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DETERMINATION OF LYCOPENE, VITAMIN A, VITAMIN C, PHENOL,
FLAVONOID AND ANTIOXIDANT IN MUSA ACUMINATA (Colla), CAPSICUM
ANNUMM (Var. grossum L.), PERSEA AMERICANA (var.
guatemalensis L.) AND PRUNUS DULCIS (var. sativa. L)
BY
ERHIAWARIE, BRIGHT AKPOJOTOR
DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY, ABRAKA, NIGERIA
MAY, 2015
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DETERMINATION OF LYCOPENE, VITAMIN A, VITAMIN C, PHENOL,
FLAVONOID AND ANTIOXIDANT IN MUSA ACUMINATA (Colla), CAPSICUM
ANNUMM (Var. grossum L.), PERSEA AMERICANA (var.
guatemalensis L.) AND PRUNUS DULCIS (var. sativa. L)
BY
ERHIAWARIE, BRIGHT AKPOJOTOR FOS/SLT/09/10/172792
A RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,
FACULTY OF SCIENCE, DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY,
ABRAKA
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.Sc.) DEGREE IN BOTANY, DELTA STATE
UNIVERSITY, ABRAKA, NIGERIA.
MAY, 2015
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CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this project work was carried out by
Erhiawarie, Bright
Akpojotor and supervised by Dr (Mrs) N.E. Edema in the
Department of Botany,
Faculty of Science, Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria.
____________________ ___________________
DR (MRS) N.E. EDEMA DATE (PROJECT SUPERVISOR)
____________________ ____________________
PROF (MRS) O.M. AGBOGIDI DATE (HEAD OF DEPARTMENT)
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DEDICATION
This project work is dedicated to God Almighty for His love,
protection and
guidance all through my academic years.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I sincerely wish to express my profound gratitude to God
Almighty my provider, my deliverer, my all in all and my everything
for keeping me alive till now and providing all that was needed
throughout the period of my studies.
I wish to acknowledge Dr (Mrs) N.E. Edema my supervisor for her
patience, understanding, motherly advice and constructive criticism
in this project work.
I also wish to thank my Head of Department, Prof (Mrs) O.M.
Agbogidi and my course adviser, Dr E. Harrison and other lecturers
in the Department of Botany, Delta State University, Abraka for the
role they played during my academic programme.
Also, I give gratitude to my beloved parents, Chief and Mrs
Lagos Erhiawarie and my wonderful siblings like Felicia, Lawrence,
Alexandra and Kevwe for their prayers, financial and moral support
throughout the period of my studies
I also wish to give gratitude to the family of Mr and Mrs
Onoriode Odemakpore, Mr and Mrs Isokariari Damiete and the family
of Mr and Mrs Cynathra Atigogo for their financial and moral
support throughout the period of my studies.
I also acknowledge the work of the Director, Teezed Business
Enterprise, Mr M.O. Jessa who painstakingly typed and made
corrections and guidance during this project work.
Finally, I give gratitude to my friends and course mates who in
one way or the other contributed to the success of my academic
programme. Especially the likes of Ebiserikumo, Bola Enaifoghe,
Gregory Okaludo, Josiah Ogedegbe and others too numerous to
mention.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page - - - - - - - - - i Certification -
- - - - - - - - - ii Dedication - - - - - - - - - - iii
Acknowledgement - - - - - - - - - v Table of Contents - - - - - - -
- - v Abstract - - - - - - - - - - ix CHAPTER ONE 1.1 Background of
the Study - - - - - - - 1 1.2 Classification of Fruits - - - - - -
- 3 1.3 Aims and Objectives of Study - - - - - - 4 1.4 Statement of
Problem - - - - - - - - 4 1.5 Significance of the Study - - - - - -
- 4 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Lycopene - - - - - - - - - 7
2.2 Vitamin A - - - - - - - - - 8 2.3 Vitamin C - - - - - - - - - 9
2.4 Flavonoids - - - - - - - - - 10 2.5 Phenol - - - - - - - - - -
11 2.6 Anti-oxidants - - - - - - - - - 15 2.7 Musa acuminata - - -
- - - - - 13 2.8 Prunus dulcis - - - - - - - - - 15 2.9 Persea
americana - - - - - - - - 20 2.10 Capsicum annumm - - - - - - - 24
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Determination of Total
Antioxidant Capacity - - - - 27 3.2 Determination of Vitamin C - -
- - - - - 27 3.3 Determination of Flavonoids - - - - - - - 28 3.4
Determination of Phenols - - - - - - - 28 3.5 Determination of
Lycopene - - - - - - - 29 3.6 Determination of Vitamin A - - - - -
- - 29 CHAPTER FOUR Results - - - - - - - - - - - 31 CHAPTER FIVE:
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1 Discussion - - - - -
- - - - 38 5.2 Conclusion - - - - - - - - - 39 5.3 Recommendation -
- - - - - - - 40 References - - - - - - - - 41 Appendix - - - - - -
- - - 46
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ABSTRACT Fruits are important sources of vitamins, which are
essential components of human diet. This project is designed to
investigate the identification and separation of lycopene, vitamin
A, vitamin C, phenol, flavonoid and antioxidant in Musa acuminata,
Capsicum annumm, Persea americana and Prunus dulcis. The results of
this study showed that Persea americana (pear) is high in vitamins
C when compared to the popular Citrus aurantifolia (Orange). Persea
americana had the highest value of 350mg/100g for Ascorbic acid;
0.13mg/100g for flavonoid and 322.88mg/100g for antioxidant.
