Building on the Sound System of Spanish: … A. HELMAN Building on the sound system of Spanish: Insights from the alphabetic spellings of English-language learners The sound system

Building on the Sound System of Spanish: Insights from the Alphabetic Spellings of English-Language LearnersAuthor(s): Lori A. HelmanReviewed work(s):Source: The Reading Teacher, Vol. 57, No. 5 (Feb., 2004), pp. 452-460Published by: International Reading AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20205383 .

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LORI A. HELMAN

Building on the sound system of Spanish:

Insights from the alphabetic spellings

of English-language learners

The sound system of Spanish may influence

the beginning writing behaviors of English

language learners who come from Spanish

speaking backgrounds. Teachers who have

background knowledge about Spanish, as

well as the factors that influence students'

language and literacy development in

English, have more tools to effectively

scaffold instruction for Spanish-speaking

students.

In the year 2000, 15% of the population in the United States between the ages of 5 and 17 had

difficulty speaking English; ofthat group, 73%

spoke Spanish (United States Census Bureau,

2002). The most recent census also documented

that over half of the U.S. foreign-born population in 1999 originated from Latin America, and that,

demographically, more and more of the Hispanic

population has moved from larger cities into small

er cities and rural areas (Population Reference

Bureau, 2002). The Spanish-speaking population in the United States is projected to reach 51 mil

lion, or 18% of the total, by the year 2025 (United States Census Bureau, 1995). It is imperative for

educators who are concerned with meeting all their

students' instructional needs to consider how a

Spanish-language background may affect students'

progress. This article examines how the sound system

of Spanish may influence the pronunciations and, in turn, the beginning writing behaviors of English

language learners who come from a Spanish

speaking background. Why is it that Spanish

speaking students learning to read in English may write espoyo when trying to spell a word like spoill

Why might a word like sub be written sav, or the, da! As more students enter school with Spanish as

their primary language, linguistic information that

addresses these issues should prove helpful to un

derstanding the strengths, as well as the areas of

support needed, for this sizable linguistic commu

nity (Bear, Templeton, Helman, & Baren, 2002;

Invernizzi, Abouzeid, & Gill, 1994).

The importance of sounds Literacy learning has been characterized as the

internalization of ever more complex understand

ings about written language, or orthographic

knowledge (Ehri, 1997; Ellis, 1997; Henderson & Beers, 1980; Templeton & Morris, 2000). This de

velopment proceeds through a series of phases, or

stages, that describe students' understandings about

print at a given time. Ehri (1997) outlined devel

opment from prealphabetic to partial alphabetic, full alphabetic, and finally the consolidated alpha betic stage. Henderson and Beers (1980) described

five stages of spelling: preliterate, letter-name, within-word pattern, syllable juncture, and deriva

tional principles. These models delineate students'

progress along a continuum beginning with limited

print awareness and moving to an initial under

standing of the alphabetic principle. Development then expands to full phonemic awareness and the

representation in writing of all salient sounds; con

tinues to grow as spelling patterns that move

452 ? 2004 International Reading Association (pp. 452-460)



beyond one-letter, one-sound approaches become

understood; and blossoms at the more advanced

levels where an understanding of the spelling

meaning connection is necessary to be successful

at literacy tasks. Henderson and his students have

outlined three layers of ever-deepening ortho

graphic knowledge?the sound, pattern, and mean

ing layers (Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, &

Johnston, 2000; Henderson, 1981; Henderson &

Templeton, 1986; Morris, Nelson, & Perney, 1986;

Templeton & Bear, 1992). Students' fundamental

understandings about written language continue to

be refined as they assimilate their knowledge of the

sound, pattern, and meaning layers of written

language.

Beginning readers' knowledge about how

words are written may be best classified as

"spelling by sound." Students at this alphabetic

stage of spelling rely on hearing and articulating the sound features of words to support their devel

opmental writing (Bear et al., 2000; Bradley &

Bryant, 1983; Ehri, 1998; McBride-Chang, 1998; Read, 1971; Salgado, 1995). Students challenge themselves to hear as many sounds as possible in

a word, and to encode these sounds with letters

they believe represent them.

