Building Materials, Third Edition
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Building Materials, Third EditionMotilal Nehru Institute of Technology Allahabad (U.P.)
PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS New Dclhl • Bangalorc • Chcnnai • Cochin • Guwahati • Hydcrabad
Jalandhar > Kolkata • Lucknow • Mumbai • Ranch:
Visit LIS at www.newagepublishers.com
Copyright © 2008, 2003, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
All rights reserved. No part of this ebook may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the publisher. All inquiries should be emailed to [email protected]
PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002 Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com
ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2975-6
Preface to the Third Edition
The book is considerably modified version of the 2000 edition. In third edition of the book extensive revisions have been made. New materials have been introduced due to the advances in the technology and progress in industry. The information presented includes characteristics of the materials in regards to their physical and mechanical properties with emphasis on their strength and durability qualities. The material presented can be supplemented by the information from I.S. Codes and various product manufacturers.
This edition embodies material changes in the chapters dealing with Cement, Concrete, Lime and many others. Testing procedures of the materials have been updated for most of the materials as some of the codes have been revised. Especially, in chapter 3 on Rocks and Stones the section on testing of Stones has been completely rewritten.
Chapter 8 on Lime has been completely rewritten to make it more reader friendly. Logical changes in chapter 5 on Cement, chapter 10 on Concrete and chapter 20 on Special Cements and Cement Concretes have been made. Admixtures for concrete have been placed in chapter 10 and section on Pointing has been removed from chapter 12 on Building Mortars. Many newer and upcoming more important concretes such as Self compacting Concrete, Bacterial Concrete have been introduced in chapter 20 on special Cements and Cement Concrete. Numerous revision of data and substitutions in description have been made not only in these chapters but in other chapters also. Smart materials and composite materials have been introduced in chapter 21 on Miscellaneous Materials.
The author will be grateful to the readers for their comments and suggestions for further improvement of the book.
S.K. Duggal
Preface to the Second Edition
The second edition of this book deals with properties of building materials and techniques for their manufacturing. Applications of building materials have been presented with emphasis on engineering and economic approaches for determining the optimum kind of materials, best suited to specific conditions of service in buildings. This edition provides a thorough and practical groundwork for students of civil, architecture and construction technology. The expanded and updated text can also serve as a refresher and reference for practicing civil engineers, architects, contractors, and other workers who must be aware of new building materials and techniques.
The building materials industry is in continual development, the range of products is being expanded, and novel techniques for optimizing production processes are being introduced. The main purpose of the book is to present a basic course of study with a detailed coverage of basic theory and practice of the manufacture of building materials. The present edition embodies material change in the chapters dealing with lime, cement, concrete, and many other minor revisions.
Since concrete (Chapter 10) is the most widely and extensively used building material, its production, properties, and testing have been thoroughly revised and discussed in more details and depth. Chapter 11 on mix design has been introduced to make the used understand better the manufacture and properties of concrete. Standards laid by Bureau of Indian Standards have been followed.
Extensive addition in Chapter 20, miscellaneous materials, include elaboration of geotextiles, new types of cements and concretes—their properties and production processes.
All this was possible due to the suggestions, and comments received form many individuals and students. I would like to thank all of them. Acknowledgement is also made to New Age Publishers for publishing the second edition.
S.K. Duggal
Preface to the First Edition
The primary purpose of writing this book is to give engineering students up-to-date information on building materials. The book has been prepared after referring to a number of text books, references and standards. S.I. units have been used throughout the text as far as possible.
The author has tried to incorporate essential information concerning manufacture/fabrication of the various building materials; the data covering the more important mechanical and physical properties, influences of various factors on these properties; the causes of defects, their prevention and remedies; testing of materials. An attempt has also been made to present to the reader some of the more general uses and applications of the different materials.
The author gratefully acknowledges the considerable encouragement, splendid help and valuable suggestions received form his colleagues. Appreciation and thanks are also due to those students who went through the preliminary and final scripts.
Finally thanks are due to my wife Suman and children Swati and Shashank for their tolerance during this trying time. Efforts have been made to keep errors to a minimum. However, they are inevitable. Suggestions are welcomed from all concerned pointing out any oversights.
