Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism Edited by Knut A. Jacobsen (Editor-in-Chief) Associate Editors Helene Basu Angelika Malinar Vasudha Narayanan BRILL LEIDEN . BOSTON 2009
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Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Edited byKnut A. Jacobsen
(Editor-in-Chief)
Associate Editors
Helene Basu
Angelika Malinar
Vasudha Narayanan
BRILL
LEIDEN . BOSTON
2009
Table of Contents, Volume I
Prelims
Preface vii
List of Contributors ix
Notes for Users xix
Primary Sources xxi
Primary Source Abbreviations xxv
Journals and Series xxvii
General Abbreviations xxxi
Introduction xxxiii
Regions and Regional Traditions
(Hinduism in the Regions of India and South and Southeast Asia)
Overview article 3
East
Assam and the Eastern States 13
Bengal 25
Orissa 43
North
Bihar 59
Himalaya Region 73
Jharkhand 87
Kashmir 99
Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh 127
Punjab 153
Uttar Pradesh 171
South
Andhra Pradesh 187
Karnataka 201
Kerala 221
Tamil Nadu 233
West
Goa 249
Gujarat 255
Maharashtra 271
Rajasthan 285
South Asia outside ofIndia
Bangladesh 301
Nepal 307
Pakistan 315
Sri Lanka 321
Historical Southeast Asia:
Burma 337
Cambodia 345
Indonesia 353
Thailand 371
© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2009
Also available online - www brill nl
BEH, vol I
Vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sacred Space and Time
TIrtha and Tirthayatra: Salvific Space and Pilgrimage 381
Cosmic Cycles, Cosmology, and Cosmography 411
Festivals 429
Processions 445
Gods, Goddesses, and Divine Powers
Overview article 457
Asuras and Daityas 469
Ayyappan 479
Bhairava 485
Bhudevi 491
Brahma 499
Dattatreya 513
Draupadi and Sita 517
Durga 535
Ganapati/Ganesa 551
Gandharvas and Apsarases 565
Gariga 571
Hanuman 579
Kali 587
Krsna 605
Kuladevi 621
Mahadevi 627
Murukan 637
Navagrahas 647
Parvati 655
Radha 675
Rama 681
River Goddesses 695
Rsis 703
Sacred Animals 711
SantosiMa 719
Sarasvati 725
Sitaladevi 733
Siva 741
Sri Laksmi 755
Vedic Gods 765
Verikatesvara 781
Visnu 787
Yaksas and Yaksinis 801
Yama 807
Yamuna 817
Yoginis 823
Glossary 829
Sections for Future Volumes 832
Brills Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Volume II:
Sacred Texts and LanguagesRitual Traditions
Arts
Concepts
Edited byKnut A. Jacobsen
(Editor-in-Chief)
Associate Editors
Helene Basu
Angelika Malinar
Vasudha Narayanan
BRILL
LEIDEN . BOSTON
2010
Table of Contents, Volume II
Prelims
Preface vii
List of Contributors Lx
Notes for Users xxi
Primary Sources xxiii
Primary' Source Abbreviations xxxiii
Journals and Series xxxviii
General Abbreviations xliv
Sacred Texts and LanguagesSanskrit Texts and Language 3
Tamil Texts and Language 19
Vedas and Brahmanas 27
LTpanisads and Aranyakas 41
Dharmasastra 56
Mahabharata 72
Bhagavadgita 95
Ramayana Ill
Puranas 127
Vaisnava Samhitas 153
Tantras 168
Sutras 182
Stotras, Sanskrit Hymns 193
Languages and Literatures of the Vernaculars:
North Indian 208
South Indian 225
Hagiography 237
Oral Traditions and Folklore 249
Ayurveda 267
Astrology' and Astronomy (Jyotisa) 281
Language and Linguistics 295
Mathematics and Geometry 309
Vastusastra 318
Ritual Traditions
Temple Rituals:
North India 327
South India 335
Domestic Rituals 347
Yajna 361
Puja and Darsana 380
Samskaras 395
Mantras 402
Possession 416
BEH,\ ol II
Vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
Vratas 427
Purity and Impurity 435
Ritual Food 450
Intoxication 459
Rarigoli and Kolam 472
Death and Afterlife 479
Arts
Temple: Form and Function 495
Drama and Theatre 511
Iconography and Images:Ancient Concepts 529
Art 536
A Methodology 550
Mandalas and Yantras 560
Music 574
KIrtan and Bhajan 585
Dance:
Classical Tradition 599
Regional Tradition: Kerala 606
Martial Arts 615
Rasa Theory 623
Citrakatha, Paintings, and Popular Prints 630
Hinduism and Film:
Bollywood 636
Tamil Cinema 651
Hinduism and Modern Literature 659
ConceptsAdhikara 671
Ahimsa 675
Artha 680
Asrama and Samnyasa 684
Atman 689
Auspiciousness and Inauspiciousness 693
Avatara 701
Avidya 706
Bhakti 710
Body 720
Brahman 724
Consciousness and Mind 729
Dharma 736
Divination 743
Gift and Gift Giving 747
Grace and Compassion 752
Guna 758
Isvara 762
Jivanmukta 768
Kama 772
Karman 778
Liberation 788
Lila 793
Madness (Unmada) 798
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
Mahabhutas 806
Maya 818
Meditation 822
Nirguna and Saguna 826
Prakrti 833
Purusa 838
Sakti 843
Samsara 848
Satya 855
Seva 861
Tapas 865
Time and Destiny 870
Untouchability 876
Wisdom and Knowledge (Jnana/Vidya) 881
Glossary 885
Sections for Future Volumes 888
Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Volume III:
Society
Religious Specialists
Religious Traditions
Philosophy
Edited byKnut A. Jacobsen
(Editor-in-Chief)
Associate Editors
Helene Basu
Angelika Malinar
Vasudha Narayanan
BRILL
LEIDEN • BOSTON
2011
Table of Contents, Volume III
Prelims
Preface xv
List of Contributors xvi
Notes for Users xxvn
Primary Sources xxix
Primary Source Abbreviations liv
Journals and Series lxi
General Abbreviations lxix
SocietyAdivasis 3
Administrative Division 4
Tribal Societies 5
Hunter-Gatherers 8
Akharas:
Warrior Ascetics 11
Origins of the Akharas 11
Conflicts Involving Armies ofNagas 12
Becoming a Naga in an Akhara 14
The DasanamI SamnyaslAkharas 14
The Ramanandl Akharas 15
The Dadupanth Akhara 16
Sikh-Affiliated Akharas 16
Wrestlers 18
Caste 25
Childhood 39
Rituals of Childhood 39
Cultural Psychology Approaches to Childhood 41
Anthropological Approaches 42
Changing Childhoods 43
Family 46
Joint Family The Concept 46
Family and Household Numerical Size 47
Kinship Composition of Household 48
Interhousehold Family Relations 50
Changes in the Family 50
Marriage- In Religion, Law, and Custom 52
Reproducing the Family 54
The Family and the State 55
The Normal and the Pathological Domestic Violence 56
Female Ascetics 60
Traditional Ambivalence toward Feminine Asceticism 60
Asceticism within Stridharma 61
Female Ascetics in Literature: Legends and History 62
Place within the Hindu Monastic Traditions Today 63
The Female Guru 65
© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2011
Also available online - wwwbrill nl
BEH, vol III
Vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
Food 68
Violence, Power, and Consumption 68
Sacrifice and Cooking 69
Status and Caste 70
Ritual and Worship 70
Body and Environment 71
Devotion 72
The Nation, Nationalism, and "Hindutva" 72
Migration and Transnationalism 73
Foreigner (Mleccha) 76
Mleccha- A Sanskrit Word? 76
Early Brahmanic Context 76
Designation and Extended Meaning 77
Early Buddhist and Jaina Context 77
Mlecchas and the Decline of Order 78
Being Mlecchas - Explaining Difference 79
Mlecchas - The Permanent "Other"? 79
Hijras 82
The Hijras and Hindu Constructions of Gender 83
The Hijras as Creative Ascetics 84
The Emasculation Ritual 85
Hijras as Ritual Performers 86
Ambivalence Regarding Hijras as Ascetics 87
Hijras as Persons in the Context of Hinduism 88
The Hijras as a Community 88
Changing Roles of the Hijras 89
Kingship 90
Vedic Kingship 91
Early Historic India 92
Early Medieval Kingship 94
Kinship and Marriage 97
Descent 98
Marriage 100
Affinal Prescription 104
Uncle-Niece Marriage 108
Laws of Brahman Kinship and Marriage 109
Brahman Practices of Kinship and Marriage in the Eastern Province of Orissa Ill
Kinship among Peasants and Ex-untouchables in Northern India 112