Comparing the sounds of Spanish and English helps us to clarify possible difficulties that learn

ers may have in distinguishing specific sounds in

English; being aware of these sounds and attach

ing letters to represent them are key aspects of the

alphabetic spelling that beginning readers do (Ehri,

1998). Alphabetic writing builds a foundation for the development of more complex levels of reading and writing, which is a primary mission of school

ing (Cronnell, 1985; Labov, 2003).

The sound systems of English and Spanish

In the sections that follow I compare several

key areas of the sound systems of English and

Spanish. First of all, I examine the similarities and

differences in consonant sounds between the two

languages. Next, I explore how the more complex

system of English vowels may cause confusion for

second-language learners. Finally, I look at the po sitions for the consonant sounds, consonant clus

ters, and vowels in each language. The permissible

combinations and placements vary between the

two languages and may also be responsible for dif

ficulties in pronunciation that can be reflected in

student writing.

Although many dialects and regional variations

of Spanish exist, the current discussion refers to the

sounds associated with "General American

Spanish" (Dalbor, 1997, p. 23). This is the principal dialect heard on radio and television and spoken by

Spanish speakers in the southwest United States

and Mexico, and by many urban residents in

Central and South America.

Consonant sounds

English and Spanish share many of the same

phonemes, yet they each also contain sounds that

are not recognized as distinct in the other language. What follows is an outline of consonant common

alities, distinctions, and possible areas of difficulty for Spanish speakers learning English.

Commonalities. English and Spanish share many of the same consonant sounds, although they may be spelled differently. The Figure on the following page shows the sounds that exist in both languages

(represented by their English letter symbol). The

graphic shows much phonemic commonality be

tween English and Spanish. These shared sounds

provide a base for working with an unfamiliar oral

language (C?rdenas, 1960; Goldstein, 2001; Nash,

1977). These letters also represent a good starting

place for teaching Spanish speakers letter-sound

correspondences in English. Similarities also exist between consonant clus

ters in Spanish and English. These shared conso

nant blends include pi, pr, bl, br, tr, dr, cl, cr, gl, gr,

fl, and/r (Goldstein, 2000). Although the M will be pronounced differently in English, the fact that

these clusters are used in both languages (e.g.,

grislgreen) offers some support to the English

language learner.

Distinctions. Spanish and English each contain

several consonant sounds that do not occur in the

other language (C?rdenas, 1960; Dalbor, 1997; Goldstein, 2001; Nash, 1977; Zuteil & Allen,

1988). Table 1 shows some examples of consonant

sounds that occur in English (but not Spanish) and

Building on the sound system of Spanish 453



f \ English consonant sounds that also

exist in Spanish

/ P b t\

/ d k g m \ I

In f s w /

\ y ch I /

^_/

might therefore be tricky for English-language learners to say and, in turn, write.

Possible areas of difficulty for Spanish speakers

learning English. A sound that is not present in

one's native language will likely be difficult to hear

and, in turn, produce (Goldstein, 2000; Kress,

1993). The phonemes and blends that are present in

English but not present in Spanish are apt to cause

the most problems for Spanish speakers learning

English.

By examining Table 1 for features that are

present in English but not in Spanish, we can pro

ject possible phonemic difficulties for our Spanish

speaking students, as well as sounds that are close

and may be used as replacements. D as in den: The /d/ in Spanish has a sound

similar to the /th/ of then in English. Students are

likely to substitute this sound, or simply the III

sound. Students who are attempting to spell the

English l?l sound may also be tempted to use the

/r/, which has a similar flapped sound in Spanish. J as in juice: Spanish does not have this sound,

so it may be substituted with the /ch/ as in choke for

joke. R as in rope: This will be a difficult sound for

Spanish speakers, and they may try to compensate

by rolling the r as in the Spanish words rosa or car

ro. Students may also use a /w/ or /u/ to create a

glide, such as in waipen for ripen.