S.K. Duggal
blank
CONTENTS
Preface to the Third Edition v Preface to the Second Edition vi Preface to the First Edition vii
1. Principal Properties of Building Materials 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Physical Properties 2 1.3 Mechanical Properties 6 1.4 Characteristic Behaviour under Stress 7
Exercises 7
2. Structural Clay Products 8 2.1 Introduction 8 2.2 Clay and its Classifications 9 2.3 Physical Properties of Clays 9 2.4 Bricks 10 2.5 Classification of Bricks 11 2.6 Characteristics of Good Brick 14 2.7 Ingredients of Good Brick Earth 14 2.8 Harmful Substances in Brick Earth 15 2.9 Manufacturing of Bricks 16
2.10 Different Forms of Bricks 24 2.11 Testing of Bricks 26 2.12 Defects of Bricks 29 2.13 Heavy Duty Burnt Clay Bricks (IS: 2180) 30 2.14 Burnt Clay Perforated Bricks (IS : 2222) 30 2.15 Burnt Clay Paving Bricks (IS : 3583) 31 2.16 Burnt Clay Soling Bricks (IS : 5779) 31 2.17 Burnt Clay Hollow Blocks (IS : 3952) 32 2.18 Burnt Clay Jallis (IS: 7556) 32 2.19 Clay Tiles 33 2.21 Fire-clay Bricks or Refractory Bricks 39 2.22 Terracotta 40
x Building Materials
2.23 Porcelain 41 2.24 Stoneware 42 2.25 Earthenware 42 2.26 Majolica 42 2.27 Glazing 42 2.28 Application of Clay Products 43
Exercises 44 Objective Type Questions 45
3. Rocks and Stones 52 3.1 Introduction 52 3.2 Rock-forming Minerals 53 3.3 Classification of Rocks 57 3.4 Quarrying of Stones 59 3.5 Natural Bed of Stone 63 3.6 Seasoning of Stone 63 3.7 Dressing of Stone 65 3.8 Uses of Stones 66 3.9 Characteristics of good Building Stone 67
3.10 Testing of Stones 68 3.11 Deterioration of Stones 75 3.12 Durability of Stones 77 3.13 Preservation of Stones 77 3.14 Selection of Stones 78 3.15 Common Building Stones 78 3.16 Artificial Stones 81 3.17 Applications of Stones 81
Exercises 83 Objective Type Questions 85
4. Wood and Wood Products 91 4.1 Introduction 91 4.2 Classification of Trees 92 4.3 Growth of Trees 92 4.4 Classification of Timber (IS: 399) 93 4.5 Structure of Timber 95 4.6 Characteristics of good Timber 96 4.7 Seasoning of Timber 96 4.8 Defects in Timber 98 4.9 Diseases of Timber 101
4.10 Decay of Timber 101 4.11 Preservation of Timber (IS: 401) 103 4.12 Fire Resistance of Timber 107 4.13 Testing of Timber (IS: 1708) 108 4.14 Suitability of Timber for Specific Uses 121 4.15 Properties of Wood 123 4.16 Wood Products 128
Contents xi
4.17 Applications of Wood and Wood-products 135 Exercises 136 Objective Type Questions 138
5. Materials for Making Concrete-I Cement 144 5.1 Introduction 144 5.2 Portland Cement 145 5.3 Chemical Composition of Raw Materials 146 5.4 Composition of Cement Clinker 147 5.5 Hydration of Cement 149 5.6 Rate of Hydration 151 5.7 Water Requirement for Hydration 151 5.8 Manufacture of Cement 152 5.9 Testing of Cement 154
5.10 Types of Cement 169 5.11 Storage of Cement 174
Exercises 175 Objective Type Questions 175
6. Materials for Making Concrete-II Aggregates 181 6.1 Introduction 181 6.2 Classification of Aggregates 181 6.3 Characteristics of Aggregate 183 6.4 Deleterious Materials and Organic Impurities 187 6.5 Soundness 187 6.6 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction 187 6.7 Thermal Properties of Aggregate 189 6.8 Fine Aggregate 189 6.9 Coarse Aggregate 190
6.10 Cinder Aggregates 191 6.11 Broken Brick Coarse Aggregate 191 6.12 Testing of Aggregates 191
Exercises 207 Objective Type Questions 207
7. Materials for Making Concrete-III Water 209 7.1 Introduction 209 7.2 Quality of Mixing Water 209 7.3 Effect of Mixing Water from Different Sources 211 7.4 Water for Washing Aggregates 212 7.5 Curing Water 212
Exercises 212 Objective Type Questions 212
8. Materials for Making Concrete-IV Lime 214 8.1 Introduction 214 8.2 Impurities in Limestones 216
xii Building Materials
8.3 Classification 217 8.4 Manufacture 221 8.5 Slaking 222 8.6 Hardening 223 8.7 Lime Putty and Coarse Stuff 225 8.8 Testing 225 8.9 Storage 230
8.10 Precautions in Handling 231 8.11 Lime Vs. Cement 231
Exercises 231 Objective Type Questions 232
9. Puzzolanas 234 9.1 Introduction 234 9.2 Classification 234 9.3 The Activity of Puzzolana 235 9.4 Effects of Natural Puzzolanas 236 9.5 Applications 236 9.6 Fly Ash 236 9.7 Calcined Clay Puzzolana (Surkhi) 238 9.8 Ground Blast Furnace Slag 239 9.9 Silica Fume 240
9.10 Rice Husk Ash 241 Exercises 242 Objective Type Questions 242
10. Concrete 244 10.1 Introduction 244 10.2 Classification 245 10.3 Production 246 10.4 Water-cement Ratio 264 10.5 Gel-space Ratio 266 10.6 Strength of Concrete 268 10.7 Maturity 278 10.8 Workability 279 10.9 Durability 284
10.10 Defects 286 10.11 Revibration 287 10.12 Physical Properties 287 10.13 Proportioning 289 10.14 Non-destructive Testing 289 10.15 Rheology 294 10.16 Determination of Cement Content in Hardened Portland Cement Concrete 296 10.17 Admixtures for Concrete (IS: 9103-1999) 296