Gifts and Hypergamy 114
Monasteries 116
Historical Considerations 116
Monasteries and Sacred Centers 119
Women and Monasticism 121
Organization 122
Old Age 127
Old Age in Hindu Textual Traditions 127
Old Age in Contemporary India 130
Aging and the Hindu Diaspora 133
Politics and Economy 135
The Indus Civilization and Proto-Hinduism 135
The Aryan Invasion 135
The Articulation of the Hindu Royal Style 136
The Survival of Kingless Ganasanghas 137
Kautilya's Arthasastra 138
Elephants and Empires 140
The Rise and Decline of Heterodox Challengers of Brahman Orthodoxy 140
Hindu Seafarers and Maritime Trade 141
TABLE OF CONTENTS Vli
The Empires and Kingdoms of Ancient and Early Medieval India 143
Hindu "Feudalism"- The Rise of the Samantas 144
The Political Function of Royal Temples 146
The Politics and Economics ofMuslim and Hindu Cavalry States 147
A Resurrection of the Hindu Royal Style. Sivajl of Maharashtra 148
Hinduism and the Right of Resistance Mahatma Gandhi's Political Thought 149
Religious Endowments and Gift Giving 151
Religious Endowments in Precolonial India 151
Religious Endowments in Colonial and Post-Independence India 153
Sampradaya 156
Semantic and Historical Considerations 156
Characteristic Features 158
Sampradaya and Caste 162
Sati and Widowhood:
SatI 165
Stories and Shrines 165
Sati Iconography, Dharma, and Auspiciousness 166
Discourse on Sati in the Dharmasastras 168
Satim British India 168
The Case of Roop Kanwar 171
Widowhood 173
Widow Immolation 173
Widow Remarriage 174
Ascetic Widowhood 174
Residence, Maintenance, and Inheritance 175
Town and City 177
Periods of Urbanization and De-urbanization 177
City Images 180
Sacred Cities 181
Town Planning and City Mandala 182
Trade and Merchants 186
Transmission of Knowledge 194
Social Construction of Knowledge Educational Paradigms m Sruti and Smrti 194
Social Construction of Knowledge Formal Lines ofTransmission 195
Social Construction of Knowledge Multiple Modes ofTransmission 196
Social Construction of Knowledge The Eve ofColonialism 197
Social Construction of Knowledge Colonial Complexities 198
Social Construction of Knowledge: The 20th and 21 st Centuries 199
Social Construction of Knowledge Hindu Dharma in the Diaspora 201
Travel Regulations 203
A 19th-century Social Issue 203
The Interpretation of Sastras 204
The Sea-Voyage Movement 205
Crossing Limits 205
Village 208
Development of Village Studies 209
The Vlllage as Viewed by Vlllage Studies 210
Social Change in the Village 212
The Future of the Vlllage and Its Study 213
Religious Specialists
Astrologers 217
Perceptions of Astrologers in Early Non-astrological Sources 217
Self-Perceptions in Astrological Sources 218
Astrologers in Society 218
Consulting an Astrologer 219
Vlii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Bards and Reciters 222
Epic and Puramc Bardic Traditions 222
Medieval and Ancient Bardic Traditions 223
Contemporary Bardic Traditions 224
Gurus and Acaryas 227
Initiation (Diksa) 229
Divinity, Miracles, and Powers 230
Stages of Development 231
20th-century Developments 232
Healers 235
Pandas 240
Panda Identity 241
Panda-Client Relationships 241
Pandas and Social Change 243
Pandits 245
Priests 252
Brahmans and Kings 255
Education 257
Sadhus, Samnyasls, and Yogis 262
Definitions 262
Origins 263
Female Renunciants 265
Renunciant Orders 267
Internationalizing Renunciation 272
The Renunciant Life 274
Religious Traditions
Aghorls 281
Issues of Representation 281
Hagiography of the Kina Ram Aghon 282
The Reformation ofAghor 283
Bauls 285
Baul Songs 287
Oppositional Elements 288
Philosophy 290
The Preceptor 291
Gender 292
Baul Esoteric Practices (Sadhana) 293
Bhagavatas 295
Multiple Uses of the Term 295
Bhagavatism and Aristocratic Patrons in the 2nd-1 st Centuries BCE 295
Literary Evidence from the First Centuries CE 296
Bhagavatas and Pitrbhaktas 296
Defining Bhagavatas 297
Bhagavatas in Cambodia 299
Bhagavatas in Modern Times 299
Dasanamls 302
Influence 303
The Normative Organization of the Dasanami Order 303
The Organization of the DasanamI Order Today 305
Historical Origins 309
Contemporary Controversies 310
Twin Ideals of Renunciation and Spiritual Knowledge in the Dasanami Order 310
Gaudlya Vaisnavism 312
Historical Development 312
Gaudlya Vaisnava Literature 318
TABLE OF CONTENTS ix
Theological Reflections: Ontology, Practice, and Fulfillment 321
Knowing Fundamentals (Sambandhajnana) 321
Practices (Abhidheya) 322
Fulfillment (Prayojana) 324
Social Dimensions ofGaudlya Vaisnavism 325
Gaudlya Vaisnava Ethics 327
Haridasi Sampradaya 329
Scholarship 329
SvamI Haridas 330
Haridasi Sampradaya 332
Theology 333
Seva 335
Dhrupad and Samaj Gayan 336
Kabirpanthls 339
Kabir and His Time 339
The Kabir Legacy 340
The Kabirpanth. History and General Presentation 340
Sociography, Rites, and Beliefs 342
The Nonimtiated Kabir Followers 344
Kanphatas 347
Religious Orientation and Beliefs 347
Organization 349
Initiation 349
The Itinerant Yogis 351
The Communal or Pancayati Monasteries 351
The Private or Niji Monasteries 352
Householder Yogis 353
Studies Regarding the Nath Yogis 353
Kapalikas 355
The Lakulas 355
The Soma-Kapahkas 356
Kapahka Practices in Early Tantras 358
Kashmir Saivism 362
Nondualistic Saivism and the Tantnc Quest for Power 362
Historical Transformations of Kashmiri Tantra- The PhilosophicalRationalization of Nondualistic Saiva Traditions 364
Teachings of Somananda's Sivadrsti 365
Religious and Philosophical Project of the Pratyabhijna System 366
Idealistic Epistemology of Recognition 367
Conceptions of Identity and Egoity 368
Linguistic Speculations on the Metaphysics ofEmpowered Identity 369
Universalization of the Body and Reflected Identity 370
Classification of Means Types (Upaya) 371
Kashmir Saiva Impact on Aesthetics 372
Kashmir Saiva Ethics 372
Approach to Diversity 373
Contemporary Revivals 373
Lirigayats 378
Classification and Nomenclature 379
Origins of the Vlrasaiva Movement 380
Vlrasamsm and Gender Equality 383
Vlrasaiva Ritual and Ethical Behaviors 385
Vlrasaiva Philosophy 388
Final Rites 390
Madhva Sampradaya 393
The Madhva Sampradaya (Community and Institutions) 394
Madhvacarya's Works: The Sarvamulagrantha 394
x TABLE OF CONTENTS
Other Relevant Madhva Works 395
Basic Madhva Vedanta 396
Mahanubhavs 402
Literature 403
Theology and Philosophy 403
Religious Practice 405
Nath Sampradaya 409
Elements of Nath Identity 411
Individual Naths 412
Localized Nath Traditions 414
The Twelve Panths 417
Appearance 418
The Patradevata 419
Ad.es 419
Naths and Power 421
Places 421
Doctrine 422
Practice 422
Tantra 422
Alchemy 422
Yoga 423
The Avadhuta 423
Texts 424
The Development of the Nath Sampradaya 425
Secondary Literature on the Nath Sampradaya 427
Nimbarka Sampradaya 429
Doctrines 430
History and Organization 433
Religious Practices 439
Pancaratra 444
Early History 444
The Name "Pancaratra" 445
Literature 447
Concepts ofRevelation and Transmission 449
Cosmology 451
The Concept of God 452
Mantras 453
Religious Goals and the Social Structure of the Devotees 453
Rituals 454
The Siddhantas of the Pancaratra 455
Pasupatas 458
The Earliest Times 458
Pasupata Scriptures 459The Pancartha System 459
Evolution of Schools and the Founder 461
Rites and Rules 453
Pasupatas and the Siddhanta 454
Pasupata Depiction ofRudra 455
Radhavallabha Sampradaya 457
Scholarship 4^7Hit Harivams 4^9The Radhavallabha Sampradaya 47O
