Bswe 003 Block 4 UNIT 19 Small Size

56 Social Work Intervention with Communities and Institutions

19

Methods and Tools ofData Collection

* D.K. Lal Das

Introduction

After the finalization of the sample, the researcherhas to work out his/her strategies for data collection.There are various methods and tools of data collection.We use these methods as well as tools both intheoretical study and empirical study. It is importantto note that the methods and tools will very dependingupon the nature of study. In some studies, we mayhave to use more them one method or tool for datacollection. In this chapter you will be able to learnabout methods and tools of data collection in detailalong with methods of social research and researchdesign. These are very important concepts for asocial worker who is interested in conducting ameaningful research.

Sources of Data

The two main sources of data in social researchare ‘people’ and ‘paper’. The responses of questionsput to people constitute the major sources of datain social research. This source is labeled as primarysource of data. A large amount of data is alreadyavailable in the form of ‘paper’ sources. This includesdocuments, historical records, diaries, biographies,statistical records etc. The ‘paper’ sources arecommonly known as secondary sources of data or‘available data source’.

Dr. D.K. Lal Das, R.M. College of Social Work, Hyderabad

Methods and Tools of Data Collection 57

When a researcher decides to collect data throughprimary source he has three options, namely,observation, interview and questionnaire. In casehe opts for secondary source of data he uses themethods of content analysis.

Methods and Tools of Data Collection

Following three methods are employed in collectingdata from primary sources:

1) Observation

2) Interview

3) Questionnaire

Observation

Observation is the basic method of obtaininginformation about social phenomena underinvestigation. All of us are constantly engaged inobservation. However, all such observations are notscientific observations. Observations become a methodof data collection when it is planned in accordancewith the purpose of research and recordedsystematically keeping in mind the validity andreliability of observed data.

There are numerous situations where this methodof observation is considered as most appropriate.Say for example, a researcher who is interested inunderstanding the behaviour of children who cannotspeak, necessarily, has to depend on this methodof observation. Many aspects of our behaviour areso much a part of life that it becomes difficult totranslate it into words. Many a time, a researcherfaces resistance from respondents being studied.Sometimes, people do not cooperate with the researcherand show their unwillingness to respond to thequestions of the researcher. Although observationscannot always overcome such resistance, it is


relatively the most appropriate method of data collectionin such situations.

The method of observations serves variety of researchobjectives. Exploratory objectives are worth mentioninghere. A researcher can explore some aspects of hismain research question or can gain insight into theresearch problem and develop the basis for hishypothesis. It may also be used to collectsupplementary information that would help interpretfindings obtained by other methods.

Type of Observations

There are several types of observations varying fromcompletely unstructured to structured, pre-coded,formal procedures to suit the needs of researchersand the overall objectives of the research problems.One way of differentiating among various types ofobservations is to draw distinction on the basis ofdegree of structuredness. Accordingly, we get twoobservational procedures: (1) unstructured and (2)structured. The other way of classifications is interms of the role played by the researcher. On thisbasis observation procedures may be classified as(1) participant observation and (2) non-participantobservation.

Structured Observations

Structured observations take into consideration aclear and specific definition of the units to be observedand data to be recorded. This is possible only whenthe problem is well formulated. However, in exploratorystudies the researcher does not know in advancewhich dimension of the problem will be relevant.Structured observations are mostly used in studiesdesigned to describe a problem or to test causalhypothesis. The use of structured observationprocedures presupposes that the researcher knowswhat aspects of the problem under study are relevant


to his research objectives and is in a position,therefore, to plan the recording of observations beforehe starts data collection.

Unstructured Observations

In a practical situation it is often not possible toplan out the ‘observation’ process in advance.Particularly in case of exploratory studies, theresearcher does not have enough clues to structurehis observations, which may call for changes in whathe observes. Such changes are characteristics ofunstructured observation. Since the unstructuredobservations are flexible it allows for changes inthe focus from time to time if and when reasonableclues warrant such changes.

Participant Observations

Participant observation involves sharing the life ofthe group under study by the researcher. In otherwords, participant observation is an attempt to putboth the observer and the observed on the sameside by making the observer a member of the groupso that he can experience what they experienceand work within their frame of reference. In particular,the researcher becomes a member of the communitybeing observed by him.

