WHERE EXTRA LIGHT IS REQUIRED THROUGH THE WINDOW ON A
VERTICAL SIDE.DOUBLE GABLE ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF A GABLE OR A
HIP AND VALLEY ROOF.HIP ROOF- IS ALSO A COMMON FORM USED IN MODERN
HOUSES HAVING STRAIGHT SIDES ALL SLOPING TOWARD THE CENTER OF THE
BUILDING TERMINATING AT THE RIDGE.HIP AND VALLEY ROOF- IS A
COMBINATION OF THE HIP ROOF AND AN INTERESTING GABLE ROOF FORMING A
T OR L SHAPED BUILDING. THIS TYPE OF ROOF FORM HOWEVER, HAS A
VARIETY OF MODIFICATION WHICH ARE NOT ILLUSTRATED.PYRAMID ROOF- IS
A MODIFICATION OF THE HIP ROOF WHEREIN THE FOUR STAIGHT SIDES ARE
SLOPING TOWARDS THE CENTER TERMINATING AT A POINT.GAMBREL ROOF- IS
A MODIFICATIN OF THE GABLE ROOF WITH EACH SIDE HAVING TWO
SLOPES.BUTTERFLY ROOF- IS A TWO SHED ROOF WHERE THE SLOPE MEET AT
THE CENTER OF THE BUILDING.MANSARD ROOF- WHERE THE SIDES OF THE
ROOF SLOPE STEEPLY FROM EACH SIDE OF THE BUILDING TOWARDS THE
CENTER FORMING A FLAT DECK ON TOP.FRENCH OR CONCAVE MANSARD ROOF-
IS A MODIFICATION OF THE MANZARD ROOF WHERE THE SIDES ARE
CONCAVE.DOME- IS A HEMISPHERICAL FORM OF ROOF USUALLY USED ON
OBNSERVATORIES.CONICAL ROOF OR SPHIRE- IS A STEEP ROOF OF CIRCULAR
SECTION THAT TAPERS UNIFORMLY FROM THE CIRCULAR BASE TO A CENTRAL
POINT.TYPES OF ROOF FRAMETHE THREE TYPES OF ROOF FRAME COMMONLY
USED ARE:1. RAFTERS TYPE2. TRUSS TYPE3. LAMINATED TYPETHE VARIOUS
KINDS OF RAFTERS FOR ROOF CONSTRUCTIONS ARE: COMMON RAFTERS- ARE
RAFTERS EXTENDED AT RIGHT ANGLES FROM THE PLATE OR GIRTS T THE
RIDGE. HIP RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS LAID DIAGONALLY FROM THE CORNER OF
A PLATE OR GIRTS TO THE RIDGE. VALLEY RAFTERS- RAFTERS PLACED
DIAGONALLY FROM THE PLATE OR GIRTS AT THE INTERSECTION OF GABLE
EXTENSION WITH THE MAIN ROOF. OCTAGONAL RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS PLACED
ON AN OCTAGONAL SHAPED PLATE AT THE CENTRAL APEX OR RIDGE POLE.
JACK RAFTERS- ANY RAFTER WHICH DOES NOT EXTEND FROM THE PLATE OR
GIRTS TO THE RIDGE.JACK RAFTERS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO: 1. HIT JACKS2.
VALLEY JACKS3. CRIPLE JACKSJACK RAFTERS FRAMED BATWEEN HIP RAFTERS
AND GITS ARE CALLED HIP JACKS. THE FRAME BETWEEN THE RIDGE AND
VALLEY RAFTERS ARE CALLED VALLEY JACKS, WHILE THOSE FRAMES BETWEEN
THE HIP AND THE VALLEY RAFTERS ARE CALLED CRIPPLE JACKS.TRUSS IS A
BUILT-UP FRAME COMMONLY EMPLOYED ON A LONG SPAN ROOF UNSUPPORTED BY
INTERMEDIATE COLUMNS OR PARTITIONS. TRUSS IS A DESIGN OF A SERIES
OF TRIANGLES USED TO DISTRIBUTE LOAD, STIFFEN THE STRUCTURE AND
FLEXIBILITY FOR THE INTERIOR SPACING AS WELL AS STRENGTH AND
RIGIDITY.THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRUSSES ARE:LIGHT TRUSSES:PITCHED
HOWESCISSORS RAISED CHORDSAWTOOTH 1 STORY FRAMEFLAT
UTILITYBOWSTRINGHEAVY TRUSSES:HOWE TRUSS BELGIANFINK PRATTSCISSORS
CAMBERED FINKWARREN FLAT HOWESAW TOOTH FLAT PRATTPURLINS THE
STRUCTURAL MEMBER PLACED ON TOP OF A RAFTER OR TOP CHORD OF A TRUSS
THAT SUPPORTS THE ROOF SHEATING.PURLINS SIZE AND SPACING:SPAN: 2.00
SIZE: 50mm X 75mm3.00 50mm X 100mm3.50 50mm X 150mm4.50 50mm X
200mmROOF AND ROOFING MATERIALS THE TERM ROOF USED HERE MEANS THE
TOP COVERING OF A BUILDING THAT SERVES AS A PROTECTIVE COVERING
FROM THE WEATHER. ROOFING CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE MATERIALS
USED: FIBER WOOD METAL SLATE TILES REINFORCED CONCRETE PLASTICS
FIBERGLASSMETAL ROOFING IS THE MOST COMMON MATERIALS IN BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION, THIS ARE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS: GALVANIZED IRON
ALUMINUM TIN TITANIUM COPPER ZINC COPPER STAINLESS STEEL LEADAMONG
THE METAL ROOFING ENUMERATED, GALVANIZED IRON SHEET IS THE MOST
COMMONLY SPECIFIED CONSIDERING THE ADVANTAGES THAT IT
OFFER.GALVANIZED IRON ROOFING IS EITHER PLAIN OR CORRUGATED. THE
THICKNESS ARE MEASURED IN TERMS OF GAUGE FROM ga. 14 TO ga. 30.
Gauge 26 IS THE MOST COMMONLY USED FOR ROOFING. THE STANDARD
COMMERCIAL SIZE WIDTH IS 0.80 m. WITH LENGTH THAT RANGES FROM 1.50
TO 3.60 m. PLAIN G.I. SHEET COMMERCIAL STANDARD SIZE IS 0.90m. X
2.40m. ITS ALSO USED FOR ROOFING, GUTTERS,FLASHING,RIDGE,HIP AND
VALLEY ROLLS, DOWNSPOUT, AND STRAP FOR RIVETING.CORR. G.I.ROOFING
FASTENERS: NAILING RIVETING PANTILE A ROOFING TILE WHICH HAS THE
SHAPE OF S LAID ON ITS SIDE. MISSION TILE A CLAY ROOFING TILE,
APPROX. SEMI-CYLINDRICAL IN SHAPE LAID IN COURSES WITH THE UNIT
HAVING THEIR CONVEX SIDE ALTERNATELY UP AND DOWN. ROMAN TILE A
CHANNEL SHAPED, TAPERED, SINGLE LAP ROOPING TILE. GALVANIZED ZINC
COATED MATERIALS. A FRAME A 3-PIECE RIGID STRUCTURAL FRAME IN THE
SHAPE OF THE UPRIGHT CAPITAL A. CHORD A PRINCIPAL MEMBER OF A
TRUSS. BATTEN WOOD STRIPS TO SUPPORT ROOF TILES. SPLIT RING CHORD
SPLICE CONNECTORS FOR TRUSSES. FORM, SCAFFOLDING AND STAGING FORM
IS A TEMPORARY BOARDING, SHEATING OR PANS USED TO PRODUCE THE
DESIRED SHAPE AND SIZE OF CONCRETE. FORMS ARE USED IN CONCRETE
CONSTRUCTION. STRUCTURAL MEMBERS OF A BUILDING ARE BUILT-UP INTO
ITS SPECIFIED DIMENSIONS BY THE USE OF FORMS THAT SERVES AS MOULD
FOR THE MIXED CONCRETE. FORMS SHOULD BE WATERTIGHT, RIGID AND
STRONG ENOUGH TO SUSTAIN THE WEIGHT OF CONCRETE. IT SHOULD BE
SIMPLE AND ECONOMICALLY DESIGNED TO BE REMOVE EASILY AND
REASSEMBLED WITHOUT DAMAGE TO THEMSELVES OR TO THE CONCRETE.FACTORS
CONSIDERED IN THE SELECTION OF FORMS ARE: COST OF MATERIALS THE
CONSTRUCTION AND ASSEMBLING COST THE NUMBER OF TIMES IT COULD BE
USED STRENGTH AND RESISTANCE TO PRESSURE AND THE TEAR &
WEARWOOD BOARD AND PLYWOOD FORMS WOOD FORM IS THE MOST COMMON AND
WIDELY USED FORMS IN MINOR OR MAJOR CONSTRUCTION. PLYWOOD AS FORM
IS GENERALLY ECONOMICAL BOTH IN LABOR AND MATERIALS. PLYWOOD HAS
PLAIN EVEN SURFACE WITH UNIFORM THICKNESS. IT OFFERS FITTED JOINTS,
ELIMINATE DRESSING, PLANING OF THE SURFACE WHICH IS NORMAL TO
WOODEN BOARDS FORMS. THE LAMINATED CROSS-GRAINED OF PLYWOOD HAS
MADE THE BOARD STRONGER AND FREE FROM WARPING. PLYWOOD IS
LIGHT-WEIGHT, HANDY AND FAST TO WORK ON. PRODUCE SMOOTH FINISHES OF
CONCRETE THAT SOMETIMES NEED LITTLE OR NO PLASTERING AT ALL.METAL
FORM ARE SELDOM USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION BECAUSE OF THE VARIED
DESIGNS AND SHAPES OF THE STRUCTURES. ALTHOUGH METAL FORMS ARE
EXTENSIVELY USED ON ROAD CONSTRUCTION. METAL FORMS ARE GENERALLY
MADE OUT OF G.I. SHEET, OR BLACK IRON SHEET, SUPPORTED BY FLAT AND
ANGLE BARS DESIGNED TO BE ASSEMBLED AND LOCKED BE MEANS OF CLAMP,
BOLTS AND NUTS.CONSTRUCTION OF FORMS CONCRETE WEIGHS ABOUT 2,200 TO
2,400 kg./cu.m. FORMS SHALL BE GUARDED AGAINST BULGING AND SAGGING
FAILURE THAT OCCUR DURING THE PROCESS OF POURING. THE THICKNESS OF
THE FORM AND THE SIZES OF THE FRAME AND RIBS DEPENDS UPON THE
NATURE OF THE STRUCTURE TO BE SUPPORTED CLASSIFIED AS SMALL, MEDIUM
AND MASSIVE STRUCTURE. SMALL STRUCTURE CONSISTING OF SMALL
FOOTINGS, COLUMNS AND BEAM FOR ONE OR TWO STOREY BUILDING WHEREIN
6mm. THK. PLYWOOOD IS SATIFACTORILY USED SUPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm
WOOD FRAME AND RIBS. MEDIUM STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING CONCRETE
COLUMNS, BEAMS, AND CONCRETE FLOOR SLAB GENERALLY OF 2 TO 3 STOREY
HIGH. WHEREIN 6mm OR 12mm THK. PLYWOOD IS USED AS FORM SUPPPORTED
BY 50mm X 50mm OR 50mm X 75mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS. MASSIVE
STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING HEAVY LOADS USES FORMS OF VARIOUS
THICKNESS THAT RANGE FROM 6mm TO 19mm THK. PLYWOOD SUPPORTED BY
50mm X 50mm TO 50mm X 100mm WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.TWO TYPES OF
FRAMING: LONGITUDINAL RIB TYPE PERPENDICULAR RIB TYPETYPES OF
COLUMN FORMS: SQUARE RECTANGULAR CIRCULARBEAM FORMS CONSIST OF ONE
BOTTOM FORM AND A PAIR OF SIDE FORMS.TYPES OF WALL FORMS:
CONTINUOUS FULL UNIT LAYER UNITGREASING OF FORMS THE PURPOSE OF
GREASING THE FORM IS TO MAKE THE WOOD WATER PROOF, THUS PREVENTING
ABSORPTION OF WATER IN THE CONCRETE WHICH CAUSES SWELLING AND
WARPING. ITS ALSO PREVENTS ADHERENCE OF CONCRETE TO THE PORES OF
THE WOOD.YOKE IS A HORIZONTAL FRAMEWORK AROUND THE FORMWORK FOR A
COLUMN.SCAFFOLDING WORKERS PLATFORMBUILDING CONSTRUCTION TERMS
ENGLISH VERNACULAR ENGLISH VERNACULARAdobe Anchor
--------------------- Liyabe Earth Fill-------------------
EscombroAligned ----------------------------- Kaliniya Eave
------------------------ Alero,Barakilan, SopoAlignment
-------------------------- Asintada Electrician -----------------
ElektristaAlternate or staggered ------------ Uno Sinotra Engineer
------------------- InhenyeroAnchor ------------------------------
Liyabe Exterior Siding ----------- TabikeArchitect
---------------------------- Arkitekto Faucet
---------------------- GripoAstragal -----------------------------
Batidura Fascia Board -------------- SenepaBalusters
---------------------------- Balustre,Barandilla Feet
------------------------ PiyeBeam --------------------------------
Biga Fill ------------------------- TambakBanisters
---------------------------- Barandil Filler
----------------------- Tapal, DagdagBarrel Bolt
-------------------------- Trankilya Floor Joist -----------------
SolerasBaseboard -------------------------- Rodapis Fillet
----------------------- Batidura Bath tub
---------------------------- Baniera Flooring -------------------
Sahig, SueloBolt --------------------------------- Pierno Floor
sill ------------------ GuililanBottom Chord ---------------------
Tirante, Estunyo Flush ---------------------- AlahadoBrace