Capsicum annumm recorded 300mg/100g as the second highest in
vitamin C. Musa acuminata has the lowest values in ascorbic acid
(252mg/5g), phenol (32.3mg/1g) and total antioxidant capacity
(321.55mg/5g). From this study, it is recommended that fruits high
in antioxidant properties should be consumed to reduce senescence
and improve human health status. Further investigation is also
required to isolate and characterize the individual components from
these plants which are actually responsible for their antioxidant
activities and develop their application for food and
pharmaceutical industries.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Fruits are of great nutritional values. They are important
sources of vitamins,
which carry essential components of human diet.
Fruits are important in human diet since they contain
carbohydras, proteins,
as well as vitamins, minerals and trace elements (Akaneme,
2008). Regular intake
of fruits is indispensable for good health, fitness and feeling
of well-being. In
addition, millions of people throughout the developing countries
of the world were
reported to have inadequate food supply or nutrient deficiencies
in their diets, which
led to problems due to starvation and malnutrition of various
types (Tlili and
Lenucci, 2011). There has been an increase in the awareness on
the food value of
fruits as a result of exposure to other cultures and acquiring
proper food education
(Amusa, et al., 2003).
Pepper (Capsicum annumm. var. bola), is one of the most varied
and widely
used food in the world. There are a vast number of varieties of
pepper and every
variety is indicated with the original language of the local
cultures, which differs
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from town to town and from region to region. For these reasons
the classification of
pepper is not simple (Basher and Abu-Goukh, 2003). Nigeria is
known to be one of
the major producers of pepper in the world accounting for about
50% of the African
production (Ureigho, 2010). The pepper grown in Nigeria is in
high demand because
of its pungency and good flavour (Akbugwo and Ugbogu, 2007).
Pepper is a fruit is now recognized as rich sources of
antioxidants, in which
vitamin A, C and Lycopene are some of the most abundant
antioxidants identified
in them (ArvouetGrand et al., 2000; Badr-Sherif et al., 2011).
Since the protective
roles of dietary, antioxidants cant be over-emphasized against
multiple diseases
such as cancer, anaemia, diabetes, carbohydrates diseases, etc.
these antioxidants
perform their functions by contracting the oxidizing activities
of highly reactive
oxygen species thereby, preventing the oxidative modification of
low density
protein, nucleic acids, proteins, etc. (Briviba and Sies, 2000).
Therefore, there have
been recent increases recorded in the demand in the consumption,
particularly
among the urban community. This is due to the increased
awareness on the food
value of fruits (e.g apple, pepper, banana, guava, pear and
almond), especially as
antioxidants (Amusa, et al., 2003).
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Epidemiological studies indicate a strong inverse correlation
between the
consumption of fruits and the incidence of degenerative
diseases. There is
considerable evidence for the role of antioxidant constituents
of fruits in the
maintenance of health and prevention of diseases.
Phenolic compounds have the ability to prevent the oxidation of
low-density
lipoprotein (LDL) owing to their antioxidant properties,
attributable to the free
radical scavenging properties of their constituents hydroxyl
groups. The inhibition
of low-density lipoprotein oxidation has been associated with a
lower incidence of
coronary diseases. Among the several classes of plant phenolics,
some have been
reported in pear fruits: phenolic acids, flavonoids and
anthocyanin (Burkill, 2003).
1.2 Classification of Fruits
Fruits are classified into three main groups:
Simple Fruits: These are fruits containing one or more carpels
they take roots from
a single ovary with or without accessory parts. E.g. Drupes,
Nuts and Legumes.
Aggregate Fruits: These are fruits which one flower contains
more than a few,
divided ovaries, which fuses together as it develops. E.g.
Pineapple.
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Multiple Fruits: These are fruits that consist of matured
ovaries of several to many
flowers more or less united into a mass. Multiple fruits are
almost invariably
accessory fruits. E.g. Blackberry, Raspberry and Strawberry.