Theology 471Sevd
473
Samaj Gayan 474
TABLE OF CONTENTS xi
Ramanandls 478
Present-Day Sampraday 481
Philosophical Approach 482
Tapasya (Physical and Mental) 483
Ghor Tapasya and Rebirth 484
Bhakti 486
Rasayana 489
Hindu Alchemy: Myth and History 493
Alchemy and Tantra 495
The Internalization of Hindu Alchemy 498
Ravidasls 500
The Biography of Ravidas 500
Caste and Social Status in the Ravidasi Movement 501
The ADM and the Ravidas Movement 502
Theology and Praxis 505
Sahajiyas 507
Sahaja in Buddhist Tantnc Traditions 507
The Caitanya Movement and the Caitanyacaritamrta 507
Vaisnava Sahajiya Lineages and Texts 509
Cosmogony, Cosmography, and the Subtle Body 509
Sexuality, Cognition, and Emotions 511
Decline and Later Developments 512
Saiva Siddhanta 514
Speciality of the Saiva Siddhanta 514
Saiva Siddhanta Doctrine: Triple Categories (Tripadartha) 514
Patt 515
Essential Attributes of Siva 516
Siva's Fivefold Function 518
Other Tattvas Included in the Pati 518
Sakti as the Mother 520
The Individual Self (Pasu) 521
Liberation: Mukti 521
Historical Background 522
Texts 523
Inferential Argument as the Means for Establishing the Existence of Siva 524
Saiva Siddhanta and Advaita 525
Spiritual Discipline 527
Concept ofMukti in Saiva Siddhanta 528
Mukti in the Second Phase of Saiva Siddhanta 528
Sants 532
Who were the Sants? 532
Sant Sadhana 534
Oral Transmission 535
Sants in Maharashtra 536
Sants in Northern India 537
Mixed Dadupanthi "Saguna-nirguna" Anthologies 541
Sants in Gujarat and Punjab 542
Saguna-mrguna: A Historical Survey 543
Saguna-nirguna. The First Reference 544
Smarta 546
Clues in Smarta Beginnings for Understanding Their Characteristics 547
Smarta Worship- Monism, Istadevata, and Pancayatanapuja 548
Smartas as Gatekeepers, Harmomzers, and Updaters 550
Bhagavata Connections (How a Smarta May Change His Stripes) 552
The Role Smartas Play in a Self-Corrective System 553
Xil TABLE OF CONTENTS
Srivaisnavism 556
Brief History 556
The Many Forms ofVisnu 558
Srivaisnava Literature 560
Sri in the Srivaisnava Literature 564
Srlvaisnava Society 565
Srivaisnava Temples and Sacred Places 565
Orientation ofSrlvaisnava Temples 565
The Paradigmatic Temple at Srirangam The Temple of Ranganatha("The Lord of the Stage") 566
The Distinctive Personalities of the Regional Manifestations and Images in
Snvaisnava Temples 568
Temple Rituals 569
Special Rituals in Temples The Auspicious Wedding ofVisnu and Laksmi 570
Performative Rituals in Srivaisnava Temples 571
Distinct Markers ofthe Srlvaisnava Community 572
Srlvaisnavas outside of India 572
Tantra 574
Emergence of Hindu Tantra 575
The Royal Pivot 576
Tantnc Texts and Traditions 579
Kaula Esotericism and Tantnc Sexuality 584
Tantnc Ritual 586
Vaikhanasa 589
Vaikhanasas as Vedic Seers and Hermits 589
The Followers of the Vaikhanasa Sakha 590
From the Sutra Period to the Samhita Period 592
Medieval Vaikhanasa Temple Priests and the Samhita Corpus 593
The Era ofVaikhanasa Non-canonical Literature 595
The Vaikhanasa Community from the Late 19th to 20th Century 597
The Emergence of Leaders 599
Rise and Development of Associations 600
Publishing Activities in the 20th and 21 th Centuries 601
Vaikhanasas and Ayurveda in the 20th Century 603
Vallabha Sampradaya 606
Foundation ofthe Vallabha Sampradaya 606
The Organization of the Vallabha Sampradaya 607
The Primary Svarupa and the Institution of Worship m the Vallabha Sampradaya 608
The Nature of Seva 611
The Purpose ofSeva 612
Seva and the Encouragement of Literature and Art in the Vallabha Sampradaya 613
The 19th-century Crisis in the Vallabha Sampradaya 613
The Contemporary Vallabha Sampradaya 615
Varkari Sampraday 617
History 617
Vitthal 618
Key Figures 619
Beliefs and Practices 621
The Van 622
Literature and Philosophy 623
Kirtan 624
Varkaris and Modern Society 624
PhilosophyLokayata 629
The Original Meaning of the Term Lokayata 630
Ajita Kesakambalin 633
TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii
King Paesi 634
Carvaka/Lokayata in the Classical Period 634
Mimamsa 643
The Origins ofMimamsa 643
An Overview of the System 644
Kumarila, Prabhakara, and Their Schools 650
The Age of the Digests 654
The Scholastic Turn and the "New Mimamsa" 655
Nyaya and Navyanyaya 657
Enumerating Vaisesika 658
The Nyaya Canon 659
Modern Development 660
From Absence to the Ultimate 661
Theoria and Nirvana-\ite 661
Navyanyaya 662
Nyaya, Navya, and God's Theodicity 664
Philosophy of Language 672
Brahmanical Presuppositions and the Birth of Sanskrit Linguistics 672
Buddhist Systematic Philosophy and the Role of Language 673
Reality as Language Incorporated 675
The Word as Source of Knowledge 676
The Linguistic Crisis 678
Bhartrhari 680
Sentence Meaning 681
The Meanings of Words and Their Parts 682
Language, Philosophy, and Science 683
Samkhya 685
Plurality of Samkhya Traditions 685
The Term Samkhya 688
The Separateness ofthe Self 689
Samkhyakarika 691
Later Samkhya 693
Kapila 695
Contemporary Samkhya 697
Vaisesika 699
The Legendary Founder of Vaisesika and Its Religious Affiliation 701
The Historical Background 703
The Vaisesikasutra and Its Commentaries 705
The Literature of Classical and Postclassical Vaisesika 707
A Sketch of Vaisesika Philosophy 711
Vedanta:
Advaita Vedanta and the Schools ofVedanta 719
Developments in the Tradition 725
Scriptural Exegesis 729
Some Critiques 730
Modern Vedanta 735
Ram Mohan Roy 737
Ramakrishna and Vivekananda 738
Sri Aurobindo 740
Radhakrishnan 741
Yoga:
Patanjala Yoga 745
Patanjali, Hagiography, and Authorship ofthe Yogasutra 745
Patanjala Yoga as Samkhya-Yoga 747
The Term "Yoga" 749
Yoga before the Yogasutra 750
Yoga in the Upanisads 752
XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS
Yoga in the Mahabharata 752
Yoga and Buddhism 754
The Teaching of the Yogasastra 755
Contemporary Samkhya-Yoga 757
Patanjala Yoga and the Plurality of Yoga Traditions 758
Raja Yoga 760
Raja Yoga in Sanskrit Sources 760
Nath Yoga and Yoga Upanisads 760
Yogavasistha Tradition 762
Outsiders'Perspectives 763
Swami Vivekananda 765
Raja Yoga after Vivekananda 766
The Raja Yoga of the Sahaj Marg 766
Brahma Kumaris 767
Hatha Yoga 770
Texts 771
Early Hatha Yoga 771
The Hathapradipika and Classical Hatha Yoga 772
The Principles of Hatha Yoga 774
The Practices of Classical Hatha Yoga 775
Practitioners 778
Further Reading 780
Modern Yoga 782
Swami Vivekananda 783
Theosophical Society 783
New Thought 784
Medicalization 784
Physical Culture 785
T Knshnamacharya 786
B K S. Iyengar 786
K Pattabhijois 787
T K.V. Desikachar 787
Swami Sivananda 787
Other Developments 787
Glossary 789
Sections for Future Volumes 793
Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Volume IV:
Historical Perspectives
Poets, Teachers, and Saints
Relation to other Religions and Traditions
Hinduism and Contemporary Issues
Edited byKnut A. Jacobsen
(Editor-in-Chief)
Associate Editors
Helene Basu
Angelika Malinar
Vasudha Narayanan
'
/ 6 8 "!>'
BRILL
LEIDEN . BOSTON
2012
Table of Contents, Volume IV
Prelims
Preface xiv
List of Contributors xv
Notes for Users xxviii
Primary Sources xxx
Primary Source Abbreviations lx
Journals and Series lxviii
General Abbreviations lxxviii
Historical PerspectivesIndus Civilization (-1750 bce) 3
Rise and Fall of the Indus Civilization 3
Harappan Language 8
Harappan Religion 8
The Indus Script 13
Vedic Period (1750-400 bce) 19
The Migrations of the Arya/Airua and the Post-urban Harappan Phase 20