------------------------------- Pie de Gallo Foundation or
Footings- PundasyonBrick ------------------------------- Landrillo
Foreman ------------------ Kapatas,MaestroDe ObraCanopy
---------------------------- Media Agua Framework ---------------
BalangkasCabinet Hinge -------------------- Espolon Gable Roof
-------------- Dos AguasCarpenter -------------------------
Karpintero Girder --------------------- GuililanCarpentry
------------------------- Karpinteria Girts or Girder -----------
SepoCast Iron -------------------------- Pundido Gravel
--------------------- GrabaCeiling ----------------------------
Kisame Good Grain --------------- HaspeCeiling Board
-------------------- Groobe -------------------- CanalCeiling Joist
---------------------- Kostil Yahe Gutter ---------------------
Alulod, canalCement --------------------------- Semento Hand rail
----------------- GabayCement Brick -------------------- Ladrilyo
Head ---------------------- SombreroCement Tiles
--------------------- Baldosa Hinge ---------------------
BisagraChain bolt ------------------------ Baral de Kadena Hip roof
------------------ Kuatro AguasCollar -----------------------------
Sinturon Horizontal Stud -------- Trabe-AnzoColumn
--------------------------- Kolumna,Haligue Inch
----------------------- PulgadaConcrete --------------------------
Konkreto Jamb ---------------------- HambaConcrete Slab
-------------------- Larga Masa Joist -----------------------
SulerasConcrete Beam ------------------ Biga Kingpost
----------------- PendolumConductor ------------------------ Alulod
Laborer ------------------- PiyonContractor
------------------------ Kontratista Landing ------------------
Mesa Pahingahan Corr. G.I. sheets ----------------- Yiero Canalado
Lavatory ----------------- Lababo GalbanisadoClosed Stringer
------------------ Escalera Laying of CHB orAdobe Stone
------------ AsintaCrushed Stone ------------------- Eskombro Lean
to roof ------------- SibeDiagonal Brace ------------------
Sinturon Level --------------------- LebelDoor
------------------------------- Pinto Machine Bolt -----------
Peirno PasanteDoor Fillet ------------------------ Batidora Mason
------------------- KanteroDoor Head ------------------------
Sombrero (Pintuan) Masonry ----------------- KanteriaDoor Jamb
------------------------ Hamba Pintuan Masonry Fill ------------
LastilyasDrawbore Pin or Drawpin ------ Punsol Meter
--------------------- MetroMitre or Miter --------------------
Canto Mesa Septic Tank ------------- Poso NegroMixture of Sand
& Gravel ------ Lastilyas Shape --------------------
KorteMortar ----------------------------- Paupo Sheet
--------------------- PlantsaMortar Joists ----------------------
Kostura Shower ------------------- DutshaMoulding
-------------------------- Moldura Sidings -------------------
TabikaNailers ----------------------------- Pamakuan Sink
----------------------- PrigaderoNail
-------------------------------- Pako Sketch Plan --------------
KrokisNail Setter ------------------------ Punsol Slab (rough)
-------------- Larga MasaNewel Post ----------------------- Tukod
Slope ---------------------- BahadaNut
--------------------------------- Tuerka Solder
--------------------- HinangNicolite Bar -----------------------
Estanyo Solder Bar ---------------- EstaniyoOakum
----------------------------- Estopa Spacing -------------------
BientoOpen Stringer --------------------- Hardinera Split Knob
---------------- PoleyaOver Hand or Projector ---------- Bolada
Stairs ---------------------- HagdananPainter
------------------------------ Pintor Stake -----------------------
StakaPanel -------------------------------- Bandeha Stringer (open)
----------- HardineraPanellee Door ---------------------- De
Bandeha Stringer -------------------- Madre, MadrinaPattern
------------------------------ Plantilya Stucco
--------------------- PalitadaPea Gravel -------------------------
Grabita Stud (vertical)------------- PilaretePendulum (King Post)
------------ Pendulon Stud (horizontal) ---------
PabalagbagPickwork --------------------------- Piketa Temper (metal
work)----- Suban, SubuhanPiglead ------------------------------
Tingga, Estopa Thread --------------------- RoskasPlain G.I. sheet
-------------------- Yiero Liso Galbanisado Tinsmith
------------------- LateroPlain G.I. Strap --------------------
Lingueta Tinsmithing --------------- LateriaPlank Board
------------------------ Senepa Top Chord ---------------- Kilo,
TahilanPlaster ------------------------------- Palitada Transom
------------------ EspehoPlastered Course -------------------
Kusturada Tread ---------------------- Baytang, PerdanoPlug
---------------------------------- Tapon Trellise
-------------------- PergolaPlumb Bob --------------------------
Hulog Truss ----------------------- Truss, KiloPlumber
----------------------------- Tubero Varnished -----------------
VarnisadoPlumb Line ------------------------- Hulog Vertical Stud
-------------- PilaretePost ----------------------------------
Poste, Haligue Wainscoating Tiles ------- AsolehosProjection
--------------------------- Bolada Washer ---------------------
Pitsa, TsapaPurlins ------------------------------- Reostra Water
Closet -------------- InidoroPutty
--------------------------------- Masilya Window
------------------- BintanaQuarter Round ----------------------
Mediacana Window Grille ----------- RehasRabbet
------------------------------- Vaciada Window Head ------------
Sombrero BintanaRafters ------------------------------- Kilo Window
Jamb ------------ Hamba BintanaReinforcing Bar --------------------
Cabilla, Bakal Window Sill -------------- PasamanoRidgeroll
---------------------------- Caballete W.I. Strap -----------------
PlanchuelaRiser --------------------------------- Senepa, Takip
Wiring Knob ------------- Poleya SilipanRivets
------------------------------- Rimatse Wood Grain --------------
HaspeRoof -------------------------------- Atip, Bubong Wood Plank
-------------- TablaSand -------------------------------- Buhangin
Wrought Iron Strap ------ PlantsuelaScaffolding
------------------------ Andamiyo, PlanchaScratch Coat
----------------------- RebokadaScrew
------------------------------- Turnilyo PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED
CONSTRUCTIONINTRODUCTION THE INTRODUCTION OF PRECAST-CONCRETE
CONSTRUCTION WAS BROUGHT ABOUT BY BUILDING COSTS THAT HAS
CONSIDERABLY INCREASED FASTER THAT MOST INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS THAT
ARE AFFECTED BY THE LARGE AMOUNT OF ON-SITE LABOR INVOLVED IN THE
TRADITIONAL METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION. THE DEMAND FOR SKILLED WORKERS
ON ON-SITE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IS INCREASINGLY OUTRUNNING THE
SUPPLY. THE ANSWER TO THERE PROBLEMS WERE BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE
INDUSTRIALIZATION OF CONSTRUCITON AND SUBSTITUTION OF SITE LABOR BY
FACTORY PRODUCED PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURE WHICH HAS RAPIDLY
DEVELOPED AND GAINED IMPORTANCE. THE CONCRETE IS CAST IN PERMANENT
FORMS OF STEEL, CONCRETE, GLASS-FIBER-REINFORCED PLASTIC. THE WET
CONCRETE IS VIBRATED MECHANICALLY IN THE FORMS TO ACHIEVE MAXIMUM
DENSITY AND HIGHEST SURFACE QUALITY. CONCRETE STRENGTH IN PRECAST
IS USUALLY 5000 PSI, WHILE 270,000 PSI FOR STRENGTH OF STEEL.
PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS ARE USUALLY STEAM CURED WITH THE USE OF
HIGH EARLY STRENGTH CEMENT TO ENABLE A PRECAST TO REMOVE IN FORM IN
24 HOURS. FORMS ARE CALLED CASTING BEDS. THE CASTING BEDS AVERAGE
125 METERS TO EXTEND 250 METERS IN LENGTH. TYPES OF PRECAST
STRUCTURE WALL PANELS THIS TYPE OF PRECAST STRUCTURE HAS NUMEROUS
DESIGNS DEPENDING UPON THE ARCHITECTURAL REQUIREMENTS. THE COMMON
SHAPES PRODUCED FOR ONE TO FOUR STOREY HIGH STRUCTURES ARE SECTIONS
HAVING A WIDTH UP TO 2.40 m. THEY ARE USED AS CURTAIN WALLS
ATTACHED TO COLUMNS AND BEAMS OR SOMETIMES AS BEARING WALLS. THE
DIFFERENT TYPES OF WALL PANELS ARE: 1. FLAT TYPE 2. DOUBLE TEE TYPE
3. RIBBED TYPE 4. WINDOW OR MULLION TYPE TO IMPROVE THE THERMAL
INSULATION OF THE PANEL, FOAM GLASS, GLASS FIBER OR EXPANDED
PLASTIC IS INSERTED BETWEEN TWO LAYERS OF LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
ADEQUATELY BONDED INTERCONNECTING THE TWO LAYERS TO ACT AS ONE
UNIT. STRESSES IN HANDLING AND ERECTION OF THE MEMBER IS MORE THAN
THAT OF THE FINISHED FILLED STRUCTURE, HENCE, CONTROL OF CRACKING
IS OF GREAT IMPORTANCE.PRECAST COLUMNPRECAST COLUMN SIZES ARE FROM
.30 x .30m. to .60 x .60m. IN A MULTI-STOREY CONSTRUCTION, THE
COLUMNS ARE MADE CONTINUOUS UP TO FOUR STORIES WHEREIN CORBELS ARE
USED TO PROVIDE BEARING FOR THE BEAM. TEE COLUMN IS SOMETIMES USED
TO SUPPORT DIRECTLY DOUBLE TEE FLOOR MEMBERS WITHOUT THE USE OF
INTERMEDIATE MEMBERS.PRECAST BEAMSTHE SHAPE OF PRECAST BEAMS
DEPENDS UPON THE MANNER OF FRAMING. THE VARIOUS SHAPES ARE:
RECTANGULAR BEAM INVERTED TEE BEAM L SHAPED BEAM AASHTO BRIDGE
GIRDER AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION
OFFICIALS.ROOF AND FLOOR MEMBERS SOLID FLAT SLAB WIDE RANGES FROM
0.60M. TO 2.4M. HOLLOW CORE SLAB WIDE RANGES FROM 0.60M. TO 2.4M.
DOUBLE TEE WIDE RANGES FROM 2.4 TO 3.0M. SINGLE TEE WIDE RANGES
FROM 2.4 TO 3.0M.PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A PECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURE
ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF A PRECAST SOLID SLAB AT 1/40 OF ITS SPAN.