Exercises 301 Objective Type Questions 303
Contents xiii
11. Concrete Mix Design 307 11.1 Introduction 307 11.2 Principles of Mix Design 309 11.3 Ingredients of the Mix 312 11.4 Acceptance Criteria 319 11.5 Proportioning the Ingredients 323 11.6 IS Method of Mix Design 325
Exercises 337 Objective Type Questions 338
12. Building Mortars 340 12.1 Introduction 340 12.2 Classification 341 12.3 Characteristics of Good Mortar 342 12.4 Functions of Ingredients 343 12.5 Cement Mortar 343 12.6 Lime Mortar 345 12.7 Surkhi Mortar 347 12.8 Lime-Cement Mortar 347 12.9 Mud Mortar 348
12.10 Special Mortars 348 12.11 Selection of Mortar 349 12.12 Testing 349 12.13 Grout 352 12.14 Guniting 352
Exercises 354 Objective Type Questions 355
13. Ferrous Metals 356 13.1 Introduction 356 13.2 Structures of Ferrous Metal 356 13.3 Iron 357 13.4 Pig Iron 357 13.5 Cast Iron 358 13.6 Wrought Iron 362 13.7 Steel 363 13.8 Rolled Steel Sections 368 13.9 Reinforcing Steel Bars 369
13.10 Rusting and Corrosion 372 13.11 Tensile Testing of Steel Sections (IS: 1608) 373 13.12 Alloy Steel 375
Exercises 377 Objective Type Questions 378
14. Non-Ferrous Metals 380 14.1 Introduction 380 14.2 Aluminium 380
xiv Building Materials
14.3 Copper 383 14.4 Zinc 385 14.5 Lead 386 14.6 Tin 387 14.7 Nickel 387
Exercises 388 Objective Type Questions 389
15. Ceramic Materials 391 15.1 Introduction 391 15.2 Classification of Ceramic 391 15.3 Refractories 392 15.4 Glass 393 15.5 Glass Wool 398 15.6 Polymorphism in Ceramic Materials 398 15.7 Mechanical Properties of Ceramic Phases 399 15.8 Thermal Properties of Ceramic Phases 399 15.9 Electrical Properties of Ceramic Phases 400
Exercises 400 Objective Type Questions 400
16. Polymeric Materials 402 16.1 Introduction 402 16.2 Polymerisation Mechanism 402 16.3 Depolymerisation 405 16.4 Rubbers 405 16.5 Plastics 411 16.6 Constituents of Plastics 412 16.7 Fabrication of Commercial Articles from Plastics 413 16.8 Applications of Plastics 416 16.9 Properties of Plastics 416
16.10 Effect of Temperature on Mechanical Properties 417 Exercises 419 Objective Type Questions 419
17. Paints, Enamels and Varnishes 421 17.1 Introduction 421 17.2 Composition of Oil Paint 421 17.3 Characteristics of an Ideal Paint 424 17.4 Preparation of Paint 424 17.5 Covering Power of Paints 425 17.6 Pigment Volume Concentration (P.V.C.) 426 17.7 Painting Plastered Surfaces 427 17.8 Painting Wood Surfaces 427 17.9 Painting Metal Surfaces 429
17.10 Defects 429 17.11 Enamel 431
Contents xv
17.12 Distemper 431 17.13 Water Wash and Colour Wash 432 17.14 Varnish 432 17.15 French Polish 434 17.16 Wax Polish 434 17.17 Miscellaneous Paints 434
Exercises 436 Objective Type Questions 437
18. Tar, Bitumen and Asphalt 440 18.1 Introduction 440 18.2 Bitumen 441 18.3 Tar 443 18.4 Pitch 444 18.5 Asphalt 444 18.6 The Choice of Product 446 18.7 General Properties 446 18.8 Testing 448 18.9 Applications of Bituminous Materials 454
Exercises 456 Objective Type Questions 456
19. Gypsum 458 19.1 Introduction 458 19.2 Effect of Heat and Moisture 459 19.3 Setting and Hardening 459 19.4 Classification 460 19.5 Manufacture 460 19.6 Plaster of Paris or Stucco 461 19.7 Gypsum Wall Plasters 462 19.8 Hard Finish Plaster 463 19.9 Gypsum Plaster Boards 463
19.10 Non-load Bearing Gypsum Partition Blocks 464 19.11 Pyrocell 464
Exercises 464 Objective Type Questions 465
20. Special Cements and Cement Concretes 466 20.1 Introduction 466 20.2 Acid-resistant Cements 466 20.3 Expanding Cements 467 20.4 Oil-Well Cement 468 20.5 Reinforced Cement Concrete 471 20.6 Prestressed Concrete 472 20.7 Polymer Concrete 473 20.8 Fibre Reinforced Concrete 474 20.9 Ferrocement 475
xvi Building Materials
20.10 Light Weight Concrete 479 20.11 High Strength Concrete 482 20.12 Shrinkage Compensating Concrete 485 20.13 Heavyweight Concrete 487 20.14 Roller Compacted Concrete 487 20.15 Ready Mixed Concrete (RMC) 488 20.16 Self-compacting Concrete 491 20.17 Shotcrete 493 20.18 High-performance Concrete 494 20.19 Bacterial Concrete 497
Exercises 498 Objective Type Questions 498
21. Miscellaneous Materials 500 21.1 Adhesives 500 21.2 Asbestos 501 21.3 Linoleum 502 21.4 Thermocol 503 21.5 Heat Insulating Materials 503 21.6 Sound Insulating Materials 503 21.7 Water Proofing Materials 503 21.8 Fiber 504 21.9 Geosynthetics 505
21.10 Sand Lime Brick (IS:4139) 510 21.11 Smart Materials 512 21.12 Composite Materials 514
Exercises 517 Objective Type Questions 518
Appendix-I 519 Lime-puzzolana Mixtures
Index 521
Building materials have an important role to play in this modern age of technology. Although their most important use is in construction activities, no field of engineering is conceivable without their use. Also, the building materials industry is an important contributor in our national economy as its output governs both the rate and the quality of construction work.