1.3 Aims and Objectives of Study
The aim and objective of this study was to investigate the
content of vitamin
C, vitamin A, phenol, flavonoids, lycopene and antioxidant
properties of some fruits
collected from small market, Abraka.
The sampled fruits were Banana (Musa acuminata), Pepper
(Capsicum
annumm), Pear (Persea americana) and Almond (Prunus dulcis).
1.4 Statement of Problem
1. The demand on lycopene, vitamin A, vitamin C, Phenol,
Flavonoid and
Antioxidant have increased significantly, with increased of
consumer
awareness about cancer.
1.5 Significance of the Study
This research will be useful in creating awareness of vitamin A,
Vitamin C,
phenol, flavonoids, lycopene and total antioxidant properties in
fruits used as food
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e.g. Banana, Pepper, Pear and Almond that can inhibit the chain
reaction caused by
free radicals which is responsible for many diseases in human
body.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Nowadays the major interest of carotenoids, which are found in
plants, is not
only due to their pro-vitamin A activity but also their
antioxidant action by
scavenging oxygen radicals and reducing oxidative stress in the
organism. There are
many studies showing strong correlation between carotenoids
intake and a reduced
risk of some diseases, as cancer, aterogenesis, bone
calcification, eye degeneration
and neural damages.
Lycopene is the compound responsible for red colour in pepper,
watermelon
and other fruits, and it is also used as a colour ingredient in
many food formulations.
A great interest has recently been focused on lycopene due to
its preventive activity
against several pathologies such as cardiovascular disease,
hepatic fibrogenesis,
solar light induced erythema, human papillomavirus persistence
and some cancer
types such as prostate, gastrointestinal and epithetial.
Lycopene has also been
reported to play a role in lung function as well as in foetal
growth. Finally, it is also
important to consider the synergies action of carotenoids with
other bioactive
compounds present in fruits and vegetables.
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The parameters that are being worked on in this review are
lycopene, vitamin
A, vitamin C, flavonoid, phenol and antioxidants.
2.1 Lycopene
Structure of Lycopene
Lycopene is a member of the carotenoid family of chemical
substance.
Lycopene, similar to other carotenoids, is a natural fat.
Soluble pigment (red, in the
case of lycopene) found in certain plants and microorganisms,
where it serves as an
accessory light gathering pigment and to protect these organisms
against the toxic
effects of oxygen and light. Lycopene may also protect humans
against certain
disorders, such as prostate cancer and perhaps some other
concern and coronary
heart disease.
Carotenoids are with principal pigments responsible for the
colours of fruits.
Lycopene is responsible for the red colour of pepper. In
addition to pepper and
tomato based products, such as ketchup, pizza sauce, pepper
paste.
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Lycopene is an acrylic isomer of beta-carotene. Beta-carotene,
which contains
beta-ionone rings at each end of the molecules is formed in
plants, including pepper,
via the action of enzyme lycopene beta-cyclase. Lycopene is a 40
carbon atom, open
chain polysioprenoid with conjugated double bonds.
2.2 Vitamin A
Chemical structure of retinol, one of the major forms of vitamin
A
Vitamin A is a group of unsaturated nutritional organic
compounds that
includes retinol, retinal, retinoic acid and several provitamin.
A carotenoids among
which beta carotene is the most important. Vitamin A has a
multiple functions: it is
important for growth and development, for the maintenance of the
immune system
and good vision. Vitamin A is needed by the retina of the eye in
the form of retinal
which combine with protein opsin to form rhodopsin, the
light-absorbing molecule
necessary for both low-light (scotopic vision) and colour
vision.
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Vitamin A is found naturally in many foods like Pepper, Pear,
Almond and
Banana.
2.3 Vitamin C
Structure of Vitamin C
Vitamin C or L-ascorbic acid or simply ascorbic (the anion of
ascorbic acid),
is an essential nutrient for human and certain other animal
species. Vitamin C refers
to a number of vitamins that have vitamin C activity in animals,
including ascorbic
acid and its salts and some oxidized forms of the molecule like
dehydroascorbic acid.
Ascorbate and ascorbic acid are both naturally present in the
body where either of
these is introduced into the cells, since the forms interconvert
according to pH.
In this research, we found out that a cup of chopped red bell
pepper contains
nearly three times more vitamin C than an orange-190mg.
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2.4 Flavonoids
Molecular structure of the flavone backbone
(2-phenyl-1,4-benzopyrone)
Flavonoids are a class of plant secondary metabolites thought to
provide
health benefit through cell signalling pathways and antioxidants
effects. These
molecules are found in a variety of fruits.
Flavonoids are important antioxidants and promote several health
effects.
Aside from antioxidant activity, these molecules provides the
following beneficial
effects to humans:
Anti-viral
Anti-cancer
Anti-inflammatory
Anti-allergic
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Almost all fruits, vegetables and herbs contain a certain amount
of flavonoids
e.g. Musa acuminata, pear, Prunus dulcis and red bell
pepper.