DEPTH TYPICALLY RANGE FROM 90-200mm. AN 200mm PRECAST HOLLOW-CORE
SLAB CAN SPAN APPROXIMATELY 7.60M., 250mm SLAB APPROX. 9.80M., AND
A 300mm SLAB APPROX. 12.0M. SPAN. ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST
CONCRETE DOUBLE TEES AT 1/28 OF THEIR SPAN. THE MOST COMMON DEPTHS
OF DOUBLE TEES ARE 300,350,400,450,510,610, AND815mm. A PRECAST
CONCRETE SINGLE TEE 928mm DEEP SPANS APPROXIMATELY 26.0M. AND
1142mm TEE FOR 32.0M. SPAN. ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST CONCRETE
BEAMS AND GIRDERS AT 1/16 OF THEIR SPAN FOR LIGHT LOADINGS AND 1/12
OF THEIR SPAN FOR HEAVY LOADINGS. THESE RATIOS APPLY TO
RECTANGULAR, INVERTED TEE AND L-SHAPED BEAMS. THE WIDTH OF A BEAM
OR GIRDER IS USUALLY ABOUT ITS DEPTH. THE PROJECTING LEDGERS ON
INVERTED TEE AND L-SHAPED BEAMS ARE USUALLY 150mm WIDE AND 300mm
DEEP. TO ESTIMATE THE SIZE OF A PRECAST CONCRETE COLUMN. ADD UP THE
TOTAL ROOF AND FLOOR AREA SUPPORTED BY THE COLUMN. A 250mm. COLUMN
CAN SUPPORT UP TO ABOUT 185 sq.m. OF AREA. A 300mm. COLUMN FOR 240
sq.m. AREA. A 400mm. COLUMN FOR 370 sq.m. AREA. A 500mm. COLUMN FOR
560 sq.m. AREA. A 600MM. COLUMN FOR 740 sq.m. AREA.JOINING PRECAST
CONCRETE ELEMENTSBOLTING, WELDING, AND GROUTING ARE ALL COMMONLY
EMPLOYED IN THESE CONNECTIONS. EXPOSED METAL CONNECTORS NOT COVERED
BY TOPPING ARE USUALLY DRY PACKED WITH STIFF GROUT AFTER BEING
JOINED, TO PROTECT THEM FROM FIRE AND CORROSION. THE SIMPLEST
JOINTS IN PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION ARE THOSE THAT RELY UPON
GRAVITY BY PLACING ONE ELEMENT ON TOP OF ANOTHER, AS IS DONE WHERE
SLAB ELEMENTS REST ON A BEARING WALL OR BEAM, OR WHERE A BEAM RESTS
ON THE CORBEL OF A COLUMN. BEARING PADS ARE USUALLY INSERTED
BETWEEN THE CONCRETE MEMBERS AT BEARING POINTS TO AVOID THE
CONCRETE-TO-CONCRETE CONTACT THAT MIGHT CREATE POINTS OF HIGH
STRESS. BEARING PADS ALSO ALLOW FOR EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN
THE MEMBERS. FOR SOLID AND HOLLOW-CORE SLABS THESE PADS ARE STRIPS
OF HIGH-DENSITY PLASTIC. UNDER ELEMENTS WITH HIGHER POINT LOADING
SUCH AS TEES AND BEAMS, PADS OF SYNTHETIC RUBBER
AREUSED.PRESTRESSING OF CONCRETETHERE ARE SEVERAL METHODS EMPLOYED
IN APPLYING PRESTRESSED FORCE TO A CONCRETE BEAM: PRECOMPRESSING
METHOD IS A PROCESS OF USING JACKS REACTING AGAINST ABUTMENT.
SELF-CONTAINED METHOD THE PROCESS IS DONE BY TYING THE JACK BASE
TOGETHER WITH WIRES OR CABLES LOCATED ON EACH SIDE OF THE BEAM.
USUALLY THE WIRES AND CABLES ARE PRESSED THROUGH A HOLLOW CONDUIT
EMBEDDED IN THE CONCRETE BEAM. ONE END OF THE TENDON IS ANCHORED
AND FORCES ARE APPLIED AT THE OTHER END. AFTER ATTAINING THE
DESIRED PRESTRESS FORCE, THE TENDON IS THEN WEDGED AGAINST THE
CONCRETE, REMOVING THE JACK EQUIPMENT. BOND FRICTION THE
PRESTRESSING STRANDS ARE STRETCHED BETWEEN MASSIVE ABUTMENT PRIOR
TO CASTING OF CONCRETE IN THE BEAM FORMS. AFTER THE CONCRETE HAS
GAINED SUFFICIENT STRENGTH, THE JACKS ARE THEN RELEASED
TRANSFERRING THE PRESTRESSED FORCE TO THE CONCRETE BY BOND AND
FRICTION ALONG THE STRANDS. THE SELF CONTAINED AND THE BOND AND
FRICTION METHODS CAN GENERALLY BE CLASSIFIED AS PRE-TENSIONING OR
POST-TENSIONING SYSTEM. THESE METHODS CAN BE APPLIED TO MASS
PRODUCTION OF CASTING SEVERAL METERS LONG OF STRUCTURE AND CUTTING
THE INDIVIDUAL BEAM OR POST TO THE DESIRED LENGTH OUT FROM THE LONG
CASTING. THERMAL PRESTRESSING THE STEEL IS PREHEATED BY MEANS OF
ELECTRIC POWER WHICH ARE ANCHORED AGAINST THE OPPOSITE END OF THE
CONCRETE BEAM. THE COOLING PROCESS PRODUCES PRESTRESS FORCE THROUGH
RESTRAINED CONTRACTION.THE CAUSES OF PRESTRESS LOSSES ARE:1. SLIP
AT ANCHORAGE2. ELASTIC SHORTENING OF CONCRETE3. CREEP OF CONCRETE4.
SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE5. RELAXATION OF STEEL STRESS6. FRICTIONAL
LOSS DUE TO INTENDED OR UNINTENDED CURVATURE IN THE
TENDONS.CONCRETE FOR PRESTRESSINGCONCRETE OF HIGHER COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH IS USED FOR PRESTRESSED STRUCTURES. MOST OF THE
PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION SPECIFY A COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
BETWEEN (4,000 to 6,000 psi) 280-422 kg/cm2 BECAUSE OF THE
FOLLOWING ADVANTAGES THAT IT OFFERS.A) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE HAS A
HIGHER MODULUS OF ELASTICITY. IT MINIMIZE THE REDUCTION OF
PRESTRESS LOSS.B) INCREASING THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF THE
CONCRETE MEETS THE PROBLEM OF HIGH BEARING STRESSES AT THE ENDS OF
POST AND BEAM WHERE THE PRESTRESSING FORCE IS TRANSFERRED FROM THE
TENDON TO THE ANCHORAGE DOWELS WHICH DIRECTLY BEARS AGAINST THE
CONCRETE.C) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE DEVELOPS STRONGER BOND
PRESTRESSES TO PRETENSIONING CONSTRUCTION.D) HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE
GIVES HIGHER STRENGTH TO PRECAST CONSTRUCTION WHEN CURING IS
CAREFULLY CONTROLLED.MEASUREMENT OF PRESTRESSING FORCE PRESTRESSING
FORCE COULD BE DETERMINED BY:1. MEASURING THE TENDON ELONGATION.2.
EITHER BY CHECKING JACK PRESSURE ON A CALIBRATED GAGE OR LOAD CELL
OR BY THE USED OF CALIBRATED DYNAMOMETER. POST TENSIONING THE
STRESSING OF UNBONDED TENDONS AFTER CONCRETE HAS CURED.BUILDING
MATERIALSWOOD MATERIALSWOOD HAS DURABILITY AND BEAUTY. IT HAS GREAT
ABILITY TO ABSORB SHOCKS FROM SUDDEN LOAD AND LIGHT IN WEIGHT WHICH
ADAPTABLE IN A COUNTLESS VARIETY OF PURPOSES.TWO MAJOR
CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD: SOFTWOOD THESE ARE USED FOR GENERAL
CONSTRUCTION. HARDWOOD THESE ARE USED FOR FLOORING, STAIRS,
PANELLING, FURNITURES AND INTERIOR TRIM.PROPERTIES OF WOOD:
HARDNESS MEASURED BY THE COMPRESSION, WHICH A PIECE UNDERGOES WHEN
A WEIGHT IS APPLIED. FLEXIBILITY THE AMOUNT A PIECE WILL BEND
BEFORE BREAKING. STRENGTH TO THE GRAIN. DURABILITY THE RELATIVE
VALUE / LIFESPAN OF WOOD.DEFECTS OF LUMBER: DECAY CAUSED BY THE
ATTACKED OF FUNGI. CHECKS CRACKS OR LENGTH WISE SEPARATION ACROSS
THE ANNUAL RINGS OF GROWTH. KNOTS IRREGULAR GROWTHS IN THE BODY
WHICH INTERRUPS SMOOTH CURVE. PITCH POCKETS WELL REFINED OPENINGS
BETWEEN ANNUAL RINGS CONTAINING SOLID OR LIQUID PITCH. WANE IS THE
LACK OF WOOD ON THE EDGE OR CORNER OF A PIECE.TYPES OF WARPING:
CUPPING IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE IS
CONVEX/CONCAVE ACROSS THE BOARD. BOWING IS A DISTORTION OF THE
BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE IS CONVEX/CONCAVE LONGITUDINALLY. TWISTING
IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH ONE CORNER IS
RAISED.DEFINITION OF TERMS: STRIPS PIECES LESS THAN 2 THICK AND
LESS THAN 8 WIDE. BOARDS PIECES LESS THAN 2 THICK AND AT LEAST 8
WIDE. DIMENSION LUMBER PIECES MORE THAN 2 THICK AND LESS THAN 5 IN
ANY DIMENSION. TIMBER PIECES 4 OR MORE ON THE SMALLEST DIMENSION.
LOG PIECES 12 OR MORE ON THE SMALLEST DIMENSION.THREE CATEGORIES OF
LUMBER: YARD LUMBER USED FOR ORDINARY LIGHT CONSTRUCTION AND
FINISHING WORK. COMMONLY USED FOR FLOORING, PLANK SIDING, TRIM AND
MOULDING. SHOP LUMBER IT IS INTENDED FOR USE IN SHOPS OR IN MILLS
MAKING SASH, DOORS, AND CABINETS. STRUCTURAL LUMBER IS INTENDED FOR
USE IN HEAVY CONSTRUCTION FOR LOAD-BEARING PURPOSES AND IS CUT INTO
TIMBERS OF LARGER SIZE.WOOD GRAIN: EDGE GRAIN ANNUAL RINGS RUN
APPROX. AT RIGHT ANGLE TO THE FACE. FLAT GRAIN WHEN THE ANNUAL
RINGS RUN MORE OR LESS PARALLEL TO THE SURFACE. ANGLE GRAIN WHEN
THE ANNUAL RINGS ARE AT ABOUT 45 DEG. TO THE FACE.SEASONING OF
LUMBER: AIR DRYING LUMBER IS STRIP-PILED AT ASLOPE ON ASOLID
FOUNDATION. THIS ALLOWS AIR TO CIRCULATE AROUND EVERY PIECE WHILE
THE SLOPING ALOOWS WATER TO RUN OFF QUICKLY. KILN-DRYING MORE
EXPENSIVE LUMBER WHICH IS REQUIRED FOR MORE REFINED USES SO AS WOOD
WILL NOT MOVE. IT MUST BE DRIED TO A MOISTURE CONTENT OF NOT MORE
THAN 5 TO 10 PERCENT. THIS IS DONE IN AN AIRTIGHT STRUCTURE
SCIENTIFICALLY HEATED BY STEAM PIPES IN WHICH THE LUMBER IS
ARTIFICIALLY DRIED TO THE CORRECT MOISTURE CONTENT.MANUFACTURE
BOARDS: MANUFACTURED BOARDS ARE MADE OF WOOD BUT DOES NOT APPEAR IN
THEIR NATURAL STATE. THIS TYPE OF BUILDING MATERIALS CAN BE
CLASSIFIED AS A TYPE OF LUMBER AS THEY ARE THE BY-PRODUCT IN THE
MANUFACTURE OF LUMBER. THE COMPLETE UTILIZATION OF WOOD HAS LEAD TO
AN EXPANDED FIELD OF MANUFACTURED BOARDS.TYPES OF BOARDS: PLYWOOD
IS MADE OF AN ODD NUMBER VENEER SHEETS GLUED TOGETHER WITH THE
GRAINS RUNNING AT RIGHT ANGLE TO EACH OTHER. IT IS LIGHT IN WEIGHT
AND STRONG THAT SCREW OR NAIL CAN BE DRIVEN CLOSE TO THE EDGES
WITHOUT DANGER OF SPLITTING.THE DIFF. TYPES OF PLYWOOD: SOFT
PLYWOOD - THE MOST COMMON FOR STRUCTURAL USE HARDWOOD PLYWOOD ARE
USED FOR PANELLING AND FINSHING WHERE USUALLY ON ONE FACE IS HARD
FINISHED. EXTERIOR OR MARINE PLYWOOD IS MADE FOR EXTERNAL USE.
HARDBOARD IS MADE FROM WOOD CHIPS WHICH ARE EXPLODED INTO FIBERS
UNDER STREAM OF HIGH PRESSURE. THE LINING IN THE WOOD ITSELF BINDS
PRESSED WOOD TOGETHER WITH NO FILLERS OR ARTIFICIAL ADHESIVES
APPLIED. PRESSED WOOD IS EQUALLY STRONG IN ALL DIRECTIONS BUT VERY
BRITTLE. ITS COLOR VARIES FROM LIGHT TO DARK BROWN. PARTICLE BOARD
IS MANUFACTURES FROM WOOD CHIPS, CURLS, FIBERS, FLAKES, STRANDS,
SHAVING, SLIVERS ETC. BOUND TOGETHER AND PRESSED INTO SHEETS AND
OTHER MOLDED SHAPED. PARTICLE BOARD HAS EQUAL STRENGTH IN ALL
DIRECTION OF A GIVEN CROSS SECTIONAL AREA, IT IS NOT BRITTLE AND
CAN RESIST WARPING.MASONRYMASONRY REFERS TO A MAN-MADE UNITS WHICH
ARE FORMED AND HARDENED INTO MODULAR BUILDING UNITS. BASIC
BRICKWORK TERMINOLOGY: COURSE IS A HORIZONTAL LAYER OF BRICKS OR
OTHER MASONRY UNITS. BED JOINT IS THE HORIZONTAL MORTAR IN EVERY
COURSE. HEAD JOINT IS THE VERTICAL MORTAR IN EVERY MASONRY UNIT.