There are certain general factors which affect the choice of materials for a particular scheme. Perhaps the most important of these is the climatic background. Obviously, different materials and forms of construction have developed in different parts of the world as a result of climatic differences. Another factor is the economic aspect of the choice of materials. The rapid advance of constructional methods, the increasing introduction of mechanical tools and plants, and changes in the organisation of the building industry may appreciably influence the choice of materials.
The importance of standardisation cannot be over emphasised. It requires the quality of materials and manufactured items to be not below a specific standard level. However, the importance of standardisation is not limited to this factor alone, since each revised standard places higher requirements upon the products than the preceding one, with the effect that the industry concerned has to keep up with the standards and improved production techniques. Thus, the industry of building materials gains both in quantity and quality, so that new, more efficient products are manufactured and the output of conventional materials is increased.
() is the mass of a unit volume of homogeneous material denoted by
= M V
Density of some building materials is as follows:
Material Density (g/cm3) Brick 2.5–2.8 Granite 2.6–2.9 Portland cement 2.9–3.1 Wood 1.5–1.6 Steel 7.8–7.9
(b) is the mass of a unit volume of material in its natural state (with pores and voids) calculated as
b = M V
kg/m3
Material Bulk density (kg/m3) Brick 1600–1800 Granite 2500–2700 Sand 1450–1650 Pine wood 500–600 Steel 7850
(o) is the ratio,
density
= b
It indicates the degree to which the volume of a material is filled with solid matter. For almost all building materials o is less than 1.0 because there are no absolutely dense bodies in nature.
() also known as the unit weight) is the weight per unit volume of material,
= . g Where
= specific weight (kN/m3) = density of the material (kg/m) g = gravity (m/s2)
Specific weight can be used in civil engineering to determine the weight of a structure designed to carry certain loads while remaining intact and remaining within limits regarding deformation. It is also used in fluid dynamics as a property of the fluid (e.g., the specific weight of water on Earth is 9.80 kN/m3 at 4°C).
The terms specific gravity, and less often specific weight, are also used for relative density.
(Gs) of solid particles of a material is the ratio of weight/mass of a given volume of solids to the weight/mass of an equal volume of water at 4°C.
Gs =
s
w =
w At 4° C w = 1 g/cc or 9.8 kN/m3
If both the permeable and impermeable voids are excluded to determine the true volume of solids, the specific gravity is called true or absolute specific gravity.
Ga =
s a
w The absolute specific gravity is not much of practical use.
Gm =
w
!" is the degree to which volume of the material of the material is interspersed with pores. It is expressed as a ratio of the volume of pores to that of the specimen.
n = vV V
Porosity is indicative of other major properties of material, such as bulk density, heat conductivity, durability, etc. Dense materials, which have low porosity, are used for constructions requiring high mechanical strength on other hand, walls of buildings are commonly built of materials, featuring considerable porosity.
Following inter relationship exists between void ratio and the porosity.
n = e
1 e # $is defined as the ratio of volume of voids (Vv) to the volume of solids (Vs).
e = v
V V
If an aggregate is poured into a container of any sort it will be observed that not all of the space within the container is filled. To the vacant spaces between the particles of aggregate the name voids is applied. Necessarily, the percentage of voids like the specific weight is affected by the compactness of the aggregate and the amount of moisture which it contains. Generally void determinations are made on material measured loose.
There are two classes of methods commonly employed for measuring voids, the direct and the indirect. The most-used direct method consists in determining the volume of liquid, generally water, which is required to fill the voids in a given quantity of material. Since in poring water into fine aggregate it is impossible to expel all the air between the particles, the measured voids are smaller than the actual. It therefore becomes evident that the above direct method should not be used with fine aggregate unless the test is conducted in a vacuum. By the indirect method, the solid volume of a known quantity of aggregate is obtained by pouring the material into a calibrated tank partially filled with water; the difference between the apparent volume of material and the volume of water displaced equals the voids. If very accurate results are desired void measurements should be corrected for the porosity of the aggregate and moisture it contains.
