Bringing Africa into the Information Age

Running head: Nigeria into Info Age

1

Bringing Nigeria into the Information Age

Erik Owen Garrett Labor

Webster University

ITM 6000 Capstone

Dr. DewisPelare


2

Table of Contents

Abstract ………………………………………………………………….. Page 3

Introduction …………………………………………………………… Pages 4-7

o Problem Statement …………………………………………….. Pages 4-5

o Background ………………………………………………….… Pages 5-7

The Country …………………………………….………... Page 5

The Culture …………………………………………….… Page 5

The Infrastructure ……………………………………… Pages 5-6

o Motivation ……………………………………………………...… Page 7

Research Question ……………………………………………………… Pages 7-8

Literature Review ……………………………………………………… Pages 8-9

Analysis ………………………………….……………………………. Pages 9-14

o The Needs, Benefits, and Costs ……………………………... Pages 10-14

Diplomatic …………………………………………… Pages 10-11

Informational ………………………………………… Pages 11-12

Military ………………………………………….…… Pages 12-13

Economic ……………………………………..……… Pages 13-14

Proposed Solution …………………….……………………………... Pages 14-16

o Ink Spot Theory …………………………………………...… Pages 15-16

Summary ………………………………………………….……..… Pages 16-17

References …………………………………………………….….… Pages 18-20


3

Abstract

Despite the rapid technological changes of the 1990’s, Africa has remained in the “dark”

technologically. The following descriptive research discusses the costs and benefits of IT

development in the sub-Saharan African country of Nigeria. A brief background is

provided where key aspects of the culture and country are discussed, including the ages

of man, per Alvin and Heidi Toffler. The definitions of information technology (IT) and

information and communication technology (ICT) are clarified immediately and previous

research is examined that relates to connectivity in Nigeria. Foreseeable costs and

benefits are analyzed using the DIME (diplomatic, information, military, and economic)

critical infrastructure model. A proposed solution is presented in which the “ink spot”

theory is introduced and recommended for the growth of technology in Nigeria. Some

examples of successes from IT implementation in other countries are used as examples

for conclusions of risks and advantages.


4

Introduction

“It's clear that bringing developing countries onto the information highway constitutes a

colossal challenge if we are to promote economic growth....the reality is that there are

more telephone lines in Manhattan, New York, than in sub-Saharan Africa.”

-Thabo Mbeki, Deputy President, Republic of South Africa

A commanding force drives the world towards a converging commonality:

technology (Levitt, 1992). Technology has been one of the most essential and important

factors for the development of mankind since the beginning of the human era (Coombs et

al, 1987). In order to better understand the meaning of technology and its

implementation, some definitions must be clarified. Information Technology (IT) can be

defined as the modern handling of information by electronic means (Ige, 1995).

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is a technology such as computers,

software, peripherals and Internet connections infrastructure required to support

information processing and communication functions (UNDP, 2001).

Problem Statement

Africa is a huge continent with many different ethnicities, creeds, and socio-

economic classes. Depending on the source, as many as 53 countries make up the

continent, yet it is one of the poorest and most underdeveloped continents in the world


5

(How Many Countries in Africa, 2007). The need for technology and the potential

effects thereof is a problem that warrants close examination.

Determining a method of creating IT expansion on the continent of Africa is a

task that few have considered, especially when compared to the efforts apparent in other

continents. The African continent is still one of the least IT connected areas on the globe

and is a rapidly growing focal point for development by non-African nations (Odedra et

al, 2008). IT expansion has the promise of developing the vast resources of this relatively

untapped continent (Raji et al, 2006). One of the keys to effective and efficient

development is the establishment of a comprehensive and responsive IT infrastructure.

The problem is that, in most cases, Africa’s IT infrastructure is virtually nonexistent. The

challenge is how to develop the kind of IT infrastructure that will facilitate rapid growth

across the continent. This study will minimize its focus on the sub-Saharan geographical

region of Nigeria.