The best way to ensure a good intake of flavonoids is to consume
plenty of
fresh fruit and vegetables on a daily basis. From my research,
fruits like pear, carrots,
paw-paw, red pepper, etc. are rich in flavonoids.
2.5 Phenol
Structure of phenol
Phenols is a type of phytochemical called polyphenol. Other
types of
polyphenols include flavonoids and stilbenes. Phenolic acids are
found in a variety
of plant-based food, the seeds and stems of fruits and
vegetables contain the highest
concentrations.
Phenolic acids are easily absorbed through the walls of your
intestinal tract,
and they may be beneficial to health because they work as
antioxidants that prevents
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cellular damage due to free radical oxidation reactions. They
also promotes anti-
inflammatory conditions in your body when you eat them
regularly.
2.6 Anti-oxidants
The structure of the antioxidant
A substance that reduces damage due to oxygen, such as that
caused by free
radicals. Well-known antioxidant include enzymes and other
substances, such as
vitamin C, vitamin E and beta-carotene, which are capable of
counteracting the
damaging effects of oxidation. Antioxidants are also commonly
added to food
products such as fruits and vegetables. Antioxidants may
possibly reduce the risk of
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cancer. Antioxidants clearly slow the degeneration of
age-related mocular
degeneration.
All these parameters were tested in Musa acuminata, Capsicum
annumm,
Persea americana and Prunus dulcis.
2.7 Musa acuminata (Banana)
Plate 1: Musa acuminata
Musa acuminata is an edible fruit botanically a berry, produced
by several
kinds of large herbaccous flowering plants in the genus Musa.
The fruit is variable
in size, colour and firmness, but is usually elongated and
carved, with soft flash rich
in starch covered with a rind which may be green or yellow when
ripe.
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The fruit grown clusters is hanging from the top of the plant.
Almost all
modern edible parthenocarpic (seedless) Musa acuminatas come
from two wild
species- Musa acuminata and Musa balbisana.
The Musa acuminata plant is the largest herbaceous flowering
plant. All the
above-ground parts of a Musa acuminata plant grow from a
structure usually called
a corm. Plants are normally tall and flairy study, and are often
mistaken for trees
but what appears to be a trunk is actually a false stem or
pseudosten. Musa
acuminata grown in a wild variety of soils, as long as the soil
is at least 60cm deep,
has good drainage and is not compacted. The leaves of Musa
acuminata plants are
composed of a stalk (petiole) and a blade (lamina).
The Musa acuminata fruits develop from the Musa acuminata heart
in a large
hanging cluster, made up of tiers (called hands), with up to 20
fruits to a tier. The
hanging cluster is known as a bunch, comprising 3-20 tiers and
can weigh 30-50kg.
The fruit has been described as a teathery berry. There is a
protective outer
layer (a peel or skin) with numerous long, thin strings (the
phloem bundles), which
non length wise between the skin and the edible inner
portion.
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Musa acuminata are naturally slightly radioactive, more so than
most other
fruits, because of their potassium content and the small amount
of the isotope
potassium-40 found in naturally occurring potassium. A study has
shown that ripe
Musa acuminatas florese when exposed to ultraviolet light. This
property is
attributed to the degradation of chlorophyll leading to the
accumulation breakdown
product is stabilized by a propionate ester group.
Musa acuminata are excellent sources of vitamins and contains
moderate
amount of manganese and dietary fiber.
2.8 Prunus Dulcis (Almond)
Plate 2: Prunus dulcis
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The Prunus dulcis is a species of tree native to the Middle East
and South
Asia. "Prunus dulcis" is also the name of the edible and widely
cultivated seed of
this tree. Within the genus Prunus, it is classified with the
peach in the subgenus
Amygdalus, distinguished from the other subgenera by the
corrugated shell
(endocarp) surrounding the seed.
The fruit of the Prunus dulcis is a drupe, consisting of an
outer hull and a hard
shell with the seed (which is not a true nut) inside. Shelling
Prunus dulcis refers to
removing the shell to reveal the seed. Prunus dulcis are sold
shelled (i.e., after the
shells are removed), or unshelled (i.e., with the shells still
attached). Blanched
Prunus dulcis are shelled Prunus dulcis that have been treated
with hot water to
soften the seedcoat, which is then removed to reveal the white
embryo.
The Prunus dulcis is a deciduous tree, growing 410 m (1333 ft)
in height,
with a trunk of up to 30 cm (12 in) in diameter. The young twigs
are green at first,
becoming purplish where exposed to sunlight, then grey in their
second year. The
leaves are 35 inches long, with a serrated margin and a 2.5 cm
(1 in) petiole. The
flowers are white to pale pink, 35 cm (12 in) diameter with five
petals, produced
singly or in pairs and appearing before the leaves in early
spring.(Lim, T. 2000).