STRETCHER IS A BRICK LAID WITH ITS FACE PARALLEL TO THE WALL AND
ITS LONG DIMENSION HORIZONTAL. HEADER IS A BRICK LAID SO AS TO BOND
TWO WYTHES TOGETHER. WYTHE IS A VERTICAL LAYER OF MASONRY UNITS,
ONE UNIT THICK. SOLDIER IS A BRICK LAID ON ITS END WITH ITS FACE
PARALLEL TO THE WALL. ROWLOCK IS A BRICK LAID ON ITS FACE WITH ITS
END VISIBLE IN THE WALL FACE.STRUCTURAL BONDS FOR BRICKWORK:
RUNNING BOND CONSISTS ENTIRELY OF STRETCHERS. COMMON BOND HAS A
HEADER COURSE EVERY SIXTH COURSE ENGLISH BOND ALTERNATES COURSES OF
HEADERS AND STRETCHERS. FLEMISH BOND ALTERNATES HEADERS AND
STRETCHERS IN EACH COURSE.JOINT TOOLING PROFILES FOR
BRICKWORK:WEATHERED JOINT CONCAVE JOINT VEE JOINTFLUCH JOINT RAKED
JOINT STRIPPED JOINTSTRUCK JOINTREINFORCED BRICK MASONRY A
REINFORCED BRICK WALL IS CREATED BY CONSTRUCTING TWO WYTHES OF
BRICK 50 100mm APART, PLACING THE REINFORCING STEEL IN THE CAVITY,
AND FILLING CAVITY WITH GROUT. GROUT IS A MIXTURE OF CEMENT,
AGGREGATES, AND WATER. BRICK BOUNDS THE METHOD OF LAYING BRICKS IN
A WALL IN ORDER TO FORM SOME DISTINCTIVE PATTERN OR DESIGN IS
REFERRED TO AS THE PATTERN BOND. THE METHOD BY WHICH THE INDIVIDUAL
UNITS IN A BRICK STRUCTURE ARE TIED TOGETHER EITHER BY OVERLAPPING
OR BY METAL TIES IS KNOWN AS THE STRUCTURAL BOND. THE ADHESION OF
MORTAR TO BRICKS OR TO STEEL REINFORCEMENT USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH
THEM IS CALLED THE MORTAR BOND.CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS:CONCRETE
HOLLOW BLOCKS ARE CLASSIFIED AS BEARING AND NON-BEARING BLOCKS.
LOAD BEARING BLOCKS ARE THOSE WHOSE THICKNESS RANGES FROM 15 CM. TO
20 CM. AND ARE USED TO CARRY LOAD ASIDE FROM ITS OWN WEIGHT.
NON-BEARING BLOCKS ON THE OTHER HAND, ARE BLOCKS WHICH ARE INTENDED
FOR WALLS, PARTITIONS, FENCES OR DIVIDERS CARRYING ITS OWN WEIGHT
WHOSE THICKNESS RANGES FROM 7.5 CM. TO 10 CM.CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS
HAS THREE CELLS AND TWO ONE HALF CELLS AT BOTH ENDS HAVING A TOTAL
OF FOUR. CONCRETECEMENTSPORTLAND CEMENTMADE FROM MATERIALS WHICH
MUST CONTAIN IN THE PROPER PROPORTIONS OF LIME, SILICA, ALUMINA AND
IRON COMPONENTS. FOUR PARTS OF LIMESTONE TO ONE PART CLAY ARE BASIC
INGREDIENTS. THESE ARE MIXED, BURNED THEN PULVERIZED. PORTLAND
CEMENT IS SOLD EITHER IN CEMENT BAGS OF 40 & 50 KILOS WEIGHT OR
IN BULK INTO CEMENT TRUCKS.SPECIAL CEMENTS WHITE PORTLAND CEMENT
SAME MATERIALS AS NORMAL PORTLAND EXCEPT IN COLOR. THE
MANUFACTURING PROCESS IS CONTROLLED TO PRODUCE A PURE WHITE,
NON-STAINING CEMENT. IT IS USED PRIMARILY FOR ARCHITECTURAL
PURPOSES SUCH AS CURTAIN WALL AND FACING PANELS, DECORATIVE
CONCRETE STUCCO AND TILE GROUT, OR WHEREVER WHITE OR COLORED
CONCRETE OR MORTAR IS SPECIFIED. MASONRY CEMENT OR TILE ADHESIVES
HAS BEEN SPECIALLY DESIGNED TO PRODUCE BETTER MORTAR THAN THAT MADE
WITH NORMAL PORTLAND CEMENT OR WITH A LIME-CEMENT HAS PARTICULARLY
GOOD PLASTICITY AND WORKABILITY, GOOD ADHESION AND BOND.
WATERPROOFED PORTLAND CEMENT NORMALLY PRODUCED BY ADDING A SMALL
AMOUNT OF STEARATE, USUALLY CALCIUM OR ALUMINUM TO THE CEMENT
CLINKER DURING THE FINAL GRINDING.TYPES OF AGGREGATES USED IN
CONCRETECONCRETE CAN BE CONSIDERED TO BE AN ARTIFICIAL STONE MADE
BY BINDING TOGETHER PARTICLES OF SOME INERT MATERIAL WITH A PASTE
MADE OF CEMENT AND WATER. THESE INERT MATERIAL ARE THE AGGREGATE.
AGGREGATES USED ARE SAND, GRAVEL CRUSHED STONE, CINDER. CRUSHED
FURNACE SLAG, BURNED CLAY, EXPANDED VERMICULITE, AND PERLITE.SAND -
FOUND IN RIVERBEDS, FREE OF SALT AND MUST BE WASHED.FINE AGGREGATE
- AND SMALLER DIAMETER STONES.COARSE AGGREGATE - BIGGER THAN
DIAMETER STONES.CONCRETE MIXESCLASS AA - 1: 1 : 3 - CONCRETE UNDER
WATER, RETAINING WALLSCLASS A - 1:2:4 - FOOTINGS, COLUMNS BEAMS,
R.C. SLABSCLASS B - 1: 2 1/ 2:5- SLAB ON FILL, NON BEARING
WALLSCLASS C - 1: 3: 6 - CONCRETE PLANT BOXES, ETC.CONTROL OF
CONCRETE MIXESSLUMP TEST- WHEN FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE IS CHECKED TO
ENSURE THAT THE SPECIFIED SLUMP IS BEING ATTAINED CONSISTENTLY. A
STANDARD SLUMP CONE IS 12 INCHES HIGH (0.30) AND 8 INCHES (O.20) IN
DIAMETER AT THE BOTTOM AND 4 INCHES (O.10) ON TOP WHICH IS OPEN ON
BOTH ENDS.THE CONE IS FILLED IN THREE EQUAL LAYERS, EACH BEING
TAMPED OR RODDED 25 TIMES WITH A STANDARD 5/8 BULLET NOSED ROD.
WHEN THE CONE HAS BEEN FILLED AND LEVELED OFF, IT IS LIFTED
CAREFULLY AND THE AMOUNT OF SLUMP IS MEASURED.ALLOWABLE DEFLECTION
XBEAMS AND COLUMNS 7.5 cm. (.075) 3SLABS AND TUNNEL INVERTS 5.0 cm.
(.50) 2TOPS AND WALL, PIERS, PARAPET & CURBS 5.0 cm. (.50)
2SIDE WALLS AND ARCH IN TUNNEL LINING 10.0 cm. (.10) 4CANAL LINING
7.5 cm. (.075) 3HEAVY MASS CONSTRUCTION 5.0 cm. (.50) 2COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH TEST- COMMON QUALITY-CONTROL TEST OF CONCRETE, BASED ON 7
AND 28 DAYS CURING PERIODS. SPECIMENS ARE USUALLY CYLINDRICAL WITH
A LENGHT EQUAL TO TWICE THE DIAMETER. STANDARD SIZE IS 12 INCH.
HIGH AND 6 INCH. DIAMETER. FILLING IS DONE THE SAME WAY AS THE
SLUMP TEST BUT TAKEN OUT FROM THE MOLD IN 24 HOURS. IT IS THEN SENT
TO A COMPRESSION TESTING LABORATORY, BY MAKING THE CYLINDER WHILE
STILL WET. SOME COMPRESSIVE STRESSES ARE 2,000 psi, 2,500 psi,
3,000 psi.SOME OF THE BRANDS OF PORTLAND CEMENT ISLAND CEMENT
CONTINENTAL CEMENT HI- CEMENT UNION CEMENT RIZAL CEMENT FILIPINAS
CEMENT PACIFIC CEMENT FORTUNE CEMENT REPUBLIC CEMENT NORTHERN
CEMENTBRANDS OF WHITE CEMENT PRIME WHITE CEMENT KEENE TRINITY
SNOWCRETE MORTAR CEMENT, SAND & WATER. GROUT CEMENT AND WATER
MIXTURE. CONCRETE CEMENT, SAND, GRAVEL & WATER. TYROLEAN FINISH
ROUGH PLASTER FINISH OBTAINED BY FLINGING PLASTER ON A WALL W/ A
HAND OPERATED MACHINE. EFFLORESCENCE AN ENCRUSTATION OF SOLUBLE
SALTS CAUSED BY FREE ALKALIES LEACHED FROM MORTAR OR ADJACENT
CONCRETE AS MOISTURE MOVE THROUGH IT. ADIABATIC CURING - THE CURING
OF CONCRETE OR MORTAR W/O THE GAIN OR LOSS OF HEAT DURING THE
CURING PERIOD. WHEATHERED MOST WATERPROOFED TYPE OF MORTAR JOINTS
FOR WALLS. ADOBE BRICK LARGE ROUGHLY MOULDED SUN DRIED CLAY BRICKS
OF VARYING SIZES. ASHLAR BRICK A BRICK WHOSE FACE HAS BEEN HACKED
TO RESEMBLE ROUGHLY HACKED STONE. RETARDER AN ADMIXTURE WHICH DELAY
THE SETTING OF CEMENT PASTE OR MIXTURES/ AN ADDITIVE MIXED WITH
PLASTER TO CONTROL THE RATE OF HARDENING. STEAM CURING THE CURING
OF CONCRETE OR MORTAR IN WATER VAPOR AT AN ELEVATED TEMPERATURE AT
EITHER ATMOSPHERIC OR HIGH PRESSURE. QUOIN / COIN IN MASONRY, A
HARD STONE OR BRICK USED TO REINFORCE AN EXTERNAL CORNER OF A WALL.
ZOCALO LOW WALL AROUND A CHALET-TYPE HOUSE. FORTIFICATION THA WALL
OF INTRAMUROS. SCRATCH COAT INITIAL SCORED LAYER OF PLASTER WORK.
CINDER BLOCK A LIGHT WEIGHT MASONRY UNIT MADE OF CINDER CONCRETE.
MORTAR FOR BLOCK LAYING IS 0.0125 m. PLASTERING THICKNESS IS 0.016
m. MORTAR FILLER FOR HOLLOW CELL 0.05 X 0.075 X 0.20 = 0.00075
cu.m.FOR 4 CELL/BLOCK = 0.00075 X 4 = 0.003 cu.m. FOR 4 CHB.FERROUS
AND NONFERROUS METALSFERROUS- METAL IN WHICH IRON IS THE PRINCIPAL
ELEMENT.NONFERROUS- CONTAINING NO, OR VERY LITTLE IRON.FERROUS
METAL:STEEL- A MALLEABLE ALLOY OF IRON AND CARBON PRODUCED BY
MELTING AND REFINING PIG IRON AND/ OR SCRAP STEEL, GRADED ACCORDING
TO THE CARBON CONTENT. PRODUCE BY THREE BASIC RAW MATERIALS, IRON
ORE, AND LIMESTONE. FIVE PARTICLES OF ALL THREE BASIC INGREDIENTS
OF STEEL, WHICH OTHERWISE WOULD BE WASTE, ARE BLENDED AND BURNED ON
A MOVING GATE TO CAUSE THE FORMATION OF CLINKERS. THESE ARE CALLED
SINTER, A HIGH- GRADE BLAST-FURNANCE CHARGE MATERIAL.FROM THESE,
RAW MATERIALS WHICH IS MELTED INTO INGOTS PLACE IN MOLDS, A GRAT
VARIETY OF PRODUCTS USED IN CONSTRUCTION ARE MADE. THEY INCLUDED:
COLD-ROLLED SHEETS ARE GALVANIZED (GIVEN A ZINC COATING). PIG IRON
IS USED TO MAKE CAST IRON WHICH IS HIGH IN COMPRESSIVE STRENGHT BUT
LOW IN TENSILE STRENGHT, AND HAS LITTLE USE FOR CONSTRUCTION.