Background

The Federal Republic of Nigeria consists of 36 states and one territory. With over

250 distinct ethnic groups, it has one of the world’s most ethnically diverse societies

(Nigeria General Info, n.d.). The country has a total area of 923,773 sq km and, in the

South, lowlands merge into central hills and plateaus, with mountains in the Southeast,

and plains in the North (Nigeria General Info, n.d.). Over 80% of the population consists

of three ethnicities including the Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, and Ibo ethnicities (Nigeria

General Info, n.d.). English is cited as the official language but each ethnic group has its

own indigenous tongue. Fifty percent of the population is Muslim, 35% is Christian, and

the remaining 15% retain native beliefs (Nigeria General Info, n.d.). Northern Nigeria is


6

currently faced with a threat of impending Islamic law that seems to correlate with

growing poverty and economic recession (Nigeria General Info, n.d.). The exact

population census is unknown although the UN Population Fund found estimates of the

2000 population near 116.9 million, with a growth rate of 2.6% (Nigeria General Info,

n.d.). Some sources, however, put the number as high as 126 million, consisting mainly

of farmers and rural inhabitants (Nigeria General Info, n.d.). This primarily agrarian, or

land cultivating, population boasts the largest and one of the poorest populations of any

African country (Nigeria General Info, n.d.).

The general infrastructure of Nigeria is minimal. In 1997 the communications

infrastructure, measured per one thousand individuals, cites 27 daily newspapers, 226

radio receivers, and 66 television receivers (Nigeria General Info, n.d.). According to

Raji and his colleagues, these numbers are estimated to have changed little over the past

decade. Four hundred and seventy five thousand main telephone lines span the country’s

wetlands, plains, and mountains (Raji et al, 2006). As of March 2006, there were 21.5

million Global System for Mobile communications (GSM) subscribers across four

providers and 1.3 million on other networks (Raji et al, 2006). Some amount of roads

and railways exist but serve primarily to host the country’s natural gas and oil resources,

which were discovered in the 1970’s. These abundant natural resources give Nigeria a

reasonable focus for development, particularly from other countries, and earned it the 33rd

highest per capita income in the world during the 1970’s oil boom (Raji et al, 2006). By

1997, however, it fell to the 13th poorest nation in the world (Raji et al, 2006). Nigeria

has an Army, Air Force, and Navy with training facilities throughout the country, though,


7

by U.S. standards, the sophistication of equipment and readiness is poor (Nigeria General

Info, n.d.).

Motivation

According to Alvin and Hiedi Toffler, the world has three contrasting and

competing civilizations: agrarian, industrial, and information; “the first still symbolized

by the hoe; the second by the assembly line; and the third by the computer” (Toffler,

1993). Agrarian societies supply agricultural and mineral resources, Industrial societies

provide cheap labor, and Information societies rise to dominance based on the new ways

in which they create and exploit knowledge (Toffler, 1993).

Nigeria currently exists primarily in the agrarian age because most of its

population earns a living through farming and agriculture, although in some areas Nigeria

has moved into the industrial age as evidenced by its oil production capabilities. The

Nigerian agrarian culture contrasts with countries like the United States, Japan, Great

Britain, and Germany, which exist mainly in the information age. Information age

nations sell culture, education, information, technology, and provide military support to

other countries (Toffler, 1993). Nigeria could evolve with the introduction of a solid IT

infrastructure and possibly progress directly into the information age, bypassing

industrialization and becoming the forerunner of information technology in Africa.

Research Question


8

What are the possible benefits and costs and what is the best method of spreading

of IT expansion in Nigeria? The following such effects of IT growth will be evaluated

using the DIME (diplomatic, information, military, and economic) critical infrastructure

model (Puglisi et al, 2007). The following descriptive research will analyze data, current

infrastructures, and examples from IT progression in third world countries, including the

effects of such expansion in Afghanistan.

Literature Review

The challenge of instituting IT or ICT systems in Nigeria has been reviewed by

others. It is important to draw from past inquiries so that a sound line of reasoning is

easily followed from research to conclusion. The following literature helps to illustrate

previous proposals for IT development in sub-Saharan Africa.

In their examination of increasing internet connectivity in Sub-Saharan Africa,

Etienne Baranshamaje and her colleagues consider the impacts of IT development.

Electronic networks could spark an information revolution and encourage private sector

development (Barashamaje et al, 1995). Furthermore, “the development of electronic

networking will prepare African countries to respond and participate more actively in a

rapidly changing global economy that is increasingly driven by the free flow of

information and ideas” (Barashamaje et al, 1995). The importance of reworking

regulations and laws is reiterated and technical options and costs are presented with

multiple options.