Non-participant Observations

On the contrary, non-participant observation ischaracterised by a lack of participation by the observerin the life of the group that a researcher is observing.In other words, in non-participant observations theobserver has detached role and records without anyattempt on his part to participate in the interactionprocess with the group being observed.

Interview

The interview is a verbal interaction between theresearcher and the respondents. This method has


been a widely used method of data collection. Thismethod involves presentation of verbal questions orallyand collecting oral verbal responses. Many feel thatthe best way to find out why people behave as theydo is to question them about their behaviour directlyby interviewing them. In this method, the interviewerasks questions in a face-to-face contact (generally)to the interviewee, the person who is being interviewedwho gives answers (mostly) to these questions.

Interview has been a widely used method of datacollection so far as, information about the socialbackground, opinion, attitudes, changes in relationsare concerned.

Types of Interview

Interview has been classified in different ways. Oneway of classification of interviews is based on theirfunctions, such as diagnostic interviews often usedfor clinical purposes. The other way of classificationof interviews is the number of persons participatingin the interview process, for example, individualinterview or group interviews. Yet another basis ofclassifying interviews is the format used for interview,for example, structured and non-structured. Anyone of the bases can be relied on to classify thevarious types of interviews just mentioned above.Most probably, the easiest and most convenient wayto classify them is the degree to which they arestructured.

The Structured Interviews

As the name suggests, structured interviews maintainsome control over the respondents. Nevertheless,considerable flexibility is permitted in deciding theextent to which interviews should be structured.First and foremost area, through which an interviewis structured, is the questions and its responses.The questions in an interview are regulated to get


appropriate responses. In so far as responses areconcerned they are regulated and controlled by givingmultiple choices to the interviewee. To achieve this,first the questions have to be in order and focussedto get reliable and appropriate responses; it isbeneficial to ask questions in same order from oneinterview to another interview.

The Unstructured Interviews

In unstructured interviews questions are not orderedin a particular way. The order of questions is notfixed. In other words the order of questions followedin one interview may not be followed in the nextinterview. Even the questions asked are not wordedin the same way. In sum, the interview is free ofregulation and control.

Group Interview

In an interview we call for questioning each individualseparately. Where as in group interviews, we interviewmore than one individual at a time. In a groupinterview as many as eight to ten people may discussthe subject matter of an investigation under thedirection of an interviewer. However, such interviewsare more satisfactory as a source of hypotheses oras a way of gathering information about the group,they do not ordinarily yield systematic informationfrom every individual in the group on each pointcovered in a personal interview.

Telephone Interviews

Telephone interviews are conducted in cases whereindividuals are likely to have telephones, but whoare scattered in a large geographical area. Telephoneinterviews typically combine the advantages anddisadvantages of both mailed questionnaire andpersonal interviews. Low cost and rapid completionwith relatively high response rates are the majoradvantages of telephone interview. It is possible to


conduct large scale surveys through telephoneinterviews within a few hours of the occurrence ofa traumatic event in order to illicit immediatereactions. The major reservation about telephoneinterviewing has been that those people who havetelephones are not representative of the generalpopulation.

Questionnaire

The preceding section discussed the observation andinterview methods of data collection. In this sectionwe discuss the questionnaire as a method of datacollection, the contents and type of questions followedby the format and sequence of questions.

Content of Questions

Questionnaire enlists questions, which translate theresearch objectives into specific questions. Thequestion must also encourage the respondent sothat the necessary data is obtained. It is to thesetwo ends that the question becomes the focus aroundwhich the questionnaire is constructed. One of themajor issues involved in formulating the questionis its content. The major issues on which questionsmay be concerned are facts, opinions, attitudes,respondents’ motivation, and their level of acquaintancewith a research problem. By and large, questionscan be classified into two general categories, namely,(1) factual questions and (2) opinion and attitudequestions.

Factual Questions

Factual questions are asked to elicit informationfrom the respondents regarding theirbackground, such as sex, age, marital status,education or income. The following is an exampleof such a question:


1) What is your level of education? (please checkone)

1. Graduate ( )

2. Intermediate ( )

3. High School ( )

4. Middle School ( )

5. Primary ( )

6. Illiterate ( )

Other kinds of factual questions are intended toelicit information on the profile of the respondents(sex, marital status, income, work experience, placeof residence, nativity etc.).