% is the property of…
PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS New Dclhl • Bangalorc • Chcnnai • Cochin • Guwahati • Hydcrabad
Jalandhar > Kolkata • Lucknow • Mumbai • Ranch:
Visit LIS at www.newagepublishers.com
Copyright © 2008, 2003, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
All rights reserved. No part of this ebook may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the publisher. All inquiries should be emailed to [email protected]
PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002 Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com
ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2975-6
Preface to the Third Edition
The book is considerably modified version of the 2000 edition. In third edition of the book extensive revisions have been made. New materials have been introduced due to the advances in the technology and progress in industry. The information presented includes characteristics of the materials in regards to their physical and mechanical properties with emphasis on their strength and durability qualities. The material presented can be supplemented by the information from I.S. Codes and various product manufacturers.
This edition embodies material changes in the chapters dealing with Cement, Concrete, Lime and many others. Testing procedures of the materials have been updated for most of the materials as some of the codes have been revised. Especially, in chapter 3 on Rocks and Stones the section on testing of Stones has been completely rewritten.
Chapter 8 on Lime has been completely rewritten to make it more reader friendly. Logical changes in chapter 5 on Cement, chapter 10 on Concrete and chapter 20 on Special Cements and Cement Concretes have been made. Admixtures for concrete have been placed in chapter 10 and section on Pointing has been removed from chapter 12 on Building Mortars. Many newer and upcoming more important concretes such as Self compacting Concrete, Bacterial Concrete have been introduced in chapter 20 on special Cements and Cement Concrete. Numerous revision of data and substitutions in description have been made not only in these chapters but in other chapters also. Smart materials and composite materials have been introduced in chapter 21 on Miscellaneous Materials.
The author will be grateful to the readers for their comments and suggestions for further improvement of the book.
S.K. Duggal
Preface to the Second Edition
The second edition of this book deals with properties of building materials and techniques for their manufacturing. Applications of building materials have been presented with emphasis on engineering and economic approaches for determining the optimum kind of materials, best suited to specific conditions of service in buildings. This edition provides a thorough and practical groundwork for students of civil, architecture and construction technology. The expanded and updated text can also serve as a refresher and reference for practicing civil engineers, architects, contractors, and other workers who must be aware of new building materials and techniques.
The building materials industry is in continual development, the range of products is being expanded, and novel techniques for optimizing production processes are being introduced. The main purpose of the book is to present a basic course of study with a detailed coverage of basic theory and practice of the manufacture of building materials. The present edition embodies material change in the chapters dealing with lime, cement, concrete, and many other minor revisions.
Since concrete (Chapter 10) is the most widely and extensively used building material, its production, properties, and testing have been thoroughly revised and discussed in more details and depth. Chapter 11 on mix design has been introduced to make the used understand better the manufacture and properties of concrete. Standards laid by Bureau of Indian Standards have been followed.
Extensive addition in Chapter 20, miscellaneous materials, include elaboration of geotextiles, new types of cements and concretes—their properties and production processes.
All this was possible due to the suggestions, and comments received form many individuals and students. I would like to thank all of them. Acknowledgement is also made to New Age Publishers for publishing the second edition.
S.K. Duggal
Preface to the First Edition
The primary purpose of writing this book is to give engineering students up-to-date information on building materials. The book has been prepared after referring to a number of text books, references and standards. S.I. units have been used throughout the text as far as possible.
The author has tried to incorporate essential information concerning manufacture/fabrication of the various building materials; the data covering the more important mechanical and physical properties, influences of various factors on these properties; the causes of defects, their prevention and remedies; testing of materials. An attempt has also been made to present to the reader some of the more general uses and applications of the different materials.
The author gratefully acknowledges the considerable encouragement, splendid help and valuable suggestions received form his colleagues. Appreciation and thanks are also due to those students who went through the preliminary and final scripts.
Finally thanks are due to my wife Suman and children Swati and Shashank for their tolerance during this trying time. Efforts have been made to keep errors to a minimum. However, they are inevitable. Suggestions are welcomed from all concerned pointing out any oversights.