Some of the drawbacks of IT development in sub-Saharan Africa are discussed by

Odedra, Lawrie, Bennett, and Goodman in their article titled “Information Technology in


9

Sub-Saharan Africa.” Some of these negative consequences include the African over-

dependence on foreign currency to import technology, the increasing dependency on

multinational corporations, and expatriate personnel who are unfamiliar with culture and

customs (Odedra et al, 2008). Countries like Nigeria are constantly at a disadvantage

because of computer illiteracy and need to exploit existing products effectively, and this

can only be achieved through education (Odedra et al, 2008).

In 2006, authors M. O Raji, O. B Ayoade, and A. Usoro described the potential

problems and prospects of ICT development in the eradication of poverty. They observe

the issue of IT acquisition through the lens of poverty and the uneven distribution of

wealth in Nigeria. The authors come to interesting conclusions about the potential

benefits of ICT implementation, including the creation of jobs, the possible eradication of

poverty, the promotion of freedom, economic growth, the functioning as a tool for

empowerment, and the facilitation of access to IT and internet to rural areas (Raji et al,

2006). Some of the restraints discussed include the challenge of integrating laws,

regulations, and guidelines for a developing country (Raji et al, 2006). These policy

considerations are followed by challenges such as high bandwidth costs, poor

infrastructure, language barriers, lofty rates of illiteracy, gender insensitivity, and

inadequate human resources (Raji et al, 2006). Another issue addressed is the digital

divide, or the gap between the levels of hardware and software resources that are

available to the poor and to more affluent members of society (Raji et al, 2006).

Analysis


10

The previous sections of this research focused on pre-existing examinations of IT

in sub-Saharan Africa and Nigeria. They were necessary to provide background

information and logical reasoning for analysis and conclusions. The following sections

will introduce the DIME (diplomatic, informational, military, and economic)

infrastructure model to briefly evaluate and weigh the costs and benefits of IT

development in Nigeria, largely through a cultural perspective.

“The diplomacy component involves negotiating with other nations

to settle differences. It is the job of statesmen, and it is most successful

when supported by the other instruments of power. The information

component comprises strategic communication, public diplomacy, and the

collection, analysis, and dissemination of information about potential

adversaries. The military component involves military activities ranging

from peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance, and nation-building to

large-scale combat operations. The economic component encompasses

financial activities that run the gamut from providing foreign aid and

market access to imposing trade sanctions.” (Anderson, 2007)

Diplomatic

The Diplomatic dimension of the DIME critical infrastructure model focuses on

the impacts that relate to leadership and world role identity. In the case of Nigeria, world

role identity refers to the manner in which other countries view and respect the decisions

it makes in regards to its people. As one of the poorest and most populated counties in

Africa, the diplomatic decisions that affect the population are extremely important.

http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0PBZ/is_/ai_n27411370


11

IT can impact the diplomatic area both internally and externally. Internally, it can

aid by facilitating communication among the 371 tribes that make up Nigeria (Tribes in

Nigeria, n.d.). While not all tribes are in conflict with one another, some are and some of

those historical conflicts might be ameliorated by better communication. The

fundamental act of establishing and encouraging dialog have the potential of reducing

conflict by enabling better understanding and problem resolution. Internationally,

improved IT will enhance Nigeria’s role in Africa and the world by allowing more

efficient and effective exchange of information and consequently enhance its

international ties and status. This becomes even more important when one looks at

Nigeria’s stature among oil producing nations and as a United Nations (UN)

peacekeeping supporter.

A cost that could result diplomatically includes the loss of cultural identity. When

tribes are brought together, their cultures begin to dissipate, especially as they become

westernized. Westernization is a possible byproduct of IT development because when

these indigenous cultures become connected, they gain access to western pop-culture.

The diplomatic efforts could result in cultural erosion, and though some could see it as a

benefit, Nigeria could lose the mores and rich culture that make it unique. Another

possible cost could result from bringing feuding tribes together. Encouraging dialog does

not always resolve conflict, and could possibly make it worse, especially considering the

lengthy negative histories some of these tribes share.