HOWEVER SINCE IT IS CHEAP AND EASY TO CAST, IT IS USED FOR PUMPS,
MOTORS, ENGINES AND BECAUSE OF ITS CORROSION RESISTANCE IT IS USED
FOR PIPES TO SOME EXTENT. WROUGHT IRON IS PRODUCED WHEN PIG IRON IS
MELTED IN SUCH A WAY AS TO REMOVE NEARLY ALL OF THE CARBON AND
OTHER IMPURITIES. IT IS EASILY WORKED AND IS TOUGH AND DUCTILE. ITS
MAIN USES ARE FOR WIRE AND METAL ORNAMENTS. STAINLESS STEELS ARE
MADE WITH CHROMIUM OR A COMBINATION OF NICKEL AND CHROMIUM USED IN
BUILDINGS OF EXTERIOR WALLS PANELS, FRAMES FOR DOORS EXPANSION
JOINTS, FLASHING, COPINGS, FASCIA AND GRAVEL STOPS. COPPER- BEARING
STEEL HAS HIGH RESISTANCE TO CORROSION AND IS USED FOR MAKING SHEET
STEEL AND METAL LATH.STEEL PRODUCTS ROLLED STRUCTURAL SHAPES SHEET
PILING- SECTIONS ARE MADE TO INTERLOCK AND ARE AVAILABLE IN SEVERAL
SHAPE. STEEL PIPE- SEAMLESS OR WELDED SMALL DIAMETER PIPE AND
ELECTRICALLY WELDED LARGE DIAMETER PIPE. REINFORCING STEEL- MADE
FROM NEW STEEL OR FROM DISCARDED RAILWAY- CAR AXLES OR
RAILS.REINFORCING STEEL COMES IN PLAIN OR DEFORMED BARS, THAT IS,
BARS WHICH HAVE LUGS OR DEFORMATIONS ROLLED ON THE SURFACE TO
PROVIDE ARCHORAGE IN CONCRETE.SIZES-START WITH NO.2 OR in. (DIVIDE
A NUMBER OF BAR BY 8 TO GET THE EQUIVALENT IN inch DIAMETER)No. 2=
= 6 mm.No. 3= 3/8 = 10 mm.No. 4= = 12mm.No. 5= 5/8 = 16mm.No. 6= =
20mm.No. 7= 7/8 = 22mm.No. 8= 1 = 25mm.No. 9= 1 1/8 = 30mm. WELDED
WIRE FABRIC- ANOTHER TYPE OF REINFORCING MATERIAL. IT CONSISTS OF
PARALLEL, LONGITUDINAL WIRES WELDED TO TRANSVERSE WIRES AT REGULAR
INTERVALS. STEEL WIRE OVER 150,000 USES FOR WIRE INCLUDING PINS,
NEEDLES, NAILS, BOLTS, CABLES, PIANO WIRE, FENCES. BOLTS AND NUTS
(EITHER HOT FORGED OR COLD-FORMED FROM WIRE OF THE APPROPRIATE
DIAMETER). FOR BOLTS, WIRE IS FED INTO AN AUTOMATIC BOLT-MAKING
MACHINE WHICH CUTS TO LENGTH HEADS, TRIMS, POINTS, AND IN MANY
ROLLS THE THREAD. STEEL STRAPPING MADE FROM HIGH-TENSILE FLAT WIRE
IN A NUMBER OF SIZES. USED FOR BANDING COLUMN FORMS TO KEEP THEM
FROM BULGING UNDER THE PRESSURE OF FRESHLY POURED CONCRETE. A
TIGHTERNER TIGHTENS IT AND THE TWO LAPPED ENDS IS SEALED. OPEN WEB
STEEL JOISTS LIGHTWEIGHT WARREN-TYPE TRUSSES MADE IN SEVERAL
DIFFERENT STYLES. SHEET STEEL BLACK AND GALVANIZED, CAN BE USED TO
MANUFACTURE CORRUGATED ROOFING AND SIDING AND FORMED STEEL DECKING.
STEEL STUDS LIGHTWEIGHT, REQUIRING MINIMUM STORAGE SPACE AND DOES
NOT WARP OR SHRINK. FASTENERS DO NOT POP, AND JOINTS STAY CLOSED.
MUCH FASTER TO INSTALL THAN WOOD STUD INSTALLATION. AVAILABLE IN 1
5/8, 2 AND 3 5/8 INCHES. PLUMBING STACKS AND ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
FIT EASILY INTO A STEEL-FRAMEWALL. PANS AND DONES MANUFACTURED FOR
USE IN FORMING ONE-WAY AND TWO-WAY RIBBED CONCRETE FLOOR
SYSTEMS.NONFERROUS METALS:ALUMINUM ITS ORE, BAUXITE, REQUIRES 10
KILOWATT HOURS FOR EACH POUND OF METAL ALUMINUM EXTRACTED. THE
REDDISH BROWN ORE IS WASHED AND TREATED IN A SODA SOLUTION TO YIELD
A CHALKY-WHITE POWDER CALLED ALUMNA, CONTAINING A HIGH
CONCENTRATION OF ALUMINUM. ALUMINUM FOIL USED AS A VAPOR BARRIER ON
WALLS AND CEILINGS AND AS REFLECTIVE INSULATION. COPPER A LUSTROUS
REDDISH METAL, HIGHLY DUCTILE AND MALLEABLE; HAS HIGH TENSILE
STRENGTH, IS AN EXCELLENT ELECTRICAL AND THERMAL CONDUCTOR, IS
AVAILABLE IN A WIDE VARIETY OF SHAPES; WIDELY USED FOR DOWNSPOUTS,
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS, FLASHINGS GUTTERS, ROOFING, ETC. COPPER
ALLOYS ARE BRASSES, AND BRONZES WHICH CONTAIN PRIMARILY ZINC AND
TIN, RESPECTIVELY, AND THE ALLOYS CONTAINING NICKEL. BRASSES ARE
USED IN ARCHITECTURAL AND HARDWARE APPLICTIONS. BRONZES ARE USED IN
THE PRODUCTION OF SPRINGS. LEAD A SOFT, MALLEABLE, HEAVY METAL; HAS
LOW MELTING POINT AND A HIGH COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION. VERY
EASY TO CUT AND WORK, ENABLING IT TO BE FITTED OVER UNEVEN
SURFACES. USED FOR ROOFING, FLASHING AND SPANDREL WALL PANELS. TIN
A LUSTROUS WHITE, SOFT AND MALLEABLE METAL HAVING A LOW MELTING
POINT; RELATIVELY UNAFFECTED BY EXPOSURE TO AIR; USED FOR MAKING
ALLOYS AND SOLDER AND IN COATING SHEET METAL.STRUCTURAL SHAPESTHE
MOST COMMON SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL USED IN BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION ARE THE AMERICAN STANDARD FORMS SUCH AS:1. SQUARE BARS
6. I-BEAM 2. ROUND BARS 7. TEE BEAM 3. PLATE BARS 8. H-COLUMN 4.
ANGLE BARS 9. WIDE FLANGES 5. CHANNELS 10. ZEESTANDARD CHANNELTHE
STANDARD CHANNEL HAS THE SHAPE OF UNSYMMETRICAL BALANCE CONSISTING
OF TWO FLANGES ON ONE SIDE. IT THEREFORE REQUIRES LATERAL SUPPORT
TO PREVENT ITS TENDENCY TO BUCKLE. THE STANDARD CHANNELS ARE
GENERALLY USED AS ELEMENTS OF BUILT-UP SECTIONS FOR COLUMNS AND ARE
ALSO SUITABLE FOR FRAMING AROUND FLOOR OPENINGS, SPANDRELS, AND
LINTELS ATTRIBUTED TO THE ABSENCE OF FLANGE ON THE OTHER SIDE. THE
CHANNEL SECTION IS IDENTIFIRD AS C 15 x 20 WHICH MEANS THAT THE
CHANNEL HAS A DEPTH OF 20 cm. AND WEIGHTS 15 kg. PER METER
LENGTH.WIDE FLANGEWIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE DESIGNATED AS W 12 x 24
WHICH MEANS THAT THE FLANGE HAS A DEPTH OF 24 cm. AND IT WEIGHS 12
kg. PER METER LENGTH. ALL WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE GENERALLY WITH
PARALLEL FACE FLANGE EXCEPT THOSE WITH 5% SLOPE INSIDE FACE
PRODUCED BY BETLEHEM STEEL COMPANY. COMPARATIVELY, WIDE FLANGE
SECTIONS ARE MORE EFFICIENT THAN STANDARD I BEAM WITH RESPECT TO
BENDING RESISTANCE.STANDARD I-BEAMTHE USE OF I-BEAM AS A COLUMN IS
UNECONOMICAL, BECAUSE THE WHIRL OR REVOLVING ACTION OF THE
STRUCTURE ABOUT AN AXIS THROUGH THE CENTROID PARALLEL TO THE WAB OF
THE I-BEAM IS COMPARATIVELY SMALL.H-BEARING PILESH-BEARING PILES
ALTHOUGH SUITABLE FOR PILE DRIVING ON DEEP EXCAVATIONS IS MUCH MORE
SUITABLE THAN THE I-BEAM FOR COLUMNS.ZEE SECTIONSTHE ZEE SECTION IS
ANOTHER STRUCTURAL FORM IN A LETTER Z WHICH IS NOT FREQUENTLY USED
IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION EXEPT ON THE FABRICATION OF STEEL WINDOWS
AND OTHER FRAMES. WROUGHT IRON A COMMERCIALLY PURE IRON OF FIBROUS
NATURE, VALUED FOR ITS CORROSION RESISTANCE AND DUCTILITY. CAST
IRON AN IRON ALLOY USUALLY INCLUDING CARBON AND SILICON WHICH HAS
HIGH COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH BUT LOW TENSILE STRENGTH. WELDING IS THE
PROCESS BY WHICH TWO METALS ARE SO JOINT THAT THERE IS AN ACTUAL
UNION OF THE INTERATOMIC BONDS. EXTRUSION THE PROCESS OF PRODUCING
METAL SHAPES OF A CONSTANT CROSS SECTION BY FORCING THE HOT METAL
THROUGH AN ORFICE IN A DIE BY MEANS OF A PRESSURE RAM. RED OXIDE
PROTECTIVE COAT FOR IRON. LAP SEAM A JOINT FORMED BY OVERLAPPING
THE EDGES OF METAL SHEET OR PLATES AND JOINING THEM BY RIVETING OR
SOLDERING OR BRACING.JOINING STEEL MEMBERSSTEEL SHAPES CAN BE
JOINED INTO A BUILDING FRAME WITH ANY OF THREE FASTENING
TECHNIQUES. RIVETS A RIVETS IS A FASTENER CONSISTING OF A
CYLINDRICAL BODY AND A FORMED HEAD WHICH IS BROUGHT TO A WHITE
HEAT, INSERTED THROUGH HOLES IN THE MEMBERS TO BE JOINED, AND
HOT-WORKED WITH A PNEUMATIC HAMMER TO PRODUCED A SECOND HEAD
OPPOSITE THE FIRSTHEAD.PROCESS OF RIVETING:A) A HOT STEEL RIVET IS
INSERTED IN HOLES THROUGH THE TWO MEMBERS TO BE JOINED,B) ITS HEAD
IS THEN HELD WITH HAND HAMMER WITH A CUP-SHAPED DEPRESSION,C) WHILE
A PNEUMATIC HAMMER DRIVES A RIVET SET REPEATEDLY AGAINST THE BODY
OF THE RIVET TO FORM THE SECOND HEAD,D) THE RIVET SHRINKS AS IT
COOLS, DRAWING MEMBERS TIGHTLY TOGETHER. BOLTSTHE BOLTS COMMONLY
USED IN STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION FALL INTO TWO GENERAL
CATEGORIES:1) CARBON STEEL BOLTS OR COMMON BOLTS ARE SIMILAR TO THE
ORDINARY MACHINE BOLTS THAT CAN BE PURCHASED IN HARDWARE STORES.2)
HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS ARE HEAT TREATED DURING MANUFACTURE TO DEVELOP
THE NECESSARY STRENGTH. IT IS USUALLY TIGHTENED USING PNEUMATIC OR
ELECTRIC IMPACT WRENCH.A MAJOR PROBLEM IN HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTING OR
FRICTION-TYPE CONNECTIONS IS HOW TO VERIFY THE NECESSARY TENSION
HAS BEEN ACHIEVED IN ALL THE BOLTS IN A CONNECTION. SEVERAL WAY TO
ACHIEVED PROPER TIGHTENING: TURN-OF-NUT METHOD LOAD INDICATOR
WASHER TENSION CONTROL BOLTSPROCESS OF TIGHTENING A TENSION CONTROL
BOLT:A) THE WRENCH HOLDS BOTH THE NUT AND THE SPLINED BODY OF THE
BOLT, AND TURNS THEM AGAINST ONE ANOTHER TO TIGHTEN THE BOLT,B)
WHEN THE REQUIRED TORQUE IS ACHIEVED, THE SPLINED END TWISTS OFF IN
THE WRENCH,C) A PLUNGER INSIDE THE WRENCH DISCHARGES THE SPLINED
END INTO A CONTAINER. WELDINGWELDING CAN JOIN THE MEMBERS OF A
STEEL FRAME AS IF THEY WERE A MONOLITHIC WHOLE. WELDED ARE STRONGER
THAN THE MEMBERS THEY JOIN IN RESISTING BOTH SHEAR AND MOMENT
FORCES. TYPICAL WELDS USED IN STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION: FILLET WELD
DOUBLE FILLET WELD DOUBLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD SINGLE-BEVEL GROOVE
WELD WITH BACKUP BAR V-GROOVE WELD V-GROOVE WELD WITH BACKUP BAR
PUDDLE WELD PARTIAL-PENETRATION SINGLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELDTHE BASIC
SYBOLS ARE:BACK FILLET PLUG OR SLOTGROOVE OR BUTTSQUARE V BEVEL U J
FLARE V FLARE BEVEL THE ARROWTHE REFERENCE LINE CARRIES THE
DESCRIPTIVE SYMBOLS
THE ARROW POINTS TO THE WELD THE BASIC SYMBOLSTHE BASIC WELD
SYMBOL IS LOCATED ON EITHER SIDE OF THE REFERENCE LINE AS
FOLLOWS:SYMBOLS ON THE TOP OF THE REFERENCE LINE REFER TO WELDS ON
THE SIDE OF THE JOINT OPPOSITE THE ARROW
SYMBOLS ON THE BOTTOM OF THE REFERENCE LINE REFER TO WELDS ON
THE SAME SIDE OF THE JOINT AS AS THE ARROWSUPPLEMENTARY
SYMBOLSFIELD WELD THIS WELD BE DONE IN THE FIELD DURING ERECTION.