S.K. Duggal
blank
CONTENTS
Preface to the Third Edition v Preface to the Second Edition vi Preface to the First Edition vii
1. Principal Properties of Building Materials 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Physical Properties 2 1.3 Mechanical Properties 6 1.4 Characteristic Behaviour under Stress 7
Exercises 7
2. Structural Clay Products 8 2.1 Introduction 8 2.2 Clay and its Classifications 9 2.3 Physical Properties of Clays 9 2.4 Bricks 10 2.5 Classification of Bricks 11 2.6 Characteristics of Good Brick 14 2.7 Ingredients of Good Brick Earth 14 2.8 Harmful Substances in Brick Earth 15 2.9 Manufacturing of Bricks 16
2.10 Different Forms of Bricks 24 2.11 Testing of Bricks 26 2.12 Defects of Bricks 29 2.13 Heavy Duty Burnt Clay Bricks (IS: 2180) 30 2.14 Burnt Clay Perforated Bricks (IS : 2222) 30 2.15 Burnt Clay Paving Bricks (IS : 3583) 31 2.16 Burnt Clay Soling Bricks (IS : 5779) 31 2.17 Burnt Clay Hollow Blocks (IS : 3952) 32 2.18 Burnt Clay Jallis (IS: 7556) 32 2.19 Clay Tiles 33 2.21 Fire-clay Bricks or Refractory Bricks 39 2.22 Terracotta 40
x Building Materials
2.23 Porcelain 41 2.24 Stoneware 42 2.25 Earthenware 42 2.26 Majolica 42 2.27 Glazing 42 2.28 Application of Clay Products 43
Exercises 44 Objective Type Questions 45
3. Rocks and Stones 52 3.1 Introduction 52 3.2 Rock-forming Minerals 53 3.3 Classification of Rocks 57 3.4 Quarrying of Stones 59 3.5 Natural Bed of Stone 63 3.6 Seasoning of Stone 63 3.7 Dressing of Stone 65 3.8 Uses of Stones 66 3.9 Characteristics of good Building Stone 67
3.10 Testing of Stones 68 3.11 Deterioration of Stones 75 3.12 Durability of Stones 77 3.13 Preservation of Stones 77 3.14 Selection of Stones 78 3.15 Common Building Stones 78 3.16 Artificial Stones 81 3.17 Applications of Stones 81
Exercises 83 Objective Type Questions 85
4. Wood and Wood Products 91 4.1 Introduction 91 4.2 Classification of Trees 92 4.3 Growth of Trees 92 4.4 Classification of Timber (IS: 399) 93 4.5 Structure of Timber 95 4.6 Characteristics of good Timber 96 4.7 Seasoning of Timber 96 4.8 Defects in Timber 98 4.9 Diseases of Timber 101
4.10 Decay of Timber 101 4.11 Preservation of Timber (IS: 401) 103 4.12 Fire Resistance of Timber 107 4.13 Testing of Timber (IS: 1708) 108 4.14 Suitability of Timber for Specific Uses 121 4.15 Properties of Wood 123 4.16 Wood Products 128
Contents xi
4.17 Applications of Wood and Wood-products 135 Exercises 136 Objective Type Questions 138
5. Materials for Making Concrete-I Cement 144 5.1 Introduction 144 5.2 Portland Cement 145 5.3 Chemical Composition of Raw Materials 146 5.4 Composition of Cement Clinker 147 5.5 Hydration of Cement 149 5.6 Rate of Hydration 151 5.7 Water Requirement for Hydration 151 5.8 Manufacture of Cement 152 5.9 Testing of Cement 154
5.10 Types of Cement 169 5.11 Storage of Cement 174
Exercises 175 Objective Type Questions 175
6. Materials for Making Concrete-II Aggregates 181 6.1 Introduction 181 6.2 Classification of Aggregates 181 6.3 Characteristics of Aggregate 183 6.4 Deleterious Materials and Organic Impurities 187 6.5 Soundness 187 6.6 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction 187 6.7 Thermal Properties of Aggregate 189 6.8 Fine Aggregate 189 6.9 Coarse Aggregate 190
6.10 Cinder Aggregates 191 6.11 Broken Brick Coarse Aggregate 191 6.12 Testing of Aggregates 191
Exercises 207 Objective Type Questions 207
7. Materials for Making Concrete-III Water 209 7.1 Introduction 209 7.2 Quality of Mixing Water 209 7.3 Effect of Mixing Water from Different Sources 211 7.4 Water for Washing Aggregates 212 7.5 Curing Water 212
Exercises 212 Objective Type Questions 212
8. Materials for Making Concrete-IV Lime 214 8.1 Introduction 214 8.2 Impurities in Limestones 216
xii Building Materials
8.3 Classification 217 8.4 Manufacture 221 8.5 Slaking 222 8.6 Hardening 223 8.7 Lime Putty and Coarse Stuff 225 8.8 Testing 225 8.9 Storage 230
8.10 Precautions in Handling 231 8.11 Lime Vs. Cement 231
Exercises 231 Objective Type Questions 232
9. Puzzolanas 234 9.1 Introduction 234 9.2 Classification 234 9.3 The Activity of Puzzolana 235 9.4 Effects of Natural Puzzolanas 236 9.5 Applications 236 9.6 Fly Ash 236 9.7 Calcined Clay Puzzolana (Surkhi) 238 9.8 Ground Blast Furnace Slag 239 9.9 Silica Fume 240
9.10 Rice Husk Ash 241 Exercises 242 Objective Type Questions 242
10. Concrete 244 10.1 Introduction 244 10.2 Classification 245 10.3 Production 246 10.4 Water-cement Ratio 264 10.5 Gel-space Ratio 266 10.6 Strength of Concrete 268 10.7 Maturity 278 10.8 Workability 279 10.9 Durability 284
10.10 Defects 286 10.11 Revibration 287 10.12 Physical Properties 287 10.13 Proportioning 289 10.14 Non-destructive Testing 289 10.15 Rheology 294 10.16 Determination of Cement Content in Hardened Portland Cement Concrete 296 10.17 Admixtures for Concrete (IS: 9103-1999) 296