Information

The ability to set up a reliable information network is critical for the development

of any nation state. The key to accomplishing this in the 21st Century is wireless


12

technology. Afghanistan, a nation even less developed than Nigeria, has made obvious

strides through the implementation of wireless technology. Even as one of the most

illiterate nations in the world, Afghanistan has thoroughly embraced wireless technology,

which has proven to be a boon to effective communications throughout the country

(World Fact Book, 2003). At one point during the last year, the Taliban threatened to and

actually destroyed a cell tower in order to reduce the coalition’s ability to track and

interdict the insurgents (Shachtman, 2008). The hue and cry raised by Afghans in

response to this threat effectively prevented the Taliban from carrying out further cell

tower destruction. In some ways, Nigeria is no different from Afghanistan. Principally,

its literacy level is very low and verbal/picture communications are critically important.

Wireless technology can be very effective in overcoming the lack of literacy and

consequently, enhancing the ability of Nigerians to effectively communicate.

The obvious cost of setting up information infrastructure is inherent. These

networks are expensive to build and maintain. Going wireless is cheaper, but still

requires safeguarding, and poses an initial cost. Erratic and unpredictable civil behavior

could pose a risk for the integrity of equipment; just because a cell tower is built does not

mean it will be there tomorrow. Nigeria’s high illiteracy rates correlate with sub-par

education and both detract from implementation and sustaining information

infrastructure.

Military

A bridge from Nigeria’s diplomatic role to its military role in the international

community can be found through its role with peacekeeping operations. Nigeria has been

a major presence in peacekeeping, not only in Africa, but also globally (Shoup, 2007).


13

Absolutely critical to any modern military operation is the ability to collect and distribute

information rapidly and accurately. This is fundamentally accomplished through an

enhanced IT capability. Improved IT capability would allow the Nigerian military to

work more closely with other, more developed nations, thereby improving its

international standing and ability to interact with these nations. Further, making the

military more effective and efficient provides the benefit of reducing the size of the

military, which allows money to be freed up by a smaller military to be reinvested in both

social and economic endeavors to tackle some of the myriad of challenges that Nigeria

currently faces. A prime example of IT advancement in military capability can be seen in

the United States Army. The M1A1 Abrams tank replaced the M60 tank in 1980 (M1

Abrams, n.d.). The Abrams was a far technically superior tank that utilized the most

advanced technology of the time (M1 Abrams, n.d.). Eventually, the M1A2 replaced the

M1A1 and the primary difference rests in the advancement of its technology and

computer systems (M1 Abrams, n.d.). The efficiencies and effectiveness of the Abrams

tank have allowed the United States Army to nearly cut its armor costs in half (Labor,

2008).

Improved IT could eventually provide the Nigerian military with the means of

acquiring better and more sophisticated equipment and training. This equipment could

come with a cost, however. Some more developed countries could possibly take

advantage of Nigeria and exploit its natural resources. Throughout its history, Nigeria

has also seen many changes in power through military coups. Nigerian people have

become revolution-weary, and with an increase of communications, radical groups could

have a better chance of staging military aggression.


14

Economic

Nigeria is one of the largest oil producing nations in the world (Mufson, 2008).

Second only to Saudi Arabia, Nigeria has the largest untapped oil reserves among

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) (Mufson, 2008). A key

challenge facing Nigeria is the equitable distribution of these petrol-dollars. Currently,

the inability to effectively do this has created major problems for Nigeria; problems that

even threaten the very nature of democracy in the country (Mufson, 2008). As the most

populous nation in Africa, Nigeria’s standing as a democratic nation is of vital

importance to the continent (Countries Ranked by Population, 2008). Improved IT can

help in solving these problems by developing more efficient oil production and

distribution systems as well as more effective distribution of the dollars earned across the

nation. This will in turn, allow the nation to make strides in reducing inequalities and

tensions that plague Nigeria. Unfortunately, the reverse could manifest. The country, as

of February 2006, produced an estimated 2.30 million barrels of crude oil and natural gas

a day (Raji et al, 2006). At anywhere from forty to sixty dollars a barrel, the income

generated is in the billions. The average Nigerian citizen, however, sees nothing of the

generous revenue. The rich could get richer and the poor could stay unaffected or get

poorer.

Proposed Solution

So how do we spread IT across Nigeria? Some of the possible benefits and costs

have been examined, so a potential solution should be easy to identify. Nigeria, more so

than nearly any country in Africa, with the possible exception of South Africa, embodies


15

the existing challenges apparent when the agrarian and industrial eras of man collide,

attempt to coexist, and try to make the leap into the information age.