V, z, th (as in thick), sh, zh: These sounds may be difficult for Spanish speakers to recognize, pro

duce, and write. Students are likely to freely sub

stitute /b/ for /v/, producing words orally like berry for very. In writing, students may not know

whether /b/ or NI is correct in a given word that

they are sounding out. An example spelling of big

might be vig. Z may be said as /s/ {sue for zoo); th

as Ixl (tink for think); sh as /ch/ (chew for shoe); and

zh as /ch/ (treachure for treasure). Table 1 shows some expected pronunciation

errors for Spanish speakers learning English. The

student spellings noted in the third column show

examples of writing confusions that may result

from these distinctions.

Consonant blends. In addition to individual con

sonant sounds, there are also variations between

English and Spanish in relation to what consonant

clusters can occur in a language. English has many more possibilities for consonant blends than

Spanish. Table 2 shows consonant clusters that are

permissible in English, but not in Spanish, with

some example words. From Table 2 we see that the

main category of blends that are distinct in English are blends beginning with the letter s. Because

Spanish doesn't allow s- blends at the beginning of a word, students may try to change these words

slightly to make them sound more familiar. In

Spanish, spirit or structure would be esp?ritu or

estructura. Students may take other words that be

gin with s- blends and add an e to the beginning

(e.g., esmile for smile, esnake for snake). Another

possible approach to producing the unfamiliar con

sonant blends is to reduce them, such as substitut

ing tars for stars (Goldstein, 2001).

Vowel sounds

The Spanish system of vowel sounds is much

simpler than that of English (Foster, Altamiranda, & de Urioste, 1999). The English system, for a sec

ond-language learner, may at times seem over

whelming. The following subsections quickly outline common vowel sounds between the two

languages, what differences exist, and possible

454 The Reading Teacher Vol. 57, No. 5 February 2004



TABLE 1 Possible errors caused by distinct English sounds

Distinct English sound May be pronounced Example spelling error

/d/ as in den

/]/ as in joke

/r/ as in rope

/v/ as in van

111 as in zipper

/sh/ as in shell

/th/ as in thick

/zh/ as in treasure

then

choke

(rolled r) rope, wope ban

sipper c/iell

fick

treasure

dem (them)

gob (job)

waipen (ripen)

surbing (serving) sivalais (civilize)

ched (shed)

tenk (think)

chesher (treasure)

areas of difficulty for Spanish speakers learning the

English system.

Commonalities. Both English and Spanish have

the vowel sounds listed in Table 3, although they are at times spelled with different letters. Because

these vowels do exist orally in both languages, they should generally not cause problems being distin

guished or spoken. Where the letters used to rep resent the sounds differ between languages, however, confusion can arise. Table 3 outlines the

differences in how the two languages represent var

ious sounds. Column 3 shows some sample errors

that students have made as they use the Spanish code to write in English. For example, a Spanish

speaking student attempting to encode the long /a/

sound may revert to the Spanish Id, which stands

for a similar sound.

Distinctions. Spanish does not contain four of the

short-vowel sounds from English {man, pen, tip,

up), /--controlled vowels (e.g., her), the schwa

sound (e.g., away), or the vowel sounds in could

or caught (C?rdenas, 1960; Dalbor, 1997,

Goldstein, 2001; Nash, 1977). With approximate

ly double the number of vowel sounds, the English

system is much more complex than that of Spanish.


learning English. Given that Spanish has only one sound per vowel, we can see that the addition

of the distinct vowel sounds of English must seem

quite complicated to the English-language learner.

The schwa sound (e.g., develop, aloof) is the most

common vowel sound in English and does not even

occur in Spanish. If the home language does not

have the specific English vowel sound, a student

may try to use the closest sounding vowel to sub

stitute (Goldstein, 2001). We might therefore find

oral, and possibly written, substitutions such as

those outlined in Table 4. Students at the alphabet ic stage of spelling are likely to spell words as they

pronounce them (Stage & Wagner, 1992). An ex

ample of spelling substitution that might be pre dicted from Table 4 is the use of a in place of the

short u (lamp for lump), or lui for r-controlled

vowels (sur for sir).