OTHER WELDS ARE DONE EARLIER IN THE FABRICATORS SHOP.WELD ALL
AROUND THIS INDICATES THAT THE WELD SHOULD BE CARRIED FULLY AROUND
THE PERIMETER OF THE JOINING PIECES.BACKUP BAR AS INDICATED IN THIS
EXAMPLE, A BACKUP BAR TO SUPPORT THE FIRST PASS OF THE WELD MUST BE
PLACED ON THE SIDE OF THE JOINT OPPOSITE THE ARROW.SPACER SMALL
METAL SPACERS ARE USED TO MAINTAIN A GAP BETWEEN THE PIECS TO BE
JOINED, PRIOR TO WELDING.A SHARP BEND NEAR THE END OF THE ARROW
INDICATES THAT THE ARROWHEAD IS POINTING TOWARD THE GROOVED SIDE OF
THE BEVEL OR J-GROOVED JOINTGLASSTHE MAJOR INGREDIENT OF GLASS IS
SAND (SILICON DIOXIDE). A HARD BRITTLE INORGANIC SUBSTANCE,
ORDINARILY TRANSPARENT OR TRANSLUCENT; PRODUCED BY MELTING A
MIXTURE OF SILICA, A FLUX AND A STABILIZER; WHILE MOLTEN MAYBE
BLOWN, DRAWN, ROLLED, PRESSED OR CAST TO A VARIETY OF SHAPES.DURING
ITS MANUFACTURED, ORDINARY WINDOW GLASS IS ANNEALED, COOLED SLOWLY
UNDER CONTROLLED CONDITION, TO AVOID LOCKED-IN THERMAL STRESSES
THAT MIGHT CAUSE IT TO BEHAVE UNPREDICTABLY IN USE.THICKNESSES OF
GLASSGLASS IS TYPICALLY MANUFACTURED IN A SERIES OF THICKNESSES
RANGING FROM APPROXIMATELY 2.5mm, THROUGH 3mm, IS CALLED
SINGLE-STRENGTH, OR 6mm TO 22mm, IS CALLED DOUBLE-STRENGTH, AND ON
SPECIAL ORDER, 25mm IS AVAILABLE.TYPES OF CLEAR GLASS1. TEMPERED
GLASSTEMPERED GLASS IS PRODUCED BY CUTTING ANNEALED GLASS TO THE
REQUIRED SIZES FOR USE, REHEATING IT TO APPROXIMATELY 1200 DEGREES
FAHRENHEIT, COOLING BOTH ITS SURFACES RAPIDLY WITH A BLAST OF AIR
WHILE ITS CORE COOLS MUCH MORE SLOWLY. ITS FOUR TIMES AS STRONG IN
BENDING AND MORE RESISTANT TO THERMAL STRESS AND IMPACT.2.
HEAT-STRENGTHENED GLASSTHE HEAT STRENGTHENED PROCESS IS SIMILAR TO
TEMPERING, BUT ITS, ABOUT ONE-THIRD AS HIGH AS TEMPERED GLASS IN
TERMS OF BENDING AND STRENGTH. 3. LAMINATED GLASSITS MADE BY
SANDWICHING A TRANSPARENT VINYL INTERLAER BETWEEN SHEETS OF GLASS
AND BONDING THE THREE LAYERS TOGETHER UNDER HEAT AND PRESSURE. WHEN
ITS BREAKS, THE SOFT VINYL HOLDS THE SHARDS OF GLASS IN PLACE
RATHER THAN ALLOWING THEM TO FALL OUT OF THE FRAME.4. PATTERNED OR
ROLLED AND ROUGH CAST GLASSHOT GLASS CAN BE ROLLED INTO SHEETS WITH
MANY DIFFERENT SURFACE PATTERNS FOR USE WHERE LIGHT TRANSMISSION IS
DESIRED BUT VISION MUST BE OBSCURED FOR PRIVACY.5. SPANDREL
GLASSSPECIAL OPAQUE GLASSES ARE PRODUCED FOR COVERING THE SPANDREL
AREA (THE BANDS OF WALL AROUND THE EDGES OF FLOORS) IN GLASS
CURTAIN. IT IS USUALLY TEMPERED OR HEAT-STRENGTHENED TO RESIST THE
THERMAL STRESSES THAT CAN CAUSED BY ACCUMULATIONS OF SOLAR HEAT
BEHIND THE SPANDREL.6. WIRED GLASSSIMPLY A ROLLED GLASS INTO WHICH
WIRE MESH IS INSERTED DURING THE PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. THE WIRE
GREATLY INCREASES THE RESISTANCE TO SHATTERING THROUGH IMPACT. ITS
USE FOR SAFETY GLAZING, WHEN ITS BREAKS FROM THERMAL STRESS, THE
WIRES HOLD THE SHEET OF GLASS TOGETHER.TINTED AND REFLECTIVE COATED
GLASSSOLAR HEAT BUILDUP CAN BE PROBLEMATIC IN THE INHABITED SPACES
OF BUILDINGS WITH LARGE AREAS OF GLASS, ESPECIALLY DURING THE WARM
PART OF THE YEAR. THIS IS USE TO REDUCE GLARE AND CUT DOWN ON SOLAR
HEAT GAIN.1) TINTED GLASSTINTED GLASS IS MADE BY ADDING SMALL
AMOUNTS OF SELECTED CHEMICAL ELEMENTS TO THE MOLTEN GLASS MIXTURE
TO PRODUCE THE DESIRED HUE AND INTENSITY OF COLOR IN GRAYS,
BRONZES, BLUES, GREEN, AND GOLDS.2) REFLECTIVE COATED
GLASSREFLECTIVE COATED GLASS APPEAR AS MIRROR FROM THE OUTSIDE ON A
BRIGHT DAY AND AT NIGHT, WITH LIGHTS ON INSIDE THE BUILDING, THEY
APPEAR AS DARK BUT TRANSPARENT GLASS.3) INSULATING GLASSA SECOND
SHEET OF GLASS APPLIED TO A WINDOW WITH AN AIRSPACE BETWEEN THE
SHEETS CUTS THIS RATE OF HEAT LOSS IN HALF. TWO KINDS OF EDGES
SEALS ARE FUSED GLASS EDGES AND A METAL SPLINE AND ORGANIC
SEALANT.GLASS PRODUCTSI. GLASS BLOCKSCOMPARABLE IN MANY WAYS TO
UNIT MASONRY BUT HAVE THE ADDED FEATURE OF TRANSMITTING LIGHT. THEY
ARE MADE INTO TWO SEPARATE HALVES, WHICH ARE HEAT-SEALED TOGETHER
TO FORM A HOLLOW UNIT WITH REASONBLY HIGH THERMAL EFFICIENCY AND
SOUND INSULATION. THE EDGE SURFACES OF THE BLOCK ARE COATED WITH A
GRITTY MORTAR BOND.TWO TYPES:1. FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS DIRECT OR DIFFUSE
THE DAYLIGHT WHICH PASSES THEOUGH THEM TO IMPROVE THE ILLUMINATION
OF THE BUILDING INTERIOR.THREE STYLES OF FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS:A. A
LIGHT DIRECTING BLOCK DIRECTS INCOMING LIGHT UPWARD TOWARD THE
CEILING. USED ALWAYS ABOVE EYE LEVEL.B. A LIGHT DIFFUSING BLOCK
DIFFUSES INCOMING LIGHT EVENLY THROUGHOUT THE INTERIOR OF THE
ROOM.C. GENERAL PURPOSES BLOCK2. DECORATIVELY OR ARCHITECTURAL
GLASS AVAILABLE IN A WIDE RANGE OF STYLES AND PATTERNS. THESE GLASS
MASONRY UNITS PROVIDE ALMOST UNLIMITED DESIGN VERSATILITY WHEN USED
IN WINDOW, OPENINGS AND FACADES, AS INTERIOR WALLS AND DIVIDER
PANELING. PAINT FINISHES THE PURPOSE OF A FINISH IS TO PROTECT,
PRESERVE OR VISUALLY ENHANCE THE SURFACE TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED.
FINISHES INCLUDE PLASTIC LAMINATED SURFACE COVERINGS SUCH AS
PLASTIC LAMINATED AND VINYL OF FABRIC WALL COVERING. PAINT
GENERALLY REFERS TO OPAQUE OR CLEAR FILM-FORMING MATERIAL THAT ACTS
AS A SHIELD OR BARRIER BETWEEN THE BUILDING MATERIAL AND THOSE
ELEMENTS OR CONDITIONS THAT MAY ADVERSELY AFFECTS OR DETERIORATE.
THE PAINT FILM MUST RESIST DETERIORATION DUE TO SUNLIGHT HEAT,
TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS, WATER OR MOISTURE VAPOR, MILDEW AND DECAY
CHEMICALS AND PHYSICAL ABRASION. PAINT MAY ALSO SERVE TO MAKE
SURFACES MORE SANITARY, IMPROVE HEATING AND LIGHTING EFFECTS, AND
PROMOTE HUMAN COMFORT AND SAFETY. WHEN USING PAINT, THE
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF COLOR AND SURFACE TEXTURE MUST BE
CONSIDERED. CERTAIN COLORS MAY BE STIMULATING WHILE OTHERS ARE
RELAXING. WHITE AND LIGHT COLORS REFLECT SIZE OF FORM AND SPACE.