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Prunus dulcis grows best in Mediterranean climates with warm,
dry summers and
mild, wet winters. The optimal temperature for their growth is
between 15 and 30C
(6085F) and the tree buds have a chilling requirement of between
300 and 600
hours below 7.2C (45F) to break dormancy.
Prunus dulciss begin bearing an economic crop in the third year
after planting.
Trees reach full bearing five to six years after planting. The
fruit matures in the
autumn, 78 months after flowering.
The Prunus dulcis fruit measures 3.56 cm (12 in) long. In
botanical terms,
it is not a nut, but a drupe. The outer covering or exocarp,
fleshy in other members
of Prunus such as the plum and cherry, is instead a thick,
leathery, grey-green coat
(with a downy exterior), called the hull. Inside the hull is a
reticulated, hard, woody
shell (like the outside of a peach pit) called the endocarp.
Inside the shell is the edible
seed, commonly called a nut. Generally, one seed is present, but
occasionally two
occur.
The Prunus dulcis is native to the Mediterranean climate region
of the Middle
East, eastward as far as the Indus River in Pakistan (Cushnie
and Lamb 2005). In
India and Pakistan, it is known as Badam. It was spread by
humans in ancient times
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along the shores of the Mediterranean into northern Africa, Asia
and southern
Europe and more recently transported to other parts of the
world, notably California,
United States (Faleyimu and Oluwalana, 2008).
The wild form of domesticated Prunus dulcis grows in parts of
the Levant;
Prunus dulcis must first have been taken into cultivation in
this region. The fruit of
the wild forms contains the glycoside amygdalin, "which becomes
transformed into
deadly prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide) after crushing, chewing,
or any other injury
to the seed." (Halliwell, 2005).
Wild Prunus dulcis are bitter, the kernel produces deadly
cyanide upon
mechanical handling, and eating even a few dozen in one sitting
can be fatal.
Selection of the sweet type, from the many bitter types in wild,
marked the beginning
of Prunus dulcis domestication. How humans selected the sweet
type remains a
mystery (Idowu, et al., 2003). It is unclear as to which wild
ancestor of the Prunus
dulcis created the domesticated species. Ladizinsky suggests the
taxon Amygdalus
fenzliana (Fritsch) Lipsky is the most likely wild ancestor of
the Prunus dulcis in
part because it is native of Armenia and western Azerbaijan
where it was apparently
domesticated.
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While wild Prunus dulcis species are toxic, domesticated Prunus
dulcis are
not; Jared Diamond argues that a common genetic mutation causes
an absence of
amygdalin, and this mutant was grown by early farmers, "at first
unintentionally in
the garbage heaps, and later intentionally in their orchards"
(Iqbal, et al., 2001).
Zohary and Hopf believe that Prunus dulcis were one of the
earliest domesticated
fruit trees due to "the ability of the grower to raise
attractive Prunus dulcis from
seed. Thus, in spite of the fact that this plant does not lend
itself to propagation from
suckers or from cuttings, it could have been domesticated even
before the
introduction of grafting" (Zohary, 2000). Domesticated Prunus
dulciss appear in the
Early Bronze Age (30002000 BC) such as the archaeological sites
of Numeria
(Jordan) (Iqbal, et al., 2001), or possibly a little earlier.
Another well-known
archaeological example of the Prunus dulcis is the fruit found
in Tutankhamun's
tomb in Egypt (c. 1325 BC), probably imported from the Levant
(Jacob, 2003). Of
the European countries that the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh
reported as
cultivating Prunus dulciss, Germany is the northernmost, though
the domesticated
form can be found as far north as Iceland.
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2.9 Persea americana (Pear)
Plate 3: Persea americana
Persea americana is a tree native to Mexico and Central America,
classified
in the flowering plant family Lauraceae along with cinnamon,
camphor and bay
laurel. Avocado or alligator pear also refers to the fruit,
botanically a large berry that
contains a single seed.
Avocados are commercially valuable and are cultivated in
tropical and
Mediterranean climates throughout the world. They have a
green-skinned, fleshy
body that may be pear-shaped, egg-shaped, or spherical.
Commercially, they ripen
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after harvesting. Trees are partially self-pollinating and often
are propagated through
grafting to maintain a predictable quality and quantity of the
fruit.
The tree grows to 20 m (66 ft), with alternately arranged leaves
1225 cm
(4.79.8 in) long. The flowers are inconspicuous,
greenish-yellow, 510 mm (0.2
0.4 in) wide. The pear-shaped fruit is 720 cm (2.87.9 in) long,
weighs between
100 and 1,000 g (3.5 and 35.3 oz), and has a large central seed,
56.4 cm (2.02.5 in)
long.