The speed with which nations evolve and take their place in the modern world is

phenomenal; old, industrial age, solutions are far too slow, cumbersome, and expensive

both in time and capitol. So then, how indeed do we spread IT across a country the size

and complexity of Nigeria? The information age is marked by innovative and

unorthodox thinking and practices; so why not solutions of the same kind? The following

solution focuses on the military dimension and assumes a small military role by the

United States.

Ink Spot Theory

An example of such “out of the box” thinking can be found in the military’s

counterinsurgency (COIN) warfare doctrine. Central to conducting COIN is a strategy

called “ink spot” theory. Though reliant on outside influence, in this theory

“commanders pick an area, send in troops to clear it of insurgents, and keep it secure, at

which point government representatives and foreign aid workers come in and build roads,

schools, and whatever is needed or wanted. The example of this success spreads to other

areas, where the sequence is duplicated, until gradually the country unifies and prospers,

the insurgents lose favor with the population, and the central government—which has

been taking credit for these successes—gains legitimacy” (Kaplan, 2006).

In this case, rather than establishing militarily secure areas, strong IT bases are

created. The base cities should be representative of government, economic, and

social/cultural centers. For example, the first city would be the capital, Abuja. A solid

wireless infrastructure would be established, similar to that of Kandahar, Afghanistan. At


16

the same time, other “foundational” cities would be created in Lagos, Port Harcourt,

Maiduguri, Kano, and Sokoto. Gradually, as these cities expanded there IT base and

reach, more of the country would become connected. This could increase interaction

among disparate tribes and cultural groups.

In other words, urban areas representing cultural strongholds would be initially

wired. As the affects of connectivity spread, less important urban areas would be

targeted. Finally, rural areas would see the possibilities of IT infrastructure after these

urban areas spread their influence and connectivity. IT could facilitate a more equitable

distribution of wealth, which could create a more stable democratic government. This

could have a tremendous unifying effect on not only the country of Nigeria but also on

the entire community of West African states.

Using this strategy Nigeria could spread IT throughout the country at a rapid pace.

The biggest advantage of using this strategy is that it completely bypasses the most time

consuming part of IT implementation, that of establishing connectivity. Additionally, the

resources expended in terms of time, manpower, and capitol would be small when

compared to those required to establish connectivity using more traditional methods.

This would be accomplished by the use of wireless technology. The benefits of the

implementation of a solid IT infrastructure in Nigeria would definitely outweigh the

associated risks.

Summary

The establishment of information technology infrastructure in developing

countries provides many risks and benefits. A unique and complex country like Nigeria


17

poses a challenging examination because of its colorful and diverse culture and history.

The implementation of IT would change the society and economy, playing and expanding

role in the lives of the people for the foreseeable future. For better or worse, IT has the

potential to transform the landscapes of diplomatic, information, military, and economic

development. A divided people could be unified and a digitally connected future could

be attained.


18

References

Anderson, David A. September-October 2007. The Economic Instrument of National

Power and Military Operations: A Focus on Iraq. B-Net Business Network.

Retrieved November 23, 2008 from:

http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0PBZ/is_/ai_n27411370

Baranshamaje, Etienne, Boostrom, Eugene, Brajovic, Vidoje, Cader, Masud, Clement-

Jones, Robert, Hawkins, Robert, Knight, Peter, Schware, Robert, & Sloan, Hugh.

(March 29, 1995). Increasing Internet Connectivity in Sub-Saharan Africa:

Issues, Options, and World Band Group Role. Retrieved November 20, 2008

from: http://www.uneca.org/eca_resources/Major_ECA_Websites/padis/telemat/

africa03.htm

Central Intelligence Agency. (December 4, 2008). The World Fact Book. Field Listing:

Literacy Rates. Est. 2003. Retrieved November 27th from:

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html

Coombs, R., Saviotti, P., & Walsh, V. (1987). Economics and Technological Change.