DARK COLOR CAN INHIBIT THE PERCEPTION OF FORM AND MAY BE USED FOR
CONTRAST. FLAT PAINT FINISHES SOFTEN AND DISTRIBUTE, ILLUMINATION
EVENLY. GLOSSY FINISHES REFLECT LIGHT AND CAN CAUSE GLARE, BUT THEY
ALSO PROVIDE SMOOTH, EASILY CLEANED, NON-ABSORPTIVE SURFACES. MOST
PAINTS ARE CAREFULLY FORMULATED TO MEET SPECIFIC APPLICATION THAT
USE REQUIREMENTS AND ARE READY-MIXED FOR APPLICATION EXCEPT FOR
THINNING, STIRRING, OR THE ADDITION OF AN ACTIVATOR OR CATALYST. IT
IS ALWAYS ADVISABLE THEREFORE TO FOLLOW THE PAINT MANUFACTURERS
RECOMMENDATIONS IN THE APPLICATION AND USE OF A PAINT OR OTHER
PROTECTIVE COATING.PAINTS MAY BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO:MATERIAL
TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED WOOD, METAL MASONRY, CONCRETE, PLASTIC,
ETC.,SURFACE FINISH TEXTURE GLOSS, SEMI-GLOSS, EGG SHELL, SATIN,
FLAT,& VARNISH. CONSIDERATIONS IN THE SELECTION AND USE OF A
PAINT INCLUDE:SURFACE PREPARATION - THE FOUNDATION OF ANY PAINT
SYSTEM MUST BE PROPERLY PREPARED TO ENSURE PROPER ADHESION OF THE
PAINT FILM TO ITS SURFACE.TYPE OF PAINT - PAINT MUST BE COMPATIBLE
WITH THE MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED.- SPECIFICATIONS INCLUDE
THE PAINT VEHICLE, FINISH COLOR, EXPOSURE, AND MANUFACTURER AND/OR
TRADE NAME.METHOD- DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF PAINT AND THE MATERIAL
TO WHICH IT IS BEING APPLIED. COATINGS MAY BE BRUSHED, ROLLED OR
SPRAYED ON.DRYING- THE TIME AND CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR A PAINT TO
DRY MUST BE CHECKED.FILM THICKNESS- THE DRY FILM THICKNESS (DFT) IS
MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE NUMBER OF COATS.- MULTIPLE THIN COATS ARE
GENERALLY MORE EFFECTIVE THAN A SINGLE THICK COAT.- A MINIMUM OF 2
COATS IS REQUIRED TO PRODUCE 5 MIL DFT.COVERAGE- A PAINTS COVERAGE
CAN BE ESTIMATED BY ITS PERCENTAGE OF VOLUME SOLIDS:- ie. PAINT
WITH 100% VOLUME SOLIDS:(NO THINNER)1 GAL COVERS1600 SF (149 m2) @
1 MIL DFT 800 SF ( 74 m2) @ 2 MIL DFT 400 SF ( 37 m2) @ 4 MIL
DFT-PAINT WITH 50% VOLUME SOLIDS (50% THINNER)1 GAL COVERS 800 SF
(74 m2) @ 1 MIL DFT 400 SF (37 m2) @ 2 MIL DFTPAINT GENERALLY
CONSIST OF:PIGMENT FINELY GROUND SOLIDS THAT PROVIDE THE PAINTS
COVERINGS OR HIDING POWER OR ITS COLOR. VEHICLE LIQUID MEDIUM TO
CARRY THE PIGMENT IN SUSPENSION DURING APPLICATION. AND CONSISTS OF
BINDERS AND SOLVENTS. BINDER SERVE TO FORM THE PAINT FILM AND CAUSE
IT TO ADHERE THE SURFACE BEING PAINTED. BINDERS ARE LARGELY
RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PROTECTIVE QUALITY AND DURABILITY OF THE PAINT
FIL OR PROTECTIVE COATING. SOLVENTS OR THINNERS ACTS DRYING AGENTS.
DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF SOLVENT USED, A PAINT MAY DRY OR HARDEN BY
OXIDATION, EVAPORATION, CHEMICAL ACTION, OR BY THERMOSETTING ACTION
AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES.COLOR DEPENDS ON THE TYPE OF PAINT AND THE
MANUFACTURER.EXPOSURE EXTERIOR OR INTERIORCHARACTERISTICS:PIGMENTED
COATING LACQUER AND ENAMEL PAINTSCLEAR COATINGS VARNISHES,
LACQUERS, SHEELAC, SEALERSRUST INHIBITIVE COATINGS ZINC-PIGMENTED
COATINGS ZINC, SILICONS, ALKYD, OR ASPHALT OR BASE COATINGS ASPHALT
OR TAR COATINGS THAT FORM NON-PEMEABLE BARRIERS AGAINST WATER AND
OXYGEN TO PROTECT SUBMERGED FERROUS METAL AND TO WATERPROOF MASONRY
SURFACES.CEMENT MORTAR COATINGS MIXTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT, LIME
AND WATER USED TO DAMPPROOF MASONRY MATERIALS AND PROTECT EXPOSED
STEELPLASTIC AND SYNTHETIC RUBBER COATINGS COATING RESISTANT TO
MILDEW, MOLD, FUMES, MARINE ENVIRONMENTS ETC.,PAINTS MAY BE
CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO ITS VEHICLE OR BINDER:ALKYDS USED FOR
EXTERIOR PAINTS. OIL MODIFIED RESINS THAT HARDEN BY OXIDATION AND
EVAPORATION. THE MOST COMMON PAINT VEHICLE FAST DRYING A HARDER
THAN ORDINARY TIME, LOWERS THE GLOSS, AND IMPROVES THE PAINTS
WETTING PROPERTIES, DURABILITY AND ELASTICITY TO RESIST BLISTERING.
HAVE GOOD DRYING PROPERTIES, DURABILITY AND WATER RESISTANCE FOR
EXTERIOR EXPOSURES, AND GOOD COLOR RETENTION.ASPHALT USED FOR
WATERPROOFING AT FIREWALL AND ROOF DECKING. COATINGS WITH A VEHICLE
OF BOTH PETROLEUM AND NATURAL ASPHALTS ARE USED TO PROTECT WOOD,
MASONRY, CONCRETE AND AS ROOF COATING. HAVE GOOD WATER RESISTANCES
BUT THERMOPLASTIC IN NATURE. ADDITION OF ALUMINUM GLAKES HELPS TO
REFLECT THE SUNS RAYS. ADDITION OF EPOXY RESINS MINIMIZES THE COLD
FLOW AND MAXIMIZES THE CHEMICAL-RESISTANCE OF ASPHALT.CHLORINATED
RUBBER USED FOR INDUSTRIAL FLOORING. USED IN COATINGS HIGHLY
RESISTANT TO ALKALIES, ACIDS, CHEMICALS, AND WATER MAY BE REMOVED
BY COAL TAR SOLVENTS HAS LIMITED RESISTANCE TO PROLONGED HEAT
EXPOSURE USED IN SWIMMING POOLS, WATER TREATMENT PLANTSEPOXY
CATALYZED USED FOR DUCO FINISH. TWO COMPONENT COATINGS CONSISTING
OF A PIGMENTED PRIMER OR ENAMEL AND AN ACTIVATOR OR CATALYST. MIXED
JUST PRIOR TO USE HAS LIMITED POT LIFE PRODUCES BY CHEMICAL ACTION
A DENSE, HARD FILM SIMILAR TO BAKED ENAMEL. HAS EXCELLENT RESISTANT
TO SOLVENTS, CHEMICALS, PHYSICAL ABRASION, TRAFFIC WEAR, A CLEANING
MATERIALS HAS GOOD ADHESION PROPERTIES, COLOR RETENTION AND STAIN
RESISTANCE. HAS GOOD DURABILITY FOR EXTERIOR EXPOSURE BUT MAY
CHALK.HARDWAREHARDWARE - METAL PRODUCTS USED IN CONSTRUCTION, SUCH
AS BOLTS, HINGES, LOCKS, TOOLS, ETC. THEY ARE CLASSIFIED
AS:FINISHING HARDWARE HARDWARE, SUCH AS HINGES LOCKS, CATCHES, ETC.
THAT HAS A FINISHED APPEARANCE AS WELL AS FUNCTION, ESP. THAT USED
WITH DOORS, WINDOWS, AND CABINETS, MAYBE CONSIDERED PART OF THE
DECORATIVE TREATMENT OF A ROOM OR BUILDING.ROUGH HARDWARE IN
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, HARDWARE MEANT TO BE CONCEALED, SUCH AS
BOLTS, NAILS, SCREWS, SPIKES, RODS, AND OTHER METAL FITTINGS.SOME
FINISHING HARDWARE BRANDS:1. SARGENT 7. RABBIT2. STANLEY 8.
UNIVERSAL3. YALE 9. EAGLE4. CORBIN 10. MASTER5. SCHLAGE 11. ALPHA6.
KWIKSET 12. YETIDOORS AN ENTRANCE WAYTYPES OF DOOR: FLUSH A
SMOOTH-SURFACED DOOR HAVING FACES WHICH ARE PLANE WHICH CONCEAL ITS
RAILS AND STILES OR OTHER STRUCTURE WHEN USED INSIDE, IT IS OF
HOLLOW CORE, WHEN USED FOR EXTERIOR IT IS OF SOLID CORE. PANEL DOOR
A DOOR HAVING STILES, RAILS AND SOMETIMES MUNTINS, WHICH FORM ONE
OR MORE FRAMES AROUND RECESSED THINNER PANELS.KINDS OF DOORS:
SWINGING DOOR OVERHEAD SWING-UP GARAGE DOOR A RIGID OVERHEAD DOOR
WHICH OPENS AS AN ENTIRE UNIT. OVERHEAD ROLL-UP GARAGE DOOR A DOOR
WHICH, WHEN OPEN, ASSUMES A HORIZONTAL POSITION ABOVE THE DOOR
OPENING, MADE OF SEVERAL LEAVES. ROLL-UP DOOR (SOLID OR SEE-THROUGH
ALUMINUM SHUTTERS) A DOOR MADE UP OF SMALL HORIZONTAL INTERLOCKING
METAL SLATS WHICH ARE GUIDED IN A TRACK: THE CONFIGURATION COILS
ABOUT AN OVERHEAD DRUM WHICH IS HOUSED AT THE HEAD OF THE OPENING,
EITHER MANUAL OR MOTOR - DRIVEN. ACCORDION DOOR A HINGED DOOR
CONSISTING OF A SYSTEM OF PANELS WHICH ARE HUNG FROM AN OVERHEAD
TRACK. WHEN THE DOOR IS OPEN, THE FACES OF THE PANELS CLOSE FLAT
AGAINST EACH OTHER. WHEN THE DOOR IS CLOSED, THE EDGES OF ADJACENT
PANELS BUTT AGAINST (OR INTERLOCK) EACH OTHER TO FORM A SOLID
BARRIER. BI-FOLDING DOOR - ONE OF TWO OR MORE DOORS WHICH ARE
HINGED TOGETHER SO THAT THEY CAN OPEN AND FOLD IN A CONFINED SPACE.
REVOLVING DOOR - AN EXTERIOR DOOR CONSISTING OF FOUR LEAVES (AT 900
TO EACH OTHER) WHICH PIVOT ABOUT A COMMON VERTICAL AXIS WITHIN A
CYLINDRICALLY SHAPED VESTIBULE, PREVENTS THE DIRECT PASSAGE OF AIR
THROUGH THE VESTIBULE, THEREBY ELIMINATING DRAFTS FROM OUTSIDE.
SLIDING DOOR - A DOOR MOUNTED ON TRACK WHICH SLIDES IN A HORIZONTAL
DIRECTION USUALLY PARALLEL TO ONE WALL. BY-PASSING SLIDING DOOR - A
SLIDING DOOR WHICH SLIDES TO COVER A FIXED DOOR OF THE SAME WIDTH
OR ANOTHER SLIDING DOOR. SLIDING POCKET DOOR - A DOOR WHICH SLIDES
INSIDE A HOLLOW OF THE WALL. DUTCH DOOR - A HINGED DOOR WHICH IS
DIVIDED TO TWO. THE UPPER PART CAN BE OPENED WHILE THE LOWER
PORTION IS CLOSED. FRENCH DOORFINISHING HARDWARES:A. TO HUNG A
DOORHINGE- A MOVABLE JOINT USED TO ATTACH SUPPORT AND TURN A DOOR
ABOUT A PIVOT, CONSISTS OF TWO PLATES JOINED TOGETHER BY A PIN
WHICH SUPPORT THE DOOR AND CONNECT IT TO ITS FRAME, ENABLING IT TO
SWING OPEN OR CLOSED.TYPES OF HINGES:1. BUTT HINGE - CONSISTS OF
TWO RECTANGULAR METAL PLATES WHICH ARE JOINED WITH A PIN, IN LARGE
HINGE, THE PIN IS REMOVABLE, IN SMALL HINGES, IT IS FIXED. FAST PIN
HINGE - A HINGE IN WHICH THE PIN IS FASTENED PERMANENTLY IN PLACE.