The Rgvedic Period: Clans, Chieftains, and Migratory Pastoralism (c. 1500-1200 bce) 21
The Period of the Late Rgveda and the Atharvaveda, Samaveda, and Yajurveda Mantras:
Ascendancy of the Kuru Kingdom (c. 1200-1000 bce) 23
The Period of Brahmana Exegetical Prose (c. 1100-600 bce) 25
Conclusion 26
Historical Perspectives: Between 400 bce and 600 ce 29
Prelude and Beginnings, circa 400-200 bce 30
The Formative Stage, circa 200 bce-300 ce 33
Puranic Hinduism, circa 300-600 ce 41
Hindu Medieval Regional Kingdoms (600-1526 ce) 51
Periodization of Medieval India 51
The Medieval Hindu State: Issues and Debates 52
The Regional Kingdoms of Early Medieval India: An Overview 57
Interregional Conflicts and Warfare 63
Regional State Formation: Two Case Studies 64
Vijayanagara (1336-1646) 73
Mughal Empire (1526-1759) 81
The Creation and Administration of the Mughal State 82
The Structure of the Mughal State 82
The Mughal Economy 83
Religion and State in the Mughal Empire 84
The Decline of the Mughal State 89
Mughal Court Life 90
Mughal Women 91
Arts and Literature 93
Maratha (1674-1818) 96
Maratha Kingdom: Mystery of Sivaji's Hindavi Svarajya 96
Struggles against Tamramukhi (Mughals) 97
Pesvai: Maratha Kingdom under Peshvas 97
Vatan System: Structure of Local System 98
Development of Market Economy 99
© Koninklijke Brill NV, I eiden, 2012
Also available online - www brill com
BfH, vol IV
VI TABLE OF CONTENTS
Maratha Government and Local Society 99
Brahmanical Rituals Yajna,$anti, and Prayasatta 100
Devi Worship Santi as Village Ritual 101
Downfall of Maratha Kingdom (Peshva Government) 102
British Rule (1757-1947) 103
"Hinduism" 103
The Nature of British Imperial Rule 104
"Reform," "Revival," and "Tradition" 109
Nationalism 113
The Politics of Being Hindu 116
Diaspora 119
Independent India (1947-) 121
Partition Hinduism 122
"Neo-Hindu" Hinduism 123
Folk Hinduism 128
Literate Hinduism 129
Monastic Hinduism 132
Pilgrimage Hinduism 133
Diaspora Hinduism 134
Poets, Teachers, and Saints
Abhinavagupta 139
Life 139
Major Works 140
Religious and Philosophical Project of the Pratyabhijna System 141
Idealistic Epistemology of Recognition 142
Conceptions of Identity and Egoity 143
Linguistic Speculations 143
Universalization of the Body and Reflected Identity 144
Classification of Means Types (Upayas) 145
Aesthetics 146
Ethics 146
Approach to Diversity 147
Akkamahadevi 150
Life 150
Poetry 151
Hagiographical Literature 154
Akkamahadevi in Modern Time 155
Alvars 157
The Poems of the A|vars 158
Biographies of the Alvars 158
The Revealed Nature of the Poems 160
Theology in the Poems of the Alvars 161
Tamil Conventions in the Alvar Poetry 164
Role Playing in Alvar Poetry 168
Alvar Poetry in the Performing Arts 170
Awaiyar 172
Basava 177
Basava through His Vacanas 177
Basava's Biography 180
Conclusion 183
Bhartrhan 185
Previous Scholarship 185
Sources 186
The Limits of His Worldview 187
Religious Imagery 188
Conclusion 192
TABLE OF CONTENTS vil
Caitanya 193
Early Years Tradition and Transformation 193
Later Years Peregrination and Divine Rapture 194
Three Key Episodes in Caitanya's Life 195
Caitanya's Teachings 197
Conceptions of Caitanya's Divinity and Practicse of His Worship 198
Cokhamela 201
Sacred Biography and Poems 201
Karmamela and Banka Mahar 203
Soyrabal and Nirmala 204
Cokhamela in Marathi Film and Drama 205
Cokhamela and Dalit Movement and Literature 206
Dadu Dayal 209
Life 209
Work 211
Teaching 212
The Dadupanth 212
Ritual 216
Eknath 218
Biography 218
Hagiographical Sources 220
Compositions 222
Legacies 224
Gargi 227
GargI and the Vedic Context 227
Gargi at the Tournament 228
Gargl's Achievement and Contributions 230
Hit Hanvams 234
Biography 234
Literary Works 237
Theology 238
Seva 239
Jayadeva 241
Jayadeva In and Out of Tradition Who Is Jayadeva? Who Was Jayadeva? 241
Form 244
Content 246
Context 246
Jiva GosvamI 249
Life 249
Works 251
Theological and Philosophical Contributions 252
The Bhagavatasandarbha 253
Literary and Poetic Contributions 255
Gopalacampu 255
Influence on Later Tradition 256
Jnandev 258
Biography 258
Legacy 259
Compositions 260
Kablr 265
Kablr's Time Sants, Bhaktas, and Wandering Ascetics of Various Faiths 265
Kablr's Life m Sources and Traditions 266
Singing and Composing From Performance to Written Collections 267
Traits, Elements, and Perspectives in Kablr's Compositions 268
Lalla 272
Life and Legends 272
Lalla's Verses The Text 272
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Inner Journey 273
Relationship with the £aiva Tradition 274
Teachings 276
Relationship with the RisI Sufi Tradition 277
Conclusion 278
Madhva 280
The Life of Madhva 280
Madhva as Commentator 283
Difference and the Inner Witness 283
The Independent Reality and Dependent Realities 284
The Individual Selves 285
Brahman as God 285
Madhva's Major Works 286
Conclusion 287
Mirabal 288
The Life of Mirabai 288
The Songs of Mirabal 291
Mirabal as a Model 293
Namdev 296
Biography 296
Sources 300
Manuscript Sources 300
Printed Collections 301
Cinematic Sources 301
Narasimha Mehta 303
Life 303
Poetry 305
Narasimha as a Cultural Icon 308
Narasimha and Gandhi 308
Conclusion 308
Nayanars 310
Tirumurai 310
Tirumuraikantapuranam 310
Tiruttontattokai and Tiruttontartiruvantati 312
Lives and Poetry of the Muvar 312
Tirunavukkaracar or Appar 313
Tirunanacampantar or Campantar 314
Cuntarar 316
Other Nayanmar Compositions 318
Nayanmar Hanographic Patterns in the Periyapuranam 318
Temple as Body Pucalar, Vayilar, and Gananatar 319
Caste and the Nayanmar 320
Nantanar 321
Koccenkat Colar 322
Esotericism in the Canon Tirumular 322
Tirumular 323
Women and the Nayanmars Karaikkal Ammaiyar 323
Violence among the Saints 325
Cantlcan or Candesvara 326
Ciruttontar 327
Kannappan 327
Icons and Worship 328
Iconography of the Nayanmar 329
Cooption and Contention with the Sramanas 331
Nayanmar in Film 332
TABLE OF CONTENTS ix
Ramananda 335
Hagiography and Legend 335
Works 338
Studies, Interpretations, and Constructions 340
Ramanuja 344
Ramdas 358
Biographical Framework 359
Ramprasad Sen 365
Biography 365
Ramprasadl Songs 367
Ramprasad Sen and Bengali Saktism 369
Ravidas 371
Early Traditions 371
Early Print Cultures and the Lives of Ravidas 373
Post-Independence Lives of Ravidas 376
Conclusion 378
Rupa GosvamI 379
The Life of Rupa 379
The Works of Rupa 380
Rupa's Teachings 383
The Legacy of Rupa 386
Sankara 388
Dates of Sankara 388
Biography 389
Texts 391
Philosophy 392
Sankaradeva and Madhavadeva 397
Sankaradeva's Life and Historical Context 397
Literary and Dramatic Works 398
Sankaradeva's Vaisnava Philosophy Ekasarana Namadharma and Mahapurustya Dharma 398
Caste, Gurus, Women, and Social Reforms 400
Madhavadeva's Life and Work 401
Institutional Structures Satras and Namghars 402
Sankaradeva and Madhavadeva in the 20th and 21st Centuries
Cultural Heroes of Postcolomal India 402
Surdas 405
The Blind Poet 405
Beyond the Vallabhite Surdas 407
Translator of the Bhagavatapurana? 408
Courtly Frames for Surdas 409
Collective Authorship and the Expanding Sursagar 410
Tarigonda Vengamamba 413
Tukaram 420
The Pilgrimage 420
Tukaram and the Varkari Tradition 421
Themes of Tukaram's Poetry 422
Publications, Translations, and Interpretations ofTukaram 424
Tulsldas 429
Life and Legend 429
The Works of Tulsidas 433
Tyagaraja 438
Biographies of Tyagaraja 438
Tyagaraja's Works from a Religious Lyric Perspective 440