1) Name ......................................................................

2) Age in Years : .....................................................

(As on 1st July, 1999)

3) Designation : ........................................................

4) Establishment : ....................................................

6) Marital Status : ...................................................

1. Married ( )

2. Unmarried ( )

3. Widow ( )

4. Divorcee ( )

7) Husband’s Occupation : ....................................

8) Husband’s Work Place : .....................................

9) Husband’s Salary/Wages : .................................


10) Religion : 1. Hindu ................................. ( )

2. Muslim ............................... ( )

3. Christian ............................ ( )

4. Any other .......................... ( )

It looks easier to design factual questions. However,many a times factual questions pose the researcherwith problems. In a survey many respondentsmisunderstood religion as a ‘faith/belief’ and reportedthat they do not believe in religion. Similarly, inother research study pertaining to socio-economicstatus, many failed to mention income out of milchanimals, kitchen garden and poultry because theydid not consider it as a source of income. Further,most probably, the sources of income are eitherwages or cash value of crops.

These two examples point to failure of communicationsystem between the researcher and the respondents.A researcher is required to have a clear definitionof the concept and is also required to communicateexactly the same to avoid such problems.

Opinion and Attitude Questions

The concept “attitude” refers to the sum total ofa person’s inclination, prejudices, ideas, fears, andconvictions about any specific topic. Opinions, onthe other hand, are the verbal expression of attitudes(Thurstone, 1928, p.33). Thus, a statement such as“Child labour should be banned” would reflect anopinion that is against child labour, but an attitudetowards child labour would mean a more specificorientation of what a person feels and thinks aboutchild labour.

Attitudes can be described by their content (whatthe attitude is about), by their direction (positive,neutral, or negative feelings about the object orissue in question), and by their intensity (an attitude


may be held with greater or lesser vehemence). Toone person, child labour may be just of passinginterest; to another, it may be of great significanceand that person may be ready to join anti-childlabour movements.

Questions about opinions and attitudes present moreproblems in construction than questions about facts.Comparatively, it is simpler to obtain accurate data,for example, whether or not a person is married.It can be assumed that the respondent knows whetherhe or she is married or not. However, questions onopinions or attitudes, the assumption that therespondents know cannot always be made. Forexample, respondents may not have either positiveor negative attitude towards child labour, or if theydo, it might be largely latent (Moser and Karlton,1975, p. 317). Moreover, as there are various aspectsor dimensions of attitudes, the respondent may agreewith one aspect and disagree with another. Thisis the reason why attitudes cannot be measuredby a single question. For example, if a respondentstrongly agrees with the statement “Child labourshould be banned,” this does not imply a broad anti-child labour attitude. This person’s agreement maybe due to personal circumstances; for instance, theperson who may be unemployed thinks that childlabour would harm his or her prospect of employment.By using a set of statements, one can reduce theeffects of one-aspect responses.

Finally, answers to opinion and attitude questionsare more sensitive to changes in wording, emphasis,and sequence than are those to factual questions.This reflects, in part, the multidimensionality ofmany attitudes. Questions presented in differentways sometimes reflect different aspects of the attitudeand thus result in different answers.

Formats of Questions

The format of the question and the response categoriesaccompanying the questions are other aspects, which


need attention of the researchers. Three types ofquestion formats are discussed in the followingsections: (1) open-ended questions, (2) closed-endedquestions and (3) contingency questions.

Open-Ended and Closed-Ended Questions

Questions in a questionnaire can be either open-ended or closed-ended. In a closed-ended question,respondents are offered a set of answers from whichthey are asked to choose the one that most closelyrepresents their views. For example, to measuresex discrimination against women in the unorganisedsector the author used, among other questions, thefollowing closed-ended question:

“Are you aware of the Equal Remuneration Act?

1) Yes 2) No

“Equal remuneration should be given to men andwomen for same work or work of similar nature.”