FULL SURFACE HINGE - A HINGED DESIGNED FOR ATTACHMENT ON THE
SURFACE OF THE DOOR AND JAMB WITHOUT MORTISING. LOOSE JOINT HINGE -
A DOOR HINGED HAVING TWO KNUCKLES, ONE OF WHICH HAS VERTICAL PIN
THAT FITS IN A CORRESPONDING HOLE IN THE OTHER, BY LIFTING THE DOOR
UP, OFF THE VERTICAL PIN, THE DOOR MAY BE REMOVED WITH UNSCREWING
THE HINGED. LOOSE PIN HINGE - A HINGE HAVING A REMOVABLE PIN WHICH
PERMITS ITS TWO PARTS TO BE SEPARATED. PAUMELLE HINGED - A TYPE OF
DOOR HINGE HAVING A SINGLE JOINT OF THE PIVOT TYPE, USUALLY OF
MODERN DESIGN. OLIVE KNUCKLE HINGE - A PAUMELLE HINGE WITH KNUCKLES
FORMING AN OVAL SHAPE.2. SPRING HINGES - A HINGE CONTAINING ONE OR
MORE SPRINGS, WHEN A DOOR IS OPENED, THE HINGE RETURNS IT TO OPEN
POSITION AUTOMATICALLY, MAY ACT IN ONE DIRECTION ONLY, OR IN BOTH
DIRECTIONS. DOUBLE ACTION - EXCELLENT FOR USE IN RESTAURANTS,
HOSPITALS, KITCHENS, THE DOOR OPENS BY JUST PUSHING IT WITH THE
SHOULDER OR FEET. SINGLE ACTION3. PIVOT HINGE - THE AXLE OR PIN
ABOUT WHICH A WINDOW OR DOOR ROTATES. VERTICAL SPRING PIVOT HINGE-
A SPRING HINGE FOR A DOOR WHICH IS MORTISTED INTO THE HEEL OF THE
DOOR, THE DOOR IS FASTENED TO THE FLOOR AND DOOR HEAD WITH
PIVOTS.B. TO FIX ONE SASHTYPES OF BOLT AND FASTENER: CHAIN HEAD AND
FOOT BOLT DOOR OR BARREL BOLT FLUSH BOLT CHAIN DOOR FASTENERC. TO
LOCK THE DOORLOCKSET A COMPLETE LOCK SYSTEM INCLUDING THE BASIC
LOCKING MECHANISMS AND ALL THE ACCESSORIES, SUCH AS KNOBS
ESCUTCHEONS, PLATES, ETC. BUTTON A SMALL REJECTING MEMBER USED TO
FASTEN THE FRAME OF A DOOR OR WINDOW. KNOB A HANDLE, MORE OR LESS
SPHERICAL USUALLY FOR OPERATING A LOCK. ESCUTCHEON A PROTECTIVE
PLATE SURROUNDING THE KEYHOLE OF A DOOR. PLATES A THIN FLAT SHEET
OF MATERIAL. STRIKES A METAL PLATE OR BOX WHICH IS SET IN A
DOORJAMB AND IS EITHER PLACED OR RECESSED TO RECEIVE THE BOLT OR
LATCH OF A LOCK, FIXED ON DOOR. LIP STRIKE THE PROJECTION FROM THE
SIDE OF A TRIKE PLATE WHICH THE BOLT OF A LOCK STRIKES FIRST, WHEN
A DOOR IS CLOSED; PROJECTS OUT FROM THE SIDE OF THE STRIKE PLATE TO
PROTECT THE FRAME.USE A DIFFERENT LOCKSET FOR EACH ROOM: ENTRANCE
LOCKSET WITH A KEY AND UNIVERSAL BUTTON WHICH WHEN PUSHED STAYS PUT
AND LOCKS THE DOOR. BEDROOM LOCKSET SAME AS THE ENTRANCE LOCKSET
BUT SIMPLER IN DESIGN. TOILET LOCKSET WITHOUT A KEY HAS A BUTTON
THAT IS PUSHED TO LOCK INSIDE.KIND OF LOCKSET: INTEGRAL LOCK A TYPE
OF MORTISE LOCK HAVING ITS CYLINDER IN THE KNOB. CYLINDER LOCK A
BORED LOCK WHICH HAS A CYLINDRICAL CASE INTO WHICH A SEPARATE LATCH
CASE FITS.LATCH A SIMPLE FASTENING DEVISE HAVING A LATCH BOLT, BUT
NOT A DEAD BOLT CONTAINS NO PROVISIONS FOR LOCKING WITH A KEY.NIGHT
LATCH KEY OPERATED LATCH WITH SAFETY PIN.LIFT LATCH A TYPE OF DOOR
LATCH WHICH FASTENS A DOOR BY MEANS OF A PIVOTED BAR THAT ENGAGES A
HOOK ON THE DOOR JAMB, A LEVER WHICH LIFTS THE PIVOTED BAR USED TO
UNFASTEN THE DOOR.RABBETED LOCK A LOCK OR LATCH IN WHICH THE FACE
IS FLUSH WITH THE RABBET ON A RABBETED DOOR JAMB.ROLLER LATCH A
TYPE OF DOOR LATCH HAS A ROLLER UNDER SPRING TENSION INSTEAD OF A
BEVELED SPRING BOLT, THE ROLLER ENGAGES A STRIKE PLATE, HAVING A
RECESS FORMED TO RECEIVE.SCREEN DOOR LATCH A SMALL LOCKING OR
LATCHING DEVICE USED ON SCREEN DOORS AND GENERATED BY A KNOB OR
LEVER HANDLE, SOMETIMES EQUIPPED WITH A DEAD BOLT.HASP A FASTENING
DEVICE CONSISTING OF A LOOP OR STAPLE AND A SLOTTED HINGE PLATE
NORMALLY SECURED WITH A PADLOCK.KEY-PADLOCK A DEVICE WHICH FASTENS
IN POSITION MAYBE OPERATED BY A KEY.MAGNETIC PADLOCK A KIND OF LOCK
WHICH OPENS BY USING THE CORRESPONDING MAGNET WHICH GOES WITH
IT.HASPLOCK A KIND OF HASP THAT HAS A BUILT-IN LOCKING DEVICE WHICH
CAN BE OPENED ONLY WITH A KEY.BORED LOCK A LOCK INTENDED FOR
INSTALLATION IN A CIRCULAR HOLE IN A DOOR.CREMONE BOLT USED TO
FASTEN UPPER AND LOWER DOOR.DEAD BOLT A TYPE OF DOOR LOCK, THE
BOLT, WHICH IS SQUARE IN SECTION IS OPERATED BY THE DOOR KEY OR A
TURN PIECE.TYPES OF AUTOMATIC DOOR CLOSER: PNEUMATIC TYPE
SEMI-CONCEALED OVERHEAD TYPE CONCEALED TYPE OVERHEAD LIQUID
TYPETYPES OF CABINET HINGED DOOR: FLUSH OVERLAPPING OFFSETTYPES OF
CABINET HINGES: BUTT HINGES COMMON BUTT LOOSE PIN T-HINGE PIANO
HINGE DECORATIVE HINGE OFFSET HINGES USED FOR HANGING LIPPED OR
OVERLAPPING DOORS, AVAILABLE IN SEMI-CONCEALED AND SURFACE-MOUNTED
STYLES. PIVOT HINGES MADE FOR BOTH FLUSH AND OVERLAPPING DOORS.
INVISIBLE HINGES DONT SHOW FROM THE FRONT AND IS EXPENSIVE. THEY
CAN BE USED FOR BOTH FLUSH AND OVERLAPPING DOOR. FLUSH COUNTER
HINGE FOR A DROP DOWN DOOR THAT CAN BE LOWERED TO SERVE AS WORK
SURFACES REQUIRE HINGES THAT LAY FLUSH IN THE SURFACE, MORTISE THEM
INTO BOTH SURFACES, THEY DONT SHOW WHEN THE DOOR IS CLOSED. A
DROPDOWN DOOR ALSO REQUIRES A CHAIN OR STAY SUPPORT TO HOLD THE
DOORS WEIGHT WHEN ITS OPEN.CATCHES FOR CLOSING OF CABINET DOORS IN
PLACEKINDS OF CATCHES: FRICTION CATCH ANY CATCH WHICH WHEN IT
ENGAGES A STRIKE, IS HELD IN THE ENGAGED POSITION BY FRICTION.
MAGNETIC CATCH A DOOR CATCH FLAT THAT USES A MAGNET TO HOLD THE
DOOR IN A CLOSED POSITION. BULLET CATCH A FASTENER WHICH HOLDS A
DOOR IN PLACE BY MEANS OF A PROJECTING SPRING ARCTUATED STEEL HALL
WHICH IS DEPRESSED WHEN THE DOOR IS CLOSED.TYPES OF KNOBS: SCREW-IN
KNOB BOLT-ON KNOB FLUSH KNOB FLUSH RING PULLOTHER FINISHING
ACCESSORIES: GRAB BAR A HAND GRIP USUALLY INSTALLED IN SHOWER,
WHICH MAY BE USED FOR STEADYING ARE SELF. SELF BRACKET ANY OVER
HANGING MEMBER PROJECTING FROM A WALL OR OTHER BODY TO SUPPORT A
WEIGHT. METAL BRACKET USED TO SUPPORT ANY CABINET OR SHELF. SPRING
DOOR CLOSER ATTACHED ABOVE A SCREEN DOOR TO AUTOMATICALLY CLOSE IT.
DOOR STOPPER TO PREVENT THE DOOR WITH ITS LOCKSET FROM HARMING THE
WALL OR TILES.ROUGH HARDWARES:NAILS COMMON WIRE NAIL WITH HEAD AND
FOR STRENGTH. FINISHING NAIL WITHOUT HEAD AND FOR BETTER APPEARANCE
MASONRY OR CONCRETE NAIL USED FOR CONCRETE, MORTAR AND BRICK
SURFACE SIZES, 1, 1 , 2 , 2 , 3, 3 , 4, 6OTHER COMMON HAMMER DRIVEN
FASTENERSCOTCH NAILS BRADSSTAPLES TACKSSCREWSCLASSIFIED BY GAUGE
(DIAMETER), LENGTH, HEAD TYPE, AND METALLIC MAKE-UP. TYPES OF SCREW
HEAD FLAT HEAD SCREW OVAL HEAD SCREW PHILIPPS HEAD SHEET-METAL
SCREW ROUND HEAD SCREW LAG SCREWWASHERS FLAT COUNTER SUNK
FLUSHBOLTSBOLTS HAVE THREADED SHAFTS THAT RECEIVE NUTS. TO USE
THEM, A HOLE IS DRILLED, PUSHING A BOLT THROUGH AND ADDING A
NUT.BOLTS TIGHTENED WITH SCREW WHILE HOLDING THE NUT WITH A
WRENCH.NUTS FLAT SQUARE NUT HEX NUT SQUARE NUT ACORN NUT T NUT
KNURLED NUT WING NUTHUNGER BOLTS FOR HANGING FIXTURES FROM
WALLS.U-BOLTS TO ATTACH FLAT SURFACE TO ROUND POLES AND
PIPES.JOINERY BRACKETS MENDING PLATE T-PLATE FLAT CORNER PLATE
L-BRACKET AWNING AN ARCHITECTURAL PROJECTED WINDOW. BAY WINDOW A
WINDOW WHICH PROJECTS OUTSIDE THE MAIN LINE OF A BUILDING. HOPPER
WINDOW A WINDOW SASH WHICH OPENS INWARD AND ITS HINGED AT THE
BOTTOM. ORIEL WINDOW A PROJECTED WINDOW BEYOND BUILDING WALL
CARRIED BY A CORBEL. BATTEN DOOR - A DOOR W/OUT STILES WHICH IS
COSTRUCTED OF VERTICAL BOARDS HELD TOGETHER BY HORIZONTAL BATTENS.
STILE VERTICAL FRAMES OF PANELLED DOOR. TRANSOM WINDOW OVER A DOOR.
DOOR JAMB FINISHED FRAME SURROUNDING A DOOR. ANCHOR BOLT A STEEL
BOLT USUALLY FIXED IN ABUILDING STRUCTURE WITH ITS THREADED PORTION
PROJECTING. PLATE BOLT A BOLT IN A BUILDING FOUNDATION WHICH
SECURES THEPLATE OR SILL. MACHINE BOLT A THREADED BOLT HAVING A
STRAIGHT SHANK AND A CONVENTIONAL HEAD SUCH AS A SQUARE, HEXAGONAL,
BUTTON OR COUNTERSANK. CARRIAGE BOLT A BOLT WITH NECK FOR
NON-RATATING MOUNTING. LAG SCREW COMMON HARDWARE FASTENER FOR TRUSS
BRACES. KNOB BOLT A DOOR LOCK WITH A SPRING BOLT CONTROLLED BY ONE
OR BOTH KNOBS AND DEAD BOLT CONTROLLED BY AKEY. BACKSET THE
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE FROM THE FACE OF A LOCK OF LATCH TO THE CENTER
OF THE KNOB OR LOCK CYLINDER. GUSSET A PLATE ATTACHED TO SIDE OF A
JOINT FOR INCREASE HOLDING POWER. BRAD A THIN NAIL WITH SMALL HEAD.
KERF IN A SUSPENDED ACOUSTICAL CEILING, AGROOVE CUT INTO THE EDGES
OF AN ACOUSTICAL TILES TO RECEIVE SPLINES OR SUPPORTING MEMBERS OF
THE CEILING SUSPENSION SYSTEM. PERFORATED TAPE A TYPE OF TAPE USED
IN FINISHING JOINTS BETWEEN GYPSUM BOARD. SAHARA USED FOR
WATERPROOFING