A Further Consideration of Themes in Tyagaraja's Work 442
Interplay of the Old and the Young in Tyagaraja 443
Tyagaraja's Contributions to Carnatic Music 445
Conclusion 446
X TABLE OF CONTENTS
Vallabha 448
Vallabha in Hagiography and Autobiography 448
Vallabha's Fundamental Doctrine 450
Vallabha's Life 453
Vallabha's Personality 460
Vedantadesika 462
Narrative Images in the Sacred Biographies 462
The Master Philosopher. Venkatanatha, Ramanuja, and Visistadvaita 463
Venkatesa and His Srivaisnava Tradition 464
North and South A Schism in the Community 465
The Acaryas of Snrangam and Venkatesa of Kanchipuram 466
Venkatesa's "Jewels and Coral" 467
Venkatesa the Poet 468
Venkatesa's Regional Sanskrit Depth over Breadth 468
Yamunacarya 470
Biographical Sketch of Yamunacarya 471
Yamunacarya and the Stddh i traya 471
Yamunacarya and His Agamapramanya 472
Yamunacarya's Catuhsloki and Stotraratna 473
Yamunacarya's Gitarthasamgraha 474
Relation to Other Religions and Traditions
Hinduism and Buddhism:
Ancient Period 479
Terminology 479
Previous Scholarship 481
Sources 484
Historical Interconnections 485
Conclusion 492
Modern Period 494
Hindu Inclusion of Buddhism 494
The Buddhist Symbols of the Nation of India 497
Rebirth of Buddhism in India 498
Ambedkar's Buddhism 499
Buddhism and Dalits 500
Buddhism as a Critique of Hinduism 501
Conclusion 502
Hinduism and Christianity 505
Historical Contacts 505
The Hindu Response to the Christian Colonial Presence in India 510
Christianity Embraces Hinduism Indian Christian Theology 514
Indian Christian Art 518
Hinduism and Islam-
Medieval and Premodern Period 521
Textual Contacts The Persian Texts on Indian Learning 521
Islamic Mysticism and Hinduism 525
Adverse Reactions 527
Modern Period North India 530
North Cultural Areas Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, and Uttarakhand 530
West Cultural Areas Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra 533
North Central Cultural Areas Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh 539
East Cultural Areas Bihar and West Bengal 542
Northeast Cultural Area Assam and Nagaland 544
Conclusion 545
Modern Period South India 546
Kerala 547
Andhra Pradesh 548
TABLE OF CONTENTS xi
Karnataka 550
Tamil Nadu 552
Conclusion 557
Hinduism and Jainism 559
Stereotypes 559
The Ancient Period 560
Hindu-Jain Relations in Medieval India 561
Sanskrit 562
Philosophy 562
Holy Places 564
Satire 565
The Epics 565
Ritual Culture 567
Deities 567
The Modern Period 570
Hinduism and Sikhism 573
Definitional Challenge 573
Punjabi Religion 574
Models of the Relationship 574
Historical Relationship 577
Theological Overlap 581
Attitude to the Vedas 583
Cultural Resemblance 583
Sampradayas 584
Caste 585
Gender 585
Diaspora 586
The Internet 586
Hinduism and Tribal Religions in India 588
Discussing Caste and Tribe 588
Hindu Kings and Tribal Chiefs 591
The Tribal Pantheons and the Hindu Gods and Temples 592
Paradigms of Religious Indigeneity 594
Tribes and Castes in Interaction 594
Hinduized Rituals as a Common Idiom between Tribal Groups and Castes? 595
Tribal Groups from the Nilgins 595
Hinduized Priesthood and Bhakti Movements 597
Hierarchization and Reform Movements 597
Bhakti and Hinduization in the Northeast 599
Reasserting Tribal Identity 600
Tribal Eschatologies and Hindu Values 600
Hinduism Imposed on Tribal Groups through Propaganda by Fundamentalist Groups 601
Conclusion 601
Hinduism and Zoroastnanism 605
The Rgveda and the Avesta 605
Iconographical Convergence in Central Asia 609
Magas and Bhojakas 610
The Parsis 611
Hinduism and Contemporary Issues
Animal Rights 619
Buddhism and Animals 619
Animals in Jainism 620
Animals in Hinduism 621
The Bisnol and Animal Protection 622
Pinjrapoles and Gosalas and Mahatma Gandhi 623
Contemporary Animal Advocacy 623
Human Responsibility toward Animals Indian Perspectives 624
Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS
Atheism and Rationalism 626
Atheism 626
Rationalism 628
Bioethics 633
Bioethics in India 633
Hindu Perspectives on Bioethics 634
Decision Making, Informed Consent, and Patient Autonomy 634
Pain and Suffering 635
Contraception 635
Abortion 636
Infertility and Assisted Reproductive Technologies 637
Cloning 638
Organ Donation and Transplantation 638
Commodification 641
Consumer Culture and Hinduism A Marginal Field 642
Commodification Processes and Hinduism A Strange Alliance? 642
Puja Items: Production, Circulation, and Markets 644
Theorizing Consumption of Puja Items 646
Dalit Critiques of Hinduism 650
Debates on Nomenclature 650
Modern Dalit Movements 652
Dalit Critiques of Hinduism 655
Dalit Religions and Conversions 658
Constitutional Measures and Critiques of the State 659
Ecology 663
Potential Resources 663
Problematizing Sacred Rivers, Earth, and Groves 667
Reincarnation, Anthropocentrism, and Animals 670
Hindu Thought as World Denying 670
Historical and Contemporary Environmental Activism 672
Conclusion 674
Ethics 677
Ethics in the Vedic Literature 677
The Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras 679
Epic and Puramc Narratives. Exemplary Figures, Ethical Choices, and Conflicting Dharmas 682
The Ethics of the Bhagavadglta 686
The Ethical Challenge of Devotional Hinduism 687
Gandhi's Practical Ethics of Truth and Nonviolence 688
The Contemporary Study of Hindu Ethics 689
Human Rights 692
The Introduction ofHuman Rights to India by Hindu Renaissance Thinkers and by the 1949
Constitution 693
Dharma and Human Rights for Hindus Today 695
Specific Dharma and Universal Dharma 696
Conclusion 698
Internet 700
Early Years 700
Number and Diversity of Hindu WebSites 700
The Use of the Internet by the Kanchi Math and Its Supporters 701
Jostling for Influence within Hinduism 702
Pujas Facilitated by the Internet 704
Online Darsan 705
Conclusion 706
Modern Legal Framework 707
Hindu Law as Personal Law 707
Hinduism and the Modern Indian Legal System 710
Hinduism and the Law Outside of India 714
Conclusion 715
TABLE OF CONTENTS Xlll
New Age Spirituality 718
Spirituality in Historical Context 719
A New Age 721
Hinduism and New Age Spirituality Phase Three 723
Conclusion 724
Science 726
Epistemological Tensions 727
Hinduism and Astronomy in Ancient India 729
Hinduism and Medicine in Ancient India 732
Hinduism and Science in the Colonial and Postcolonial Periods 735
Conclusion- Social Contexts and Cognitive Foundations 737
Sexuality 740
Tolerance and Responses to Religious Pluralism 754
The Classical Period 754
Hinduism's Encounter with Islam 758
Hinduism and the Sikhs 759
Hinduism and Christianity 760
Hinduism and Secular India 764
Constitution 766
Tourism 768
AppendixDalits/Ex-Untouchables 779
Who Are Dalits? 779
Dalits and Hinduism 780
Are Dalits Hindus? Anthropological and Political Considerations 780
Dalits and the Resignification of Caste and Religion 783
Dalits and Hinduism in the Administrative and Legal Codes of Modern India 785
Gender 788
"Gender" and "Sex" 788
Boundaries 789
Alternatives 795
Challenges 800
Jadugars 806
Lexical Meanings 806
The Magician in the Ancient Period 807
The Medieval Period 809
The Modern Period 811
Sorcerers and Magic Today 812
Srividya 815
The Nitya Cult and the Emergence of Srividya 816
Srividya, Brahmanism, and the Cults of the Local Goddesses 817
Classification 817
Srividya Literature 818
Practices 821
Ajlvika 823
Glossary 829
Sections for Future Volumes 833
Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Volume V:
Religious SymbolsHinduism and Migration:
Contemporary Communities outside South Asia
Some Modern Religious Groups and Teachers
Edited byKnut A. Jacobsen
(Editor-in-Chief)
Associate Editors
Helene Basu
Angelika Malinar
Vasudha Narayanan
s
'6 8^
BRILL
LEIDEN . BOSTON
2013
Table of Contents, Volume V
Prelims
Preface xvn
List of Contributors xvin
Notes for Users xxxni
Primary Sources xxxv
Primary Source Abbreviations lxvin
Journals and Series lxxvn
General Abbreviations xc
Religious SymbolsCakra 3
Symbolic Meanings of the Cakra 3
History 4
Worship of Sudarsana 5
Cakra in New Age Movements 6
Conclusion 6
Colors 7
Color in Medicine, Magic, Metaphysics, and Ritual 7
Elements, Experience, and the Cosmos 9
Colorlessness, Purity, and Transcendence 10
Deities, Devotion, and Iconography 11
Red, Gold, and "Shining". Vitality, Agm, Rudra, and the Goddess 11
Blue, Black, and "Dark". Krsna, Siva, and Kali 12
White and Ash Gray: Soma and Siva 12
Perspectives on Color 13
Conch 14
Mythology 14
Iconography 14
The Conch as a Sign of Visnu 14
The "Presence" of Visnu's Conch on Earth 15
Use in Ritual 15
Divine Attributes and Emblems 16
The Term "Emblem" in the Present Context 17
Ornaments 18
Aksamala (String of Seeds or Beads Used for a Contemplative Practice) 18
Animal Skin (Carman) 18
Arrow [Bana, Sara) 19
Axe or Hatchet (Parasu, Kuthdra) 19
Banner, Flag (Dhvaja, Ketu) 20
Begging Bowl (Bhtksapatra) 20
Bell (Ghanta) 20
Book, Palm-Leaf Manuscript (Pustaka) 20
Bottle, Waterpot, or Ewer (Kamandalu, Kundika, Kalasa, or Bhrngdra) 20
Bow (Capa, Dhanus, or Sarnga) 21
Chisel or Related Implement (Tanka) 21
Cloth (Vastra) 22
Club (Gada, Lakuta, Musala [Pestle]) 22
Cobra (See Serpent) 23
(O Komnklijke Brill NV leiden,2013 Bbli \ol \
Also a\aildble online -www brill com
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Conch Shell (Sankha)23
Dagger (See Knife)23
Deer (Mrga)23
Discus or Wheel (Cakra)23
Drinking Vessel (Pdtra, Panapatra) 23
Drum (Damaru [a Small Hourglass-Shaped Drum]; Dhakka) 24
Earth (Mahi, Dharam) 24
Elephant (Gaja)24
E)e (Netra, Nayana, or Aksa) 24
Fire (Agm, Jvala) 25
Flag (See Banner) 25
Flute (Venn, Murall) 25
Fly Whisk {Camara) 25
Fruit (Phala) 25
Goad, Elephant Driver's Hook (Ankusa) 26
Hammer (Mudgara) 26
Head, Bald Head (Munda) 26
Jewel-Filled Vessel (Ratnapatra) 26
Knife or Dagger (Kartari, Kartr, or Churi) 26
Ltnga (Sign, Emblem, or Phallus) 26
Lotus (Padma, Pankaja, or Kamala) 27
Mace (See Club) 28
Mirror (Darpana) 28
Money Bag (Matrabhastra) 28
Mongoose (Nakula) 28
Moon Crescent {Balacandra - Young Moon) 28
Noose, Lasso (Pasa) 29
Parasol (Chattra) 29
Parrot {Suka, Tam. Kilt) 29
Peacock Feathers (Mayurapattra, Mayurapiccha) 29
Pen, Reed Pen (Lekha.nl) 30
Phallus (See Ltnga) 30
Plow {Halo) 30
Pot of Riches (Nidhipatra) 30
Radish (Mulaka) 30
Rooster (Kukkuta, Krkavaku) 30
Sacrificial Ladles (Sruk or Sruc, Sruva) 30
Serpent, Cobra (Sarpa, Naga, or Bhujanga) 30
Shield {Khetaka) 31
Skull, Skull Cup (Kapala) 31
Spear, Lance, or Javelin (Sakti, Sula, Tam Vel) 32
Staff (Danda) 32
Stringed Instrument Resembling a Lute or Stick Zither {Vina, Vallaki) 32
Sweet Balls (Modaka) 33
Sword {Khadga, Also Asi) 33
Thunderbolt or Bolt of Lightning (Vajra) 34
Tooth or Tusk {Danta, Svadanta [One's Own Tooth or Tusk]) 34
Treasure (See Pot of Riches) 34
Trident (Trtsula, Sula) 34
Water Lily (Kalhara or Kahlara, Utpala, Nllotpala, or Indlvara) 35
Waterpot (See Bottle) 35
Winnowing Fan (Surpa) 35
Wreath or Garland {Mala) 35
Divine Musical Instruments 36
Musical Instruments 37
Myth, Drama, and Religious Practice 43
Dress and Adornment 45
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
Fire 50
Agni in Comparisons and Metaphors 50
Agni's Hiding 51
The Trifunctional Fire 52
Sexual and Procreative Fire 53
Gems, Gold, Seed, and Soma. The Multiforms of Fire 56
Concluding Remarks 57
Gemstones 59
The Conventional Properties and Meanings of Gemstones 59
The Origins of Gemstones 60
Diamonds, Pearls, Snake Gems, Emeralds, and Sapphires 61
Crystal 62
Notable Individual Hindu Gemstones 63
Magical, Idolatrous Hindu Gems in the Western Imagination 64
Hair 65
Practices 65
Meanings 69
Liriga 72
Textual Sources 72
Linga in Ritual 77
Iconography 79
Lotus 82
The Lotus and Hindu Deities: Auspiciousness and Generative Power 83
Detachment 84
The Lotus and the Sun 85
Mala 87
Fresh Flowers and Puja 88
Making Malas. Devotion or Work? 89
Mudras 91
Mudras in Theatre 91
Mudras in Iconography 92
Mudras in the Tantric Texts and Rituals 92
The Mudras as States of Consciousness in the Krama 96
New Field and Ancient Echoes 97
Om 100
Om in the Vedas and Upanisads 100
Om in Later Literature 101
Regional Traditions 101
Conclusion 102
Prasada 103
Material Prasada in Hindu Ritual 103
Prasada in Vaisnava Contexts 104
Prasada in Saiva Contexts 105
Prasada in Sakta Contexts 106
General Observations on Contemporary Hindu Prasada 107
Prasada in Sanskrit Sources 108
Understanding Prasada in Classical and Contemporary Terms 110
Ram 112
Literary Sources for Ram and Ramnam 113
The Puranas 114
Tantric Tradition and Literature 114
Medieval Vaisnava Upanisads 114
SvamI Ramananda and His Sampradaya 115
Ihe Written "Ram" 116
Ramnam Banks 117
Sacred Threads 119
Sacred Threads in Hindu Rituals 119
Viii TABLE OF CONTENTS
The Sacrificial Cord of the Brahmans 120
The Ascetics' and Others' Threads 121
Salagrama 123
History of Salagrama Worship 123
Kinds of Salagramas 124
Area and Salagrama 124
Narratives about the Origins of the Salagrama 125
Smell 127
The Sense of Smell and the Nature of Odors 127
Important Odors in Hinduism 128
Aromatic Materials and Perfumes 129
Later Developments 132
Sound 134
The Veda as a Paradigm of Sacred Sound 134
Brahman in the Early Rgyeda 135
The Language Goddess Vac 136
Mantras, Melodies, and Nonsemantic Sthobas 136
Om in the Upamsads 139
Holy Hearing and Acoustic Piety in Postvedic Literature 140
Tantnc and Devotional Mantras - Mantra Power and Musicalized Devotion 141
Fluid Signs and Sonic Symbols - Language and the Alphabet in Scientific Contexts 143
The Postvedic Language Goddess and the Alphabet as Primordial Sound 145
Linguistic Metaphysics 146
The Nadabrahman as a Cultural and Transcultural Symbol 148
Svastika 150
Tilaka and Other Forehead Marks 152
Origins of the Mark 154
Life-affirming and Life-negating Values 154
Concepts of the Deity: Gods and Goddesses 155
Sectarian Traditions 156
Sectarian Marks and Their Connection to Caste and Stage of Life 156
The Three Horizontal Lines of Saiva Devotees 157
The Sounds of the Sacred Name Mantra and Meaning 157
Pilgrimage and Sacrality of Local Places, Physical and Moral Purity 158
Purity: Physical, Ritual, Moral 159
Meditation and the Eye of Wisdom 159
The Auspicious State of Being Married 159
Conclusion 160
Trees and Plants 161
Important Plants and Trees 162
Conclusion 166
Vahanas 168
Vahanas in Iconography 169
Aja (goat) 170Akhu (mouse, rat) 170
Ananta ("Endless," "Infinite", also called Sesa) 170
Asva (horse) 170
Bhasa (vulture), see grdhra 170Bhuta (lit. living being), see Ravana 170
Gaja (elephant) 170Gardabha (ass, donkey) 171Garuda ("Devourer") 171Go (cow) 171
Godha, godhika (lizard, iguana) 171Graha (crocodile) 171Grdhra (vulture) 171Hanuman ("Having [Large] Jaws") 171Hamsa (wild goose) 171Harm see mrga 171
TABLE OF CONTENTS IX
Kabandha (a category ofgana) 171
Kaka (raven) 171
Kamadhenu ("Wish-fulfilling Cow") 171