� Strongly agree

� Agree

� Indifferent

� Disagree

� Strongly disagree

Open-ended questions are not followed by any kindof specified responses, and the respondents’ responsesare recorded in full. For instance, the question “Whatdo you personally feel are the most important issuesrelated to child labour which the government shouldtry to take care of?” is an open-ended question usedfrequently in questionnaires designed to study publicopinion. The advantage of the open-ended questionis that it does not force the respondent to adaptto predetermined responses: having understood the


question, one can express one’s ideas freely,spontaneously and in one’s own language. If theanswers to open-ended questions are not clear, theresearcher may probe, that is, ask the respondentto explain further or to give reasons for somethingstated earlier.

Contingency Questions

Frequently questions that are relevant to somerespondents may be irrelevant to others. For example,the question “Check the most important reasonswhy you are not going to college” obviously appliesonly to those intermediate students who are notplanning to go to college at all. It is often necessaryto include questions that might apply only to somerespondents and not to others. Some questions maybe relevant only to females and not to males: otherswill only apply to respondents who are self-employed,and so on.

When a question is applicable to only a sub-groupof the sample it is known as contingency question.A contingency question is a special case of a closed-ended question and it is one that applies only toa subgroup of respondents. The relevance of thequestion to this subgroup is determined by the answerof respondents to a preceding question. For example,in a research study the preceding question was,“Are you aware of the Act?” The contingency questioncould be, “If yes, what do you know about it?” Therelevance of the second question to the respondentis contingent upon his or her response to the precedingquestion. Only respondents who responded “Yes” tothe preceding question will find the contingencyquestion relevant. Therefore, the response categoriesof the preceding questions will be 1. Yes (answerthe following question); 2. No (skip to question 3).


Response Format

In this section we will discuss some of the formatsof response categories of closed-ended questions.The general format is to present all possible responsesand have the respondent check the appropriateresponse. The respondent can either encircle hisor her answer or check a box or a blank as in thefollowing examples:

“What is your marital status?

Married Married 1. Married

Single Single 2. Single

Divorced Divorced 3. Divorced

Widowed Widowed 4. Widowed

Rating Scales

One of the most common formats for questions askedin social research is the rating scale. The ratingscale is used whenever respondents are asked tomake a judgment in terms of sets of ordered categories,such as “agree,” “favourable,” or “very often.” Forexample:

Attitude of the Employer

The employers prefer male employees because wetake more sick leaves and quit more readily.

1) Agree ( ) 2) Undecided ( )

3) Disagree ( )

The employers feel that we can’t cope with stressfulsituations like men can and as such don’t give uswork like men.


3) Disagree ( )


We are not given responsible positions because oftheir belief that most women are too emotional tobe able to handle positions of great responsibility.


3) Disagree ( )

The employer takes advantage of us being womenand sexually exploits us.

1) Very Often ( ) 2) Often ( )3) Rarely ( )

Matrix Questions

The matrix question is a method for organising aset of questions that have the same response patterns.The following is an example of matrix questions.

“In my work place the following welfare servicesare provided.”

YesNo If yes then whatdo you think about it?

Yes No Satis- Fairly Satis- Unsatisfactory factory factory

1) Crèches and Day ( ) ( ) - - -Nurseries

2) Maternity Benefits ( ) ( ) - - -

3) Canteen (common) ( ) ( ) - - -

4) Canteen (separate) ( ) ( ) - - -

5) Rest place (common) ( ) ( ) - - -

6) Rest place (separate) ( ) ( ) - - -

7) Toilet (separate) ( ) ( ) - - -

Sequence of Questions

Once the format of questions is decided, a researcherhas to consider the order in which questions are


to be placed in the questionnaire. Two general patternsof question sequence have been found to be mostappropriate for motivating respondents to cooperate:the funnel sequence and the inverted funnel sequence.

It should be kept in mind that questions that arepresented first in the questionnaire should put therespondent at ease; and if an interviewer is present;they should help in creating rapport between theresearcher and the respondent. Thus, the questionin the beginning should be easy to answer, interesting,and it should not deal with sensitive issues. Forexample, questions about drinking habit or sex lifeof respondents, if placed at the beginning, maydemotivate the respondents to answer the subsequentquestions. It is therefore, suggested that suchquestions be placed later, for they reduce therespondent’s initial motivation to cooperate.

Questions to be Avoided

Leading Questions

A question worded in such a manner that it appearsto the respondent that the researcher expects acertain answer, is commonly known as leadingquestion. A question designed to elicit general opinionabout work satisfaction might read, “How do youfeel about your work?” The same question wordedin a leading form might read, “Are you satisfiedwith your work?” This question makes it easier forrespondents to answer yes than no. In answeringyes, they are agreeing with the words of the questionand are not contradicting the researcher.