The subtropical species needs a climate without frost and with
little wind.
High winds reduce the humidity, dehydrate the flowers, and
affect pollination. When
even a mild frost occurs, premature fruit drop may occur,
although the 'Hass' cultivar
can tolerate temperatures down to 1 C. The trees also need
well-aerated soils,
ideally more than 1 m deep. Yield is reduced when the irrigation
water is highly
saline. These soil and climate conditions are available in
southern and eastern Spain,
Portugal, Morocco, Crete, the Levant, South Africa, Colombia,
Peru, parts of central
and northern Chile, Vietnam, Indonesia, parts of southern India,
Sri Lanka,
Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Malaysia, Central
America, the Caribbean,
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Mexico, California, Arizona, Puerto Rico, Texas, Florida,
Hawaii, Ecuador, and
Rwanda. Each region has different cultivars.
A typical serving of avocado (100 g) is moderate to rich in
several B vitamins
and vitamin K, with good content of vitamin C, vitamin E and
potassium (right table,
USDA nutrient data). Avocados also contain phytosterols and
carotenoids, such as
lutein and zeaxanthin.
Avocados have diverse fats. For a typical avocado:
About 75% of an avocado's energy comes from fat, most of which
(67%
of total fat) is monounsaturated fat as oleic acid.
Other predominant fats include palmitic acid and linoleic
acid.
The saturated fat content amounts to 14% of the total fat.
Typical total fat composition is roughly (rounded to digits): 1%
-3,
14% -6, 71% -9 (65% oleic and 6% palmitoleic), and 14%
saturated
fat (palmitic acid).
A 2013 epidemiological NHANES study funded by the Hass
Avocado
Board showed that American avocado consumers had better overall
diet
quality, nutrient levels, and reduced risk of metabolic
syndrome; why
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they also had better diet quality and how the confluence of
these factors
contributed to health benefits was not determined.
High avocado intake was shown in one preliminary study to
lower
blood cholesterol levels. Specifically, after a seven-day diet
rich in
avocados, mild hypercholesterolemia patients showed a 17%
decrease
in total serum cholesterol levels. These subjects also showed a
22%
decrease in both LDL (harmful cholesterol) and triglyceride
levels and
11% increase in HDL (helpful cholesterol) levels. In a study of
obese
patients on a moderate fat diet (34% of calories),
additional
consumption of one avocado (136 g) per day over 5 weeks produced
a
significant reduction of circulating LDL, an effect the authors
attributed
to the combination of avocado monounsaturated fats, dietary
fiber and
the phytosterol, beta-sitosterol.
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2.10 Capsicum Annumm (Pepper)
Plate 4: Capsicum annumm
Capsicum annumm is a species of the plant genus Capsicum native
to southern
North America and northern South America. This species is the
most common and
extensively cultivated of the five domesticated Capsicums. The
species encompasses
a wide variety of shapes and sizes of peppers, both mild and
hot, ranging from bell
peppers to chili peppers. Cultivars are descended from the wild
American bird
pepper still found in warmer regions of the Americas. In the
past some woody forms
of this species have been called C. frutescens, but the features
that were used to
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distinguish those forms appear in many populations of C. annumm
and there is no
consistently recognizable C. frutescens species.
Although the species name annumm means annual (from the Latin
annus
year), the plant is not an annual and in the absence of winter
frosts can survive
several seasons and grow into a large perennial shrub. The
single flowers are an off-
white (sometimes purplish) color while the stem is densely
branched and up to 60
centimetres (24 in) tall. The fruit is a berry and may be green,
yellow or red when
ripe. While the species can tolerate most climates, C. annumm is
especially
productive in warm and dry climates.
Hot peppers are used in medicine as well as food in Africa and
other places
around the world.
English botanist John Lindley described C. annumm on page 509 of
his 1838
'Flora Medica' thus:
It is employed in medicine, in combination with Cinchona in
intermittent and
lethargic affections, and also in atonic gout, dyspepsia
accompanied by flatulence,
tympanitis, paralysis etc. Its most valuable application appears
however to be in
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26
cynanche maligna (acute diphtheria) and scarlatina maligna
(malignent Scarlet
fever, used either as a gargle or administered internally.)
In ayurvedic medicine, C. annumm is classified as follows:
Gunna (properties) ruksh (dry), laghu (light) and tikshan
(sharp)
Rasa dhatu (taste) katu (pungent)
Virya (potency) ushan (hot)
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CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Determination of Total Antioxidant Capacity
Procedure
A 5g of fruit sample was crushed, and 10ml of distilled water
was added to
sample and homogenised. A clear supernatant of sample was taken.