Macmillan: London. Retrieved November 7, 2008 from:

http://books.google.com/books?

id=XwhJKW3vOvUC&pg=PA193&lpg=PA193&dq=

%22Economics+and+Technological+Change

http://books.google.com/books?id=XwhJKW3vOvUC&pg=PA193&lpg=PA193&dq=%22Economics+and+Technological+Change%22+coombs&source=web&ots=BGeHLfIbmT&sig=X1b70tsCHuv08-Jz-5ie_qPNJ_c&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result


http://www.uneca.org/eca_resources/Major_ECA_Websites/padis/telemat/africa03.htm

http://www.uneca.org/eca_resources/Major_ECA_Websites/padis/telemat/africa03.htm


19

%22+coombs&source=web&ots=BGeHLfIbmT&sig=X1b70tsCHuv08-Jz-

5ie_qPNJ_c&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result

M1Abrams Main Battle Tank. (No Date). Global Security: Military. Retrieved December

15 from: http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/m1.htm

How many countries in Africa? (2007). Information Please Database. Retrieved

November 24, 2008 from: http://www.infoplease.com/askeds/countries-

africa.html

IDB: Countries and Areas Ranked by Population. (June 18, 2008). Retrieved November

28, 2008 from: http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/idbrank.pl

Ige, O. (1995). Information Technology in a De-regulated Telecommunications

Environment, Keynote address, INFOTECH 95. First international Conference

on Information Technology Management, Lagos, November 16-17

Kaplan, Fred. (June 20, 2006). Knitting Together an Afghan Strategy. Slate Magazine.

Retrieved November 20, 2008 from: http://www.slate.com/id/2144094/

Labor, Lt. Col. Royce. (December 15, 2008). From interview on effectiveness of M1A1

and M1A2 Abrams battle tanks.

Levitt, T. (1992). The Globalization of Markets, in: Transnational Management: Text,

Cases and Readings in Cross-Border Management. Richard D. Irwin.

Mufson, Steven. (February 1, 2008). Nigeria’s Oil Morass. WashingtonPost.com.

Retrieved November 30, 2008 from:

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/31/AR20080131

03634.html

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/31/AR2008013103634.html

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/31/AR2008013103634.html

http://www.slate.com/id/2144094/

http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/idbrank.pl

http://www.infoplease.com/askeds/countries-africa.html

http://www.infoplease.com/askeds/countries-africa.html




20

Nigeria- General Information. (n.d.). Retrieved November 24, 2008 from:

http://www.iss.co.za/AF/profiles/Nigeria/GenInfo.html

Odedra, M., Lawrie, M., Bennett, M., & Goodman S. Information Technology in Sub-

Saharan Africa. (n.d.). Retrieved November 30, 2008 from:

http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Comp_Articles/Information_Technology_117.html

Puglisi, Maj. Matthew, Hanover, Maj. Jason, Purcell, Lt. Col. Phil, List, Kathleen.

(August 28, 2008). Geographic Bureaucracies and National Security: The Need

for a Common Interagency Regional Framework. Retrieved December 14, 2008

from:

http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/item/2007/0709/pugl/puglisi_geographic.html

Raji, M. O, Ayoade, O.B, & Usoro, A. (2006). The Prospects and Problems of Adopting

ICT for Poverty Eradication in Nigeria. The Electronic Journal of Information

Systems in Developing Countries. Retrieved November 11, 2008 from:

http://www.ejisdc.org/ojs2/index. php/ ejisdc/ article/viewFile/346/192

Shachtman, Noah. (February 25, 2008). Taliban Threatens Cell Towers. Danger Room

from Wired.com. Retrieved November 30, 2008 from:

http://blog.wired.com/defense/2008/02/in-iraq-when-th.html

Shoup, Anna. (April 5, 2007). Oil and Politics in Nigeria: Regional Giant Nigeria Looms

Over West Africa. The Online Newshour. Retrieved November 22, 2008 from:

http://www.pbs.org/newshour/indepth_coverage/africa/nigeria/role.html

Toffler, Alvin & Heidi. (1993). War and Anti-War: Survival at the Dawn of the 21st

Century. Little, Brown, and Company. Canada.

http://www.pbs.org/newshour/indepth_coverage/africa/nigeria/role.html

http://blog.wired.com/defense/2008/02/in-iraq-when-th.html

http://www.ejisdc.org/ojs2/index.%20php/%20ejisdc/%20article/viewFile/346/192

http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Comp_Articles/Information_Technology_117.html

http://www.iss.co.za/AF/profiles/Nigeria/GenInfo.html


21

Tribes in Nigeria. (n.d.). Retrieved November 23, 2008 from:

http://www.onlinenigeria.com/tribes/

UNDP. (2000). Information and Communications Technologies for Development.

UNDP, New York. Retrieved November 24 from: http://www.undp.org/mlo21

http://www.undp.org/mlo21

Bringing Africa into the Information Age

Documents