As far as possible leading questions are to be avoidedif one is looking for objective responses. In somesituations, particularly, where leading questions mayserve the research objective, leading questions withsuitable wordings are used with extra care.


Threatening Questions

Threatening questions refer to behaviours that areillegal or contra-normative or behaviours that aresocially deviant and are not discussed in public.For example, questions that inquires about therespondent’s gambling habits, about their drinkinghabits, child abuse or sexual behaviours are referredas threatening questions. Often it is necessary toinclude such questions in studies, which therespondent may find embarrassing and thus difficultto answer.

Though it is suggested to avoid threatening questionsas far as possible, in cases where it is necessaryto include such questions it is advised to use along introduction to the question (or may be indirectquestion) rather than asking short questions (ordirect questions); by an open-ended rather than aclosed-ended format; and, to a lesser extent, byletting the respondents pick their own words to talkabout the sensitive issues. For example, to knowabout respondent’s drinking behaviour the followingquestion may be asked:

“In the past one year, how often you could not controlyourself to become intoxicated while drinking?”

Respondents may be asked to classify their responsesinto one of the following categories:

Once in three month

Once a month

Once a week

Several times a week

Daily


Double-barreled Questions

When two or more than two questions are includedin one question it is termed as double-barreledquestions. The following question, included in a survey,is an example:

“Women should stay at home and take care of theirchildren and other family members and stop takingup employment outside.”

— Agree

— Depends

— Disagree

The above statement includes two separate questionsthat are joined by the conjunction ‘and’.

Such questions might confuse respondents who agreewith one aspect of the question – stay at home andtake care of children and other family membersand not with the other – stop taking employmentoutside. Many questions that includes ‘and’ is verylikely doubled-barreled, hence, it is suggested notto include such questions.

Methods of Social Research

Case Study

A comprehensive study of a social unit – a person,a group, a social institution, a community – is calleda case study. It is a study to determine social process;the complexity of factors, their sequences andinterrelationships. It is an exhaustive study of asocial unit.

In case study information (commonly known as casedata) may be gathered exhaustively of an entire lifecycle of a social unit or a definite section of it.Whether a section or the whole of a life is studied,


the aim is to ascertain the natural history, thatis, an account of the generic development of a personor group, or whatever constitutes the social unitin a particular study, revealing the factors that modeledthe life of the unit within its cultural setting (Young,1966). Because of its aid in studying behaviour inspecific, precise detail, Burgess (1949) termed thecase study method, “the social microscope”.

Case study method was introduced in social sciencesby Frederic Le Play (1806-1862). He used it in hisstudies of family budgets. Herbert Spencer, was thefirst to use case materials in his ethnographic studies.

The actual adoption and widespread use of the casestudy method as systematic sociological field researchis attributed to the work of Thomas and Znaniecki.They used extensively personal documents – diaries,letters, autobiographies – and at times combed thefiles of social agencies, in their search for concreteand specific detail about personal conduct and groupbehaviour within the cultural situation (Young, 1966).

In gathering case data it is assumed that the identityof human nature persists, by and large, in a varietyof circumstances, even though human conductchanges. All human beings share a basic humanity,in spite of unique experiences and personalcharacteristics (Young, 1966).

Soon after case studies gained considerable prominencein social research the method was challenged forits value as scientific method. It was felt that themethod couldn’t bring out objective and valid findings.Instead, it was contended that the whole processis subjective and unreliable.

The case study, (a qualitative study) and a studywhich uses quantitative methods may supplementeach other since each views a given situation fromdifferent angles and each places a different emphasis


on the social factors in the situation. Some researchersdo not believe that case data, and particularly personallife histories, lead themselves adequately toquantitative expression without which there can beno science. Other contend that case data, whencarefully selected from representative members ofa given group who are capable of providing concretecategorical experiences of their lives, would typifythose of others in their group because they tendto react more or less in characteristic manner tothe same stimuli in their culture (Young, 1966).Other researchers have seriously questioned theability of “case-researcher” to identify general types,classes and processes from subjective data and tomake valid and verifiable generalisation regardingsocial life

In studies of social change, social adjustment orun-adjustment, and other types of human behaviour,quantitative methods could confirm or disprovehypotheses, or determine existing correlations, moreprecisely than can case data. Also quantitative methodsaid in avoiding conclusions based on unusual orexceptional cases and in determining the trends ofproblems.