A measurement
of 1ml supernatant (liquid from sample reagent solution) and 1ml
of reagent solution
was added and boiled for 90minutes at about 800c. Samples were
allowed to cool
and readings taken at 695nm on a uv-spectrometer. Reading gotten
for sample and
standard ascorbic acid were put into formula for antioxidant
capacity and the final
reading were calculated.
3.2 Determination of Vitamin C
Procedure
A 5g of fruit sample was pulverised (grinded) and mixed with
20ml of distilled
water. A ml of clear sample supernatant (liquid) was taken. 4ml
of oxalic E.D.T.A.
and 1ml of orthosphroic acid was added to sample. 1ml of 5%
H2S04 was added to
sample mixture and allowed to stand for 15 minutes for colour
development and
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28
readings were taken at about 760nm on a UV Spectrophotometer.
Readings were
compared against standard ascorbic acid on a graph to get actual
readings in mg/kg.
3.3 Determination of Flavonoid
Procedure
A 10g of fruit sample was pulverized, and 20ml of 0% methanol
was added
to pulverized (grinded) sample, which was homogenized and mixed,
then a clear
supernatant (pure liquid) was weighed out into a pre-weighed
crucible and hearted
to dryness at about 1050C and the crucible was weighed.
The difference between empty crucible and dry crucible and was
taken as final
reading per 10grams
3.4 Determination of Phenol
Procedures
A 1g of fruit sample was boiled with 50ml of ether for 15
minutes, then 5ml
of sample was weighed out and added to 10ml of distilled water.
Again, 2ml of
ammonium hydroxide (ammonia) was added and 5ml of ethanol was
added and the
mixture was allowed to stand for 30 minutes.
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29
The UV-spectrophotometer readings were taken at 505nm. The
readings were
plotted against reading of standard solution on a graph to get
the final reading in
mg/kg.
3.5 Determination of Lycopene
Procedure
A 100g of fruit sample is ground to paste and 30ml of 95%
ethanol was added
and stirred for 6 minutes. The solid is isolated via a vacuum
pump filtration and
dichloromethane was added to separate the lycopene via a
separating funnel. The
liquid is heated with 30ml of dichloromethane for 5minutes and
filtered. Extracts
was mixed with 5ml of 5% sodium chloride. The mixture was heated
to dryness and
the weight was subtracted from an already pre-weighed. The
result was taken as the
weight in mg/100g.
3.6 Determination of Vitamin A
Procedure
A 5g of fruit sample was pulverized (grinded) and 10ml of
chloroform was
added. Later, 5ml of supernatant (clear liquid from sample
mixture) was added to
5ml of 30% antimony tri-chloride was added and readings were
taken at 415nm.
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30
Readings were plotted against a graph of vitamin A table and
reading was taken in
1.(mg).
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31
CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of this study are presented in Tables 1-6 Table 1
shows Ascorbic acid content of some fruits. Persea americana
(Pear)
had the highest value of ascorbic acid and the least was found
in Musa acuminata.
Table 2 shows the vitamin A contents of the four fruits. The
highest value of
vitamin A was in Capsicum annumm.
Table 3 shows the phenolic content of four different fruits. The
highest value
for phenolic acid content was recorded in Persea americana,
while the least value
was Musa acuminata.
Table 4 shows the flavonoid content of six different fruits. The
highest value
was recorded for Musa acuminata. While the least value was
recorded for Capsicum
annumm.
Table 5 shows the lycopene content of four fruits. The least
value of lycopene
content was recorded for Persea americana, while the highest
value was for
Capsicum annumm.
Table 6 shows the antioxidant content of some fruits. The
highest value of
antioxidants was found in Prunus dulcis (Almond).