TABLE 2 English consonant blends not in Spanish

English consonant blend Sample word

st star

sp spirit

sk/sc scar

sm small

si sleep sn snack

sw swim

tw twice

qu (kw) quick scr scrap

spl splash

spr spray str straight

squ (skw) square




TABLE 3 Vowel sounds common to English and Spanish

English vowels Similar vowel sound used in a Spanish word Example spelling error

a as in cake

e as in bean

i as in like

o as in hope o as in top u as in June

e as in hecho

i as in [do ai as in aire

o as in ocho

a as in ajo u as in Usted

shek (shake)

spic (speak) nait (night) flout (float)

jab (job) flut (flute)

Positioning of sounds

Each language has its own system of position

ing vowels and consonants in words. These "per missible placements" involve not only which

sounds can go together but also which sounds may

begin or end words and how sounds may change based on their position in a word. Spanish and

English share some commonalities and also have

distinctive rules about these positions.

Commonalities. Neither Spanish nor English has

many limits about what sounds may begin words.

All of the consonant phonemes in their respective sound systems, aside from the English /ng/, may

begin a word. All of the vowels in their respective sound systems may begin words as well.

Distinctions. Most consonants in English are per mitted to end words. The exception to this is the

sound of /hi, as heard in the Spanish word reloj

(Nash, 1977). In contrast, there are only five con

sonants that may appear in final position in Spanish

(/, r [flap], d, n, and s). The vowels take on opposite roles in these two languages. In Spanish, most

vowels may end a word. The exception to this is

/eu/. In contrast, there are five vowels in English that may not end words (short a, short e, short /,

short u, and ou/oo).


learning English. Two key areas stand out as pos

sibly causing difficulty for Spanish speakers learn

ing English. First, there are many more consonants

that may end words in English. Some of these

sounds will be difficult for Spanish speakers to get used to and articulate at the end of words. For ex

ample, words that end with sounds that wouldn't be

permissible in Spanish such as crab (l-bl), sniff

(l-fl), beg (l-gl), or flop (l-pl) may cause problems. Consonant clusters that come at the end of words

will represent even more of a challenge (e.g., hard,

curl, best). Spanish speakers may respond to these

challenges by deleting sounds at the end of words

or substituting sounds with which they are more

comfortable. Table 5 gives some examples of pos sible substitutions a Spanish speaker might make

with English words that have unfamiliar endings. Table 5 provides some ideas for how Spanish

speakers might try to adapt English to align more

closely with their native language. These adapta tions help create what is currently described as

"Spanish-influenced English" (Goldstein, 2001).

Simplifying consonant clusters and substituting

permissible consonant and vowel endings in words

are logical actions in this process.

Implications for instruction The preceding discussion has brought out

many key points about similarities and differences

between the sound systems of Spanish and English, and how these may influence Spanish speakers'

pronunciation and developmental spelling in

English. The following ideas can guide us as we

look toward classroom implications.

Begin with commonalities There are numerous areas of commonality be

tween Spanish and English sounds on which to

base a transfer of skills for English-language learn

ers. It is helpful for second-language learners to

build on what is common between their home




TABLE 4 Spanish speakers' possible vowel substitutions

Vowel sound, as in the following: Closest Spanish vowel sound May be pronounced

man

pen

tip

up

her

could

away

caught

A

E

I

A

U

U

A

A

"mahn" for man

"pain" for pen

"teep" for tip

"op"for up

"who" for her

"cooed" for could

"ahway" for away

"cot" for caught

language and the new one. For instance, Spanish and English are both alphabetic languages where

students match sounds to letter symbols. The

Figure illustrates the many common sounds be

tween the two languages. It may be helpful for stu

dents to begin learning English phonics with letters

in this graphic such as m, s, l,f, and p.