Kapota (dove, pigeon) 171
Khara (ass), seegardabha 171
Kola (boar) 171
Kukkuta (cock) 171
Kurma (tortoise) 171
Mahisa (buffalo) 171
Makara (dolphin, crocodile) 171
Manduka (frog) 173
Marjara (cat) 173
Matsya (fish) 173
Mayura (peacock) 173
Mesa (ram) 173
Alma (fish) see matsya 173
Mrga (gazelle, antelope, deer) 173
Mrtaka (corpse) seesava 173
Nakra (crocodile) seegraha 173
Ndga (snake) 173
Nandi ("Rejoicing," "Gladdening") 173
Nara (man) 173
Preta (the dead, departed) 173
Ravana ("Roaring" or "Causing to Cry") 173
Rksa (bear) 174
Sardula (tiger, lion, panther, leopard) 175
Sarpa (serpent) see naga 175
Sava (corpse) 175
Sesa ("Remainder") 175
Sikhin (peacock) see mayura 175
Simha (lion) 175
Suka (parrot) 175
Sukara (boar) see kola 175
Srgala (or srgala, jackal) 175
Svan (dog) 175
Syena (hawk) 175
Uluka (owl) 175
Ustra (camel) 175
Vanara (monkey) 175
Vrka (wolf) 175
Vrsan, vrsabha (bull) 175
Yah (leogryph) 175
South Indian Temple Vahanas 175
Vibhuti 181
Yoni 184
Hinduism and Migration: Contemporary Communities outside South Asia
Afghanistan 189
Developments in the Late 20th Century 190
Restriction, Religious Persecution, and Expulsion Since 1992 190
The 21st Century - Discrepancies between General Improvements for Muslims and the
Precarious Situation of Hindus and Sikhs 191
Summary 192
Australia and New Zealand 193
Australia 193
"Coolie" Diaspora 193
White Australia Policy 194
The Post-Independent Hindu Settlement 194
The Postcolonial and Postmodern Phase 195
x TABLE OF CONTENTS
Adaptation 196
Conclusion 199
New Zealand 199
Canada 206
China 212
Indians in China since the 1980s 212
Religious Practices among the Indian Traders in China 214
Conclusion 216
Denmark 217
The Indian Hindus 218
The Sri Lankan Tamil Hindus 219
Keeping Up Hindu Traditions in a New Setting and Under New Circumstances 221
East Africa 222
Social Background 224
Temples and Spiritual Gatherings 225
Conclusion 227
Fiji 229
The Religious Life of the First Generation 230
The Period as a Farming Community 230
Independence and Development of a Political Community 232
Conclusion 233
France 235
Gulf Countries 240
Hindu Communities 241
Hindu Traditions 241
Temple Worship 241
Life-cycle Rituals 242
Festivals 242
Oman 242
United Arab Emirates 242
Bahrain 243
Kuwait 243
Saudi Arabia 244
Qatar 244
Yemen 244
Concluding Remarks 244
Guyana 246
A South Indian-Based Religious Tradition 246
The North Indian-Based Religious Tradition 247
The Modern Challenges 248
International Connections 250
Conclusion 250
Indonesia 252
Religion in Indonesia 252
The Idea of Agama Hindu 253
Hindu Community 254
Of Solidarity, Place and Person 254
The Good, Collective and Otherwise 255
Italy 257
Malaysia 263
Mauritius 269
Temples and the Social Structure 270
Modern Developments 271
Conclusion 272
Netherlands 274
Processes of Loss, Maintenance, and Reorientation 274
Successful Integration? 276
Analysis and Typifkation 277
TABLE OF CONTENTS xi
Norway 279
Portugal 285
Migration to Portugal after Mozambican Independence 285
Adaptation Economic Integration 287
Sociocultural Integration 288
Russia 291
Singapore 295
South Africa 300
Social History of South African Indians 300
Emergence of Temple Culture 301
A Challenge to Ritualistic Hindu Culture Neo-Hinduism 303
Bollywood Influence on Hinduism 305
Recent Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) in South Africa 305
Conclusion 306
Sunname 307
Religious Reproduction and Group Formation 307
Postwar Institutionalization 309
Some Specific Religious Issues 310
Conclusion 311
Sweden 312
Diaspora Hindus and Their Shrines 312
Diaspora Temples in Stockholm 313
Gujaratis in West Sweden 314
Shrines of the Guru Movements 314
Yoga in Sweden 315
Integration, Representation, and Vlsibility 316
Switzerland 317
Hindu Migrant Communities 318
New Religious Movements with a Hindu Background 320
The Presence of Global Hindu Movements 321
Yoga in Switzerland 322
Thailand 324
The Thai Brahmans 324
Various Communities of Indian Hindus due to Migration 325
The Hindus' Position inThai Society 327
Trinidad and Tobago 329
Religion in the Village Setting 329
The New Hinduism of the Postwar Era 331
Conclusion 332
United Kingdom 334
Hinduism in Britain Sources 334
Hindu Settlement and Communal Development 335
Home and Family 337
National Initiatives and Global Interconnections 338
United States 342
History of Hindu Ideas and Practices 342
Vivekananda and the Ongoing Messages of "Universalism" 343
Yoga 345
History of Hindus in the United States 346
Statistics and Taxonomy of Hindu Institutions in the United States 346
Domestic/Informal Groups 347
Global Organizations 347
Temple Communities 347
Cyber Societies 347
Cultural Groups 348
Temple Hinduism 348
Community Activities 351
Vietnam 353
Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS
Some Modern Religious Groups and Teachers
Ad Dharm 359
Mangoo Ram and the Founding Circle 359
The Ideology of a Political Religion 360
Schisms, Census, and an Epic Fast 361
Politics and the Decline ofAd Dharm 363
Ad Dharm Anew 364
Anandamayi Ma 366
Anandamayi Ma's Life 366
Ma's Teachings 368
Anandamayi Ma, an Avatar of Kali 369
The Human Kali after Her Death 371
Conclusion 372
AramugaNavalar 373
Life, Activity, and Teaching 374
Criticism of Protestant Missionaries 376
Agamas and Rituals 376
Caste 377
Images of Navalar 378
Art of Living Foundation 380
The Founder 380
The Teachings 381
Free Education Ved Vignan Maha Vidya Peeth 385
Transforming Rural India 385
Peace 386
Politics 387
The Future 387
Arya Samaj 389
Origins, Doctrinal Basis, and Early Development 389
The Social Project of Aryanism Education, Caste Reform, and Women's Uplift 391
The Political Entanglements of the Arya Samaj 393
The Arya Samaj in Independent India and Overseas 395
Aurobindo 397
Early Life 397
Major Works 398
Life during the 1920s and 1930s the Mother and the Founding of the Asram 400
Three Formulations of His Yoga 401
Later Life and Writings and Death 1938-1950 402
Legacy 403
Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh/Osho 405
The Early Years 405
The First Phase 1960-1974 405
Core Teachings under the Various Names Rajneesh Used 407
The Second Phase The Pune Asram, 1974-1981 407
The Disciples in Pune 409
The Third Phase. Passage to America, 1981-1985 409
The Fourth Phase The Buddha Returns to Pune, 1986-1990 411
The Fifth Phase The Contemporary Movement, from 1991 412
The Legacy 412
Bhaktisiddhanta Saraswati 415
Historical Context 415
Early Life 416
Religious Practice 417
Missionary Work 418
The Gaudiya Math in Europe 420
Crises of Succession 420
Modern Hindu Personalism 420
Studies of Bhaktisiddhanta's Work 421
TABLE OF CONTENTS Xlll
Bharat Sevashram Sangha and Swami Pranavanandaji Maharaj 424
The Child Manifestation of Siva 425
Athletic Asceticism and Brahmacarya 426
Organization Development 427
The Divine Guru 428
Bochasanwasi Shn Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha 432
Early History of BAPS 432
Line of Succession 432
Growth 433
Transnational Growth 434
Brahmo Samaj and Keshub Chandra Sen 437
Chinmayananda and Chinmaya Mission 445
Life 446
Teachings 448
Organizations 450
Dayananda Saraswati 453
Modern Search for Truth 453
Dayananda's Thought and Philosophy 454
Constructing Vedic Religion 454
Defining Ethical Hinduism 455
Aryans, Aryavarta, and Unity among Hindus 458
Hindu Nationalism and State 459
Conclusion 460
Female Gurus and Ascetics 461