Exercises 301 Objective Type Questions 303
Contents xiii
11. Concrete Mix Design 307 11.1 Introduction 307 11.2 Principles of Mix Design 309 11.3 Ingredients of the Mix 312 11.4 Acceptance Criteria 319 11.5 Proportioning the Ingredients 323 11.6 IS Method of Mix Design 325
Exercises 337 Objective Type Questions 338
12. Building Mortars 340 12.1 Introduction 340 12.2 Classification 341 12.3 Characteristics of Good Mortar 342 12.4 Functions of Ingredients 343 12.5 Cement Mortar 343 12.6 Lime Mortar 345 12.7 Surkhi Mortar 347 12.8 Lime-Cement Mortar 347 12.9 Mud Mortar 348
12.10 Special Mortars 348 12.11 Selection of Mortar 349 12.12 Testing 349 12.13 Grout 352 12.14 Guniting 352
Exercises 354 Objective Type Questions 355
13. Ferrous Metals 356 13.1 Introduction 356 13.2 Structures of Ferrous Metal 356 13.3 Iron 357 13.4 Pig Iron 357 13.5 Cast Iron 358 13.6 Wrought Iron 362 13.7 Steel 363 13.8 Rolled Steel Sections 368 13.9 Reinforcing Steel Bars 369
13.10 Rusting and Corrosion 372 13.11 Tensile Testing of Steel Sections (IS: 1608) 373 13.12 Alloy Steel 375
Exercises 377 Objective Type Questions 378
14. Non-Ferrous Metals 380 14.1 Introduction 380 14.2 Aluminium 380
xiv Building Materials
14.3 Copper 383 14.4 Zinc 385 14.5 Lead 386 14.6 Tin 387 14.7 Nickel 387
Exercises 388 Objective Type Questions 389
15. Ceramic Materials 391 15.1 Introduction 391 15.2 Classification of Ceramic 391 15.3 Refractories 392 15.4 Glass 393 15.5 Glass Wool 398 15.6 Polymorphism in Ceramic Materials 398 15.7 Mechanical Properties of Ceramic Phases 399 15.8 Thermal Properties of Ceramic Phases 399 15.9 Electrical Properties of Ceramic Phases 400
Exercises 400 Objective Type Questions 400
16. Polymeric Materials 402 16.1 Introduction 402 16.2 Polymerisation Mechanism 402 16.3 Depolymerisation 405 16.4 Rubbers 405 16.5 Plastics 411 16.6 Constituents of Plastics 412 16.7 Fabrication of Commercial Articles from Plastics 413 16.8 Applications of Plastics 416 16.9 Properties of Plastics 416
16.10 Effect of Temperature on Mechanical Properties 417 Exercises 419 Objective Type Questions 419
17. Paints, Enamels and Varnishes 421 17.1 Introduction 421 17.2 Composition of Oil Paint 421 17.3 Characteristics of an Ideal Paint 424 17.4 Preparation of Paint 424 17.5 Covering Power of Paints 425 17.6 Pigment Volume Concentration (P.V.C.) 426 17.7 Painting Plastered Surfaces 427 17.8 Painting Wood Surfaces 427 17.9 Painting Metal Surfaces 429
17.10 Defects 429 17.11 Enamel 431
Contents xv
17.12 Distemper 431 17.13 Water Wash and Colour Wash 432 17.14 Varnish 432 17.15 French Polish 434 17.16 Wax Polish 434 17.17 Miscellaneous Paints 434
Exercises 436 Objective Type Questions 437
18. Tar, Bitumen and Asphalt 440 18.1 Introduction 440 18.2 Bitumen 441 18.3 Tar 443 18.4 Pitch 444 18.5 Asphalt 444 18.6 The Choice of Product 446 18.7 General Properties 446 18.8 Testing 448 18.9 Applications of Bituminous Materials 454
Exercises 456 Objective Type Questions 456
19. Gypsum 458 19.1 Introduction 458 19.2 Effect of Heat and Moisture 459 19.3 Setting and Hardening 459 19.4 Classification 460 19.5 Manufacture 460 19.6 Plaster of Paris or Stucco 461 19.7 Gypsum Wall Plasters 462 19.8 Hard Finish Plaster 463 19.9 Gypsum Plaster Boards 463
19.10 Non-load Bearing Gypsum Partition Blocks 464 19.11 Pyrocell 464
Exercises 464 Objective Type Questions 465
20. Special Cements and Cement Concretes 466 20.1 Introduction 466 20.2 Acid-resistant Cements 466 20.3 Expanding Cements 467 20.4 Oil-Well Cement 468 20.5 Reinforced Cement Concrete 471 20.6 Prestressed Concrete 472 20.7 Polymer Concrete 473 20.8 Fibre Reinforced Concrete 474 20.9 Ferrocement 475
xvi Building Materials
20.10 Light Weight Concrete 479 20.11 High Strength Concrete 482 20.12 Shrinkage Compensating Concrete 485 20.13 Heavyweight Concrete 487 20.14 Roller Compacted Concrete 487 20.15 Ready Mixed Concrete (RMC) 488 20.16 Self-compacting Concrete 491 20.17 Shotcrete 493 20.18 High-performance Concrete 494 20.19 Bacterial Concrete 497
Exercises 498 Objective Type Questions 498
21. Miscellaneous Materials 500 21.1 Adhesives 500 21.2 Asbestos 501 21.3 Linoleum 502 21.4 Thermocol 503 21.5 Heat Insulating Materials 503 21.6 Sound Insulating Materials 503 21.7 Water Proofing Materials 503 21.8 Fiber 504 21.9 Geosynthetics 505
21.10 Sand Lime Brick (IS:4139) 510 21.11 Smart Materials 512 21.12 Composite Materials 514
Exercises 517 Objective Type Questions 518
Appendix-I 519 Lime-puzzolana Mixtures
Index 521
Building materials have an important role to play in this modern age of technology. Although their most important use is in construction activities, no field of engineering is conceivable without their use. Also, the building materials industry is an important contributor in our national economy as its output governs both the rate and the quality of construction work.