Use knowledge of Spanish to understand

students' developmental reading and writing

Before critiquing students' developmental writ

ing attempts, teachers might try to sound out the

words that have been spelled with a Spanish pro nunciation. For instance, da (sounded out /thah/) be

comes more easily understood as the. When it is

acknowledged that students' developmental spelling

attempts make sense, the alphabetic understand

ings they are trying to represent are validated. At

first, it is enough to praise the effort of having writ

ten da, "Yes! /th/, /ah/?the." As students refine

their sound-symbol correspondences, differences

between English and Spanish can be explicitly noted?"In English the sound at the beginning of

them is written with th, not the d like in Spanish." If teachers do not feel comfortable trying to sound

out writing using a Spanish pronunciation, they can

ask students to read their writing and listen for

matches between pronunciation and spelling. In the area of reading, teachers can pay atten

tion to sounding-out errors that may have a base in

Spanish phonology as well. A student who reads sit

as seat may either be applying the Spanish vowel

sound to the word (very possible if the student has

previous literacy experiences in Spanish), or the

student may be saying the closest vowel sound that

exists in Spanish (a pronunciation issue). In other

words, this error is not haphazard, and it gives a

teacher clues about what kind of help a student may need.

What should a teacher do with a pronunciation error in reading? It is always important to provide a

low-anxiety environment that encourages student

participation. Thus, at first, it is wise not to focus

on the error as long as meaning is being communi

cated. The data a teacher gathers in these informal

assessments can be noted, and guided practice can

be provided in supportive contexts at a later time.

Activities that encourage pronunciation practice in

a low-stress environment may include choral read

ing, echo reading, sound sorting of pictures, and

using poetry and music.

These examples show us that the more that

teachers know about students' home languages, the

more the specific errors of the students can tell us.

We can then use this information to clarify or pro vide extra support in our literacy instruction.

Identify areas of distinction and provide

explicit support Variations in consonant and vowel sounds be

tween Spanish and English may create possible confusion for second-language learners in their

speech and writing. After a foundation has been

built on the commonalities of the two languages, it

will be necessary to systematically outline how the

two languages differ and provide added support as




TABLE 5 Possible substitutions for difficult words

Example challenging sound Sample spelling error Logic of substitution

Final -rd

Final -st

Final -ng

Final -sk

Final -ng Final -z

Final -t

Final -oil

Final -mp

har (hard)

tos (toast)

sirvin (serving) as (ask)

chopen (shopping)

praes (prize) tha (that)

espolio (spoil)

lanpa (lump)

Simplifying the consonant cluster

Substituting for a permissible ending

Trying to get a vowel ending

needed for the parts that are different. Teachers

should plan on doing explicit lessons relating to the

sounds listed in Table 1. Venn diagrams can be used

to compare sounds or words in English and

Spanish. Student-made bilingual dictionaries or

bilingual classroom word walls can be visual sup

ports to the differences between the two languages. Teachers often find it helpful to color code the two

languages for easy reference.

Use developmental spelling tasks to assess students' learning

Second-language learners are likely to substi

tute a sound from Spanish for an unfamiliar

English consonant or vowel sound. The develop mental writing of Spanish speakers is a visual rep resentation of what is confusing to them as they learn English. A developmental spelling assess

ment (e.g., Bear et al., 2000) that includes words

that are likely to cause confusion or a dictation as

sessment (e.g., Clay, 2002) provides valuable in

formal data for teachers to use in planning phonics lessons that build on students' understandings of

letter-sound correspondences. Particular letter

sound correspondences that are of concern to

Spanish-speaking students (e.g., shell, thick, joke) can be inserted into these developmental writing tasks if they are not already present.