Conversely, quantitative methods of human behaviourcan be enriched and seen in broader perspectiveif supplemented by individual case studies. The useof the latter also would reduce the danger whichthreatens those social researcher who limit themselvesto describing behaviour in terms of what can beconveniently counted or measured, rather than interms of what is really useful to know about behaviour(Young).

Social Survey

In a Social Survey or Survey Research, we studylarge and small population by selecting and studyingsamples chosen from the population in order to discover


the incidence, distribution and interrelation of psycho-socioeconomic variables, personnel interviews,questionnaires and discussions are used as part ofthis method. The main advantage of this methodis that a lot of information can be collected froma very large population. The main disadvantage ofthis method is that it demands more time, effortand money.

Action Research

This method is widely accepted in social work research.Based on the findings of the research study, theresearcher facilitates appropriate action pogrammesthat would benefit the population under study.

Research Design

A research design is the specification of methodsand procedures for acquiring the information neededfor a study.

Exploratory Design

Exploratory or formative studies are taken up inorder to achieve new insights or ideas about aphenomenon. Exploratory studies are usually moreappropriate in the case of problems about whichlittle knowledge is a available.

Descriptive Diagnostic Design

Descriptive studies aims at portraying accuratelythe characteristics of a particular group or situation.A diagnostic study aims to find out the relevantvariables associated with a problem, which couldpave the way for finding a solution.

Experimental Design

The purpose of experimental studies is to test ahypothesis and to study the causal relationship betweenvariables. For an experimental study two groups are


required and compared in terms of the effect of theexperimental variable.

Conclusion

There are two main sources of data in social research.The responses of questions put to people constitutethe primary source of data. Documents, historicalrecords, diaries, biographies, statistical records etc.are commonly known as secondary sources of dataor ‘available data source’.

Observation is the basic method of obtaininginformation about social phenomena underinvestigation. There are numerous situations wherethis method is considered as most appropriate.Observations serve variety of research objectives.A researcher can explore some aspects of his mainresearch question or can gain insight into the researchproblem and develop the basis for his hypothesis.It is also used to collect supplementary informationthat would help interpret findings obtained by othermethods.

There are several types of observations. One wayof differentiating among various types of observationsis to draw distinction on the basis of degree ofstructuredness. Accordingly, we get two observationalprocedures: (1) unstructured and (2) structured.The other way of classifications is in terms of therole played by the researcher. On this basis observationprocedures may be classified as (1) participantobservation and (2) non-participant observation.

In social research interview has been a widely usedmethod of data collection so far as, information aboutthe social background, opinion, attitudes, changesin relations are concerned.

Interview has been classified in different ways. Forexample, individual interview or group interviews.


Yet another basis of classifying interviews is basedon the format used for interview, for example,structured and non-structured.

Another widely used method of data collection isquestionnaire. It enlists questions, which translatethe research objectives into specific questions. Oneof the major issues involved in formulating the questionis its content. The other issues on which questionsmay be concerned are facts, opinions, attitudes,respondents’ motivation, and their level of acquaintancewith a research problem.

A comprehensive study of a social unit – a person,a group, a social institution, a community – is calleda case study. It is a study to determine social process;the complexity of factors, their sequences andinterrelationships. It is an exhaustive study of asocial unit.

In case study information (commonly known as casedata) may be gathered exhaustively of an entire lifecycle of a social unit or a definite section of it.Whether a section or the whole of a life is studied,the aim is to ascertain the natural history, thatis, an account of the generic development of a personor group, or whatever constitutes the social unitin a particular study, revealing the factors that modeledthe life of the unit within its cultural setting.

Case studies method is challenged for its value asscientific method. It is felt that the method cannotbring out objective and valid findings. Instead, itwas contended that the whole process is subjectiveand unreliable.

The case study (a qualitative study) and a studywhich uses quantitative methods may supplementeach other since each views a given situation fromdifferent angles and each places a different emphasison the social factors in the situation.


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