Women and Classical Definitions 461
Social Expectations for Women 464
Authority 466
Community 466
Hans Ji Maharaj and the Divya Sandesh Panshad 470
Biography 470
Contested Academic Sources 472
The Teachings of Shn Hans Ji Maharaj 473
The Heritage of Shn Hans Ji Maharaj 474
Hariharananda Aranya 476
Kapil Gupha (Cave of Kapila) 477
Preparation for Meditation 480
Meditation 481
Conclusion 483
ISKCON and Bhaktivedanta Prabhupada 485
A C Bhaktivedanta Swami (Snla Prabhupada) 485
History and Development 487
Tradition, Doctrines, and Practices 488
ISKCON's Position About Its Relation to Hinduism 489
Jiddu Knshnamurti 491
Biographical Details 491
Philosophical Foundations 494
Dialogue 496
Education 496
Relationship 497
Knshnamacharya 498
Lakshman Joo 502
Life and Works 502
Philosophy and Spiritual Practice 504
Mahanshi Mahesh Yogi and Transcendental Meditation 508
Mahima Dharma and Bhima Bhoi 515
Legendary Origins515
Youth and Initiation 515
First Disciples and the Asrama in Khaliapali 516
XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS
Disappearance and Succession 516
Themes of Bhima Bhoi's Poetry 516
Bhima Bhoi The Blind Ascetic? 519
The Subaltern Voice 520
The Lay Guru 521
Institutional Splits with the Mahima Dharma Movement 521
Mata Amritanandamayi Mission Trust and Embracing The World 523
Mata Amritanandamayi 523
Disaster Reliet 526
Housing/Care for Children/Fighting Hunger 527
Empowering Women 528
Education 529
Medicine 529
Critics 529
Melmaruvathur Movement 531
Origins of the Temple 531
The Goddess and Bangaru Adigalar 532
Innovative Rituals and Tradition 532
The Goddess Focuses on Social Problems 533
Local and Pan-Indian Deity 533
Modern Astrologers 535
Translators and Educators 535
The Appeal to (and of) Nadigranthas 537
Cultural Transmission and Western Practitioners 538
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi 542
Biography 542
Concepts and Practices 545
Tht Bhagavadgita 549
Muktananda and Siddha Yoga 552
The Practices 555
Narayana Guru 559
Life and Education 559
Literary Works 560
Philosophy 561
Religious and Social Reforms 562
Radhaknshnan 566
Radhasoamis 572
The Utopian Society of Dayalbagh 572
The Spiritual Kingdom of Beas 576
Ramaknshna 573The Life and Teachings of Ramaknshna Primary Sources 578The Early Life of Ramaknshna 579
Spiritual Apprenticeship 580A Brahman Guru and Middle-Class Devotees 581The Gospel of Ramaknshna 582
Ramaknshna Math and Mission 586Emic and Etic Literature on the Ramaknshna Math and Mission 586The Origins and Early Development of the Ramaknshna Math and Mission 587Landmarks in the Subsequent Development of the Ramaknshna Math and Mission 590Conclusion 59I
Ramana Maharshi 594Life and Works 595
Philosophy 597Rammohun Roy 602
Rammohun's Life 602Rammohun's Works 604Rammohun's Ideas 606Rammohun's Legacy 608
TABLE OF CONTENTS XV
SaradaDevi 610
Sarada Devi and Sri Ramakrishna 610
Ramakrishna's Passing and the Emergence of the Holy Mother 613
Her Later Years Family Anxieties 616
Charisma, Wit, and Wisdom of the Holy Mother 617
Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami 619
Religious Lineage. Kadaitswami, Chellappaswami, and Yogaswami 622
The Hinduism Today Magazine 623
Sathya Sai Baba 625
The Conquest of Death Charisma in the Imagination, Globalization, and Transcendence 625
Constructing the Sacred Person in Indie Theology. A Philosophy of Intimate Charisma 625
Sathya Sai Baba's Life Story, Personhood, and Charisma 626
Extending Sacred Personhood and Charisma 628
Theories of Charisma and Sathya Sai Baba's Personhood Relationahty, Affect,
and Persuasiveness 629
Constructing and Deploying Sacred Personhood, Strategies, Narratives, Durabilities,and Logics 630
Beyond Humanity and Divinity. Tactical Captivity and Strategic Liberation 631
Towards Nomadic Charisma 631
Satnamis 634
Satnamis in Early Modern India 634
The Satnampanth of Chhattisgarh 635
Formation of the Satnampanth 635
Critical Elaborations 637
Issues of Gender 639
Questions of Politics 639
Shirdi Sai Baba 641
The Life 641
The Teachings 646
Conclusion 648
Sivananda and the Divine Life Society 651
Sivananda and M Eliade 652
Sivananda and Tantrism 653
Building the Divine Life Society 654
Sivananda and the All-India Tour 655
Creating a Transnational Community: The Divine Life Society and Worldwide Yoga 657
Swadhyaya Movement and Pandurang Shastn Athavale 659
Swadhyaya after Athavale 662
Swaminarayan and Swaminarayan Hinduism 664
The Life Story of Sahajanand Swami 664
Swaminarayan Teachings 665
Swaminarayan Social Reform and Discipline 666
Division 668
Transnational expansion 670
Conclusion 671
Tagore 672
Budding Poet 672
Religious Training and Experiences 672
Jivandevata, God of Life 673
Public Universahst Hinduism and the Hindu Nation 674
Theology of Hindu Modernity 675
The Religion of Man 677
Theosophical Society 679
Theosophy, Evolution, and Spirituality 684
"No Religion Higher Than Truth" 686
Vivekananda 689
Vivekananda's Life 689
Points of Contention 691
Xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS
Vivekananda's Works 692
Vivekananda's Ideas 692
Vnekananda's Legacy 695
Vivekananda Kendra 698
Eknath Ranade, the Founder of the Vlvekananda Kendra 699
Emic and Etic Literature on the Vivekananda Kendra 699
The Origins and Development of the Vivekananda Kendra 700
Vivekananda Kendra's Yoga Way of Life 702
Conclusion 703
Yogananda and the Self-Realization Fellowship 704
Early Life in India 704
Traveling 705
Autobiography ofa Yogi and Intersections 705
Self-Realization Fellowship-Then and Today 709
Conclusion 711
AppendixDevadasls/Courtesans 715
Courtesans between Power, Shame, and Fame 715
Power The Eye of the Beholder 716
Power A Logic of Practice 717
Between Shame and Fame Shame 720
Between Shame and Fame Fame 722
Pow er Revisited 723
Hinduism and Dravidian Identity 725
The First Key Moment. The Separation of Brahmans and Non-Brahmans 726
The Second Key Moment Linking Dravidian Ideology with Tamil Saivism and Saiva Siddhanta...
728
The Indigenization of Dravidian Ideology 728
P Sundaram Pillay (1855-1897) 729
J M Nallaswami Pillai (1864-1920) 730
Maraimalai Adigal (1876-1950) 731
Feminism 734
The Woman Question 734
Catalyst by Elite Men 734
Women's Voices 737
Post-Independence and Post-colonial Feminisms Methods and Issues 741
Nature and Praxis of Feminism 742
Interventions 743
Nationalism 750
Early Developments 750
Who Is a Hindu? 753
The Sangh Panvar 755
Conclusion 758
Politics and Media 760
Media and Religion in Colonial India 760
Media Theory and Practice in the Era of National Independence 761
A New Phase of Hinduism? 764
Mediatic Differences and Linguistic Divisions 766
Conclusion 767
Glossary 771
Sections for Future Volumes 775
Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Volume VI:
Index
Edited byKnut A. Jacobsen
(Editor-in-Chief)
Associate Editors
Helene Basu
Angelika Malinar
Vasudha Narayanan
s
1 6 8 "!>
BRILL
LEIDEN • BOSTON
2015
Table of Contents, Volume VI
Prelims
Table of Contents, Volumes I-VI
Preface
List of Editors and Contributors
Notes for Users
Primary Sources
Primary Source Abbreviations
Journals and Series
General Abbreviations
Narmada
Saiva Texts
Lay Saivism
Initiatory Saivism
ChronologyThe AtimargaThe MantramargaThe Saiddhantika ScripturesThe Saiddhantika ExegesisThe Siddhanta s Pratisthatantras and PratisthapaddhatisSaiddhantika Liturgical HymnographyThe Scriptures of the Non Saiddhantika MantramargaClassifications of