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Table 1. Mean Values of ascorbic acid in four fruits (mg/5g)
S/N Fruit Mean Value Botanical Name Common Name
1 Musa acuminata Banana
252 1.4
2 Capsicum annumm Pepper
300 5.5
3 Persea Americana Pear
350 0.7
4 Prunus dulcis Almond 262 1.4
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Table 2. Values of Vitamin A in four fruits (mg/5g)
S/N Fruit Mean Value Botanical Name Common Name
1 Musa acuminata Banana
6.61 0.20
2 Capsicum annumm Pepper
21.08 0.02
3 Persea americana Pear
4.95 0.03
4 Prunus dulcis Almond 5.40 0.02
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34
Table 3. Values of phenol in four fruits (mg/1g)
S/N Fruit Mean Value Botanical Name Common Name
1 Musa acuminata Banana
32.2 0.14
2 Capsicum annumm Pepper
54.0 0.07
3 Persea americana Pear
64.0 0.14
4 Prunus dulcis Almond 38.9 0.35
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Table 4. Values of flavonoids in four fruits (mg/10g)
S/N Fruit Mean Value Botanical Name Common Name
1 Musa acuminata Banana
0.46 0.07
2 Capsicum annumm Pepper
0.12 0.07
3 Persea americana Pear
0.13 0.07
4 Prunus dulcis Almond 0.16 0.07
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Table 5. Values of lycopene in four fruits (mg/100g)
S/N Fruit Mean Value Botanical Names Common Names
1 Musa acuminata Banana
0.07 0.021
2 Capsicum annumm Pepper
0.31 0.007
3 Persea americana Pear
0.01 0.007
4 Prunus dulcis Almond 0.16 0.028
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Table 6. Values of antioxidant in four fruits (mg/5g)
S/N Fruit Mean Value Botanical Name Common Name
1 Musa acuminate Banana
321.55 0.1060
2 Capsicum annumm Pepper
382.63 0.2616
3 Persea americana Pear
322.86 0.0141
4 Prunus dulcis Almond 419.72 0.1979
Discussion
The determination of vitamin C, vitamin A, phenol, flavonoid,
lycopene and
antioxidant properties of some fruits were carried out. Persea
americana (Pear) had
the highest values of 350mg/5g for Ascorbic acid; 0.13mg/10g for
flavonoid and
322.88mg/5g for antioxidant.
This shows that Persea americana is rich in vitamin C when
compared to
other three (3) fruits evaluated. Vitamin C is one of the most
important dietary
antioxidant. It is also considered the most important water
soluble antioxidant in
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38
extracellular fluid. It is capable of neutralizing reactive
oxygen species in aqueous
phase before peroxidation is initiated (Padayatty et al.,
2003).
Flavonoid appear to function as biological response modifier.
Flavonoid have
been demonstrated to have anti-inflammatory, anti-allegenic,
anti-viral, anti-aging
and anti-carcinogenic activity (Havsteen, 2000). They are also
known to exert
protection against heart diseases through the inhibition of
cyclooxygenase and
lypolygnase activities in platelets and microphages (Amusa et
al., 2003).
Phenolic acids are plant secondary metabolic widely spread
throughout the
plant kingdom (Brumeton, 2000). Recent interest in phenolic acid
sterms from their
potential as protective factors against cancer and heart
diseases in plant because of
their potent phenolic properties (Breinholt, 2005).
The results of this study show that Musa acuminata recorded 252
mg/5g
(Table 1). It is the second highest in vitamin C among the other
three fruits.
Fruits with total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity have
been reported
to have the anti-diabetic, anti-hypertension and anti-cancer
(Bardr-Sharit, 2011).
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMERY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Summary
This study investigated the determination of lycopene, vitamin
a, vitamin c,
phenol, flavonoid and antioxidant in Musa acuminata (colla),
Capsicum annumm
(var. grossum l.), Persea americana (var. guatemalensis l.) and
Prunus dulcis (var.
sativa. L). The literature review discussed lycopene, vitamin C,
A, flavonoid, phenol
and antioxidant. The fruits used were also reviewed, they are:
banana, pear, pepper
and almond. The results of this study showed that Persea
americana (pear) is high
in vitamins C when compared to the popular Citrus aurantifolia
(Orange). Persea
americana had the highest value of 350mg/100g for Ascorbic acid;
0.13mg/100g for
flavonoid and 322.88mg/100g for antioxidant. Capsicum annumm
recorded
300mg/100g as the second highest in vitamin C. Musa acuminata
has the lowest
values in ascorbic acid (252mg/5g), phenol (32.3mg/1g) and total
antioxidant
capacity (321.55mg/5g). From this study, it is recommended that
fruits high in
antioxidant properties should be consumed to reduce senescence
and improve human
health status. Further investigation is also required to isolate
and characterize the
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40
individual components from these plants which are actually
responsible for their
antioxidant activities and develop their application for food
and pharmaceutical
industries.
5.2 Conclusion
The results of the present study showed that Persea americana
has the highest
Vitamin C properties. Average amount of antioxidant properties
of fruits extract was
observed from Musa acuminata. Low antioxidant activity was
observed from
Capsicum annumm. Different antioxidants are necessary because
the vital role they
play in controlling oxidation and preventing chronic diseases in
man. A combination
of different fruit is necessary, since a single fruit is not
capable of providing
comprehensive effect of the antioxidants.
5.3 Recommendation
It is hereby recommended that it is necessary to consume fruits
high in
antioxidant properties that may be efficient as preventive agent
in aging and in some
diseases. As the plant extracts are quite safe and the use of
synthetic antioxidant has
been limited because of their toxicity, therefore, these local
fruits could be exploited
as antioxidant additive or as nutritional supplement.
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41
However, further investigation is required to isolate and
characterize the
individual components from these plants which are actually
responsible for their
antioxidant activities and develop their application for food
and pharmaceutical
industries.
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42
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