There are certain general factors which affect the choice of materials for a particular scheme. Perhaps the most important of these is the climatic background. Obviously, different materials and forms of construction have developed in different parts of the world as a result of climatic differences. Another factor is the economic aspect of the choice of materials. The rapid advance of constructional methods, the increasing introduction of mechanical tools and plants, and changes in the organisation of the building industry may appreciably influence the choice of materials.
The importance of standardisation cannot be over emphasised. It requires the quality of materials and manufactured items to be not below a specific standard level. However, the importance of standardisation is not limited to this factor alone, since each revised standard places higher requirements upon the products than the preceding one, with the effect that the industry concerned has to keep up with the standards and improved production techniques. Thus, the industry of building materials gains both in quantity and quality, so that new, more efficient products are manufactured and the output of conventional materials is increased.
() is the mass of a unit volume of homogeneous material denoted by
= M V
Density of some building materials is as follows:
Material Density (g/cm3) Brick 2.5–2.8 Granite 2.6–2.9 Portland cement 2.9–3.1 Wood 1.5–1.6 Steel 7.8–7.9
(b) is the mass of a unit volume of material in its natural state (with pores and voids) calculated as
b = M V
kg/m3
Material Bulk density (kg/m3) Brick 1600–1800 Granite 2500–2700 Sand 1450–1650 Pine wood 500–600 Steel 7850
(o) is the ratio,
density
= b
It indicates the degree to which the volume of a material is filled with solid matter. For almost all building materials o is less than 1.0 because there are no absolutely dense bodies in nature.
() also known as the unit weight) is the weight per unit volume of material,
= . g Where
= specific weight (kN/m3) = density of the material (kg/m) g = gravity (m/s2)
Specific weight can be used in civil engineering to determine the weight of a structure designed to carry certain loads while remaining intact and remaining within limits regarding deformation. It is also used in fluid dynamics as a property of the fluid (e.g., the specific weight of water on Earth is 9.80 kN/m3 at 4°C).
The terms specific gravity, and less often specific weight, are also used for relative density.
(Gs) of solid particles of a material is the ratio of weight/mass of a given volume of solids to the weight/mass of an equal volume of water at 4°C.
Gs =
s
w =
w At 4° C w = 1 g/cc or 9.8 kN/m3
If both the permeable and impermeable voids are excluded to determine the true volume of solids, the specific gravity is called true or absolute specific gravity.
Ga =
s a
w The absolute specific gravity is not much of practical use.
Gm =
w
!" is the degree to which volume of the material of the material is interspersed with pores. It is expressed as a ratio of the volume of pores to that of the specimen.
n = vV V
Porosity is indicative of other major properties of material, such as bulk density, heat conductivity, durability, etc. Dense materials, which have low porosity, are used for constructions requiring high mechanical strength on other hand, walls of buildings are commonly built of materials, featuring considerable porosity.
Following inter relationship exists between void ratio and the porosity.
n = e
1 e # $is defined as the ratio of volume of voids (Vv) to the volume of solids (Vs).
e = v
V V
If an aggregate is poured into a container of any sort it will be observed that not all of the space within the container is filled. To the vacant spaces between the particles of aggregate the name voids is applied. Necessarily, the percentage of voids like the specific weight is affected by the compactness of the aggregate and the amount of moisture which it contains. Generally void determinations are made on material measured loose.
There are two classes of methods commonly employed for measuring voids, the direct and the indirect. The most-used direct method consists in determining the volume of liquid, generally water, which is required to fill the voids in a given quantity of material. Since in poring water into fine aggregate it is impossible to expel all the air between the particles, the measured voids are smaller than the actual. It therefore becomes evident that the above direct method should not be used with fine aggregate unless the test is conducted in a vacuum. By the indirect method, the solid volume of a known quantity of aggregate is obtained by pouring the material into a calibrated tank partially filled with water; the difference between the apparent volume of material and the volume of water displaced equals the voids. If very accurate results are desired void measurements should be corrected for the porosity of the aggregate and moisture it contains.
% is the property of…
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