Ensure that students understand

foundational concepts

Learning to read in a new language while si

multaneously learning to speak it is a challenging

process (Garcia, 2000). It is critical that the input students receive makes sense to them, and that it

builds on their background knowledge. The com

plex vowel system of English may seem confusing for Spanish speakers who are trying to get a han

dle on sound-symbol correspondences. Care

should be taken that students are very comfortable

with the short-vowel system before beginning with

long vowels and other vowel patterns in their liter

acy instruction.

Include students in think-aloud processes

comparing Spanish and English We have seen that Spanish and English vary in

the way that vowels and consonants are used, and

in how sounds are positioned in words. Students

may attempt to make an English word more

"Spanish-like" because that feels more natural. The

kinds of substitutions students make have been il

lustrated throughout this article. What are some

ways that students can become more aware of the

commonalities and differences between English and Spanish so that they can apply this knowledge in their writing? While instructing small groups and the whole class, teachers can use real examples of Spanish-influenced spelling that come up in stu

dents' writing. Teachers may verbalize their think

ing in a modeled writing activity as they ponder which sounds they hear in a tricky word. They may even model being confused and self-correcting based on a Spanish sound. Students' writing sam

ples can also be typed on a word processor and then

analyzed anonymously with the whole class so that




all students can profit from examining the spellings

together. Students should have plenty of opportunities to

write for authentic purposes in a low-pressure en

vironment in the classroom. When given these op

portunities, students will provide many examples for us to notice, work with, and build upon as we

move to more advanced skills in English reading and writing.

Helping students build on similarities

In order to be successful readers and writers

in English, students must have a clear understand

ing of the sound-symbol correspondences of its al

phabetic system. The more that teachers know

about the similarities and differences between the

English and Spanish sound systems, the more they can support their students in overcoming chal

lenges in oral language development, and under

standing the phonics of English. Teacher

knowledge about how pronunciation influences

writing at the alphabetic stage of development is

crucial to providing effective literacy instruction.

Teachers should not assume that a variant pronun ciation reflects an articulation problem. These pro nunciations may be artifacts of Spanish-influenced

English. As we provide occasions for students to

share their growing knowledge of written English, we find out what native-language skills they are

bringing to the task. These teacher-student interac

tions make it possible to clarify students' under

standings of English sounds and letter knowledge. This article has outlined and compared the

sound systems of English and Spanish. Where

there are distinctions between the two languages,

speaking and writing tasks will be more challeng

ing for Spanish speakers learning English.

Knowing this, teachers would do well to begin their

work with students on letter-sound correspondences that are common to both languages, transferring

first-language knowledge to the target language. Once a foundation has been established, it is im

portant that distinct features are brought to stu

dents' attention and taught explicitly. Sounds that

are different or that are placed in unfamiliar posi tions in words can be given extra focus and study.

Teachers are likely to see phonemic under

standings (or misunderstandings) represented in

student writing. For example, a student who is in

terchanging b and v in oral language will probably do the same in his or her written language.

Correcting the spelling without discussing the mis

conception will not lead to long-term understand

ing and growth. Teachers are also likely to hear

reading errors that reflect Spanish sounds being transferred to English. A student who reads bed as

bade is applying a Spanish phoneme to the letter

e. A student who reads first as firs cat as ca, or mu

tual as moo-too-al is also using Spanish-influenced

phonology. Teachers can use assessment to help create instruction that best meets the linguistic needs of their students.

This article has focused on specific information

comparing the sound systems of English and

Spanish. The general principles outlined here can

be extended to work with students from many other

language backgrounds as well; only the specific commonalities and distinctions will vary. English

language learners bring many tools with them to the

classroom setting, including a home language and

knowledge about sounds and words. The more we

know about the relationship between sounds in their

first language and sounds in English, the more we

can help our students build on the similarities and

understand the differences as they become proficient

speakers, readers, and writers in a new language.

Helman teaches at the University of Nevada, Reno (Nevada Reading Excellence Act, College of Education/288, Reno, NV 89557, USA). E-mail to [email protected].

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Building on the Sound System of Spanish: … A. HELMAN Building on the sound system of Spanish: Insights from the alphabetic spellings of English-language learners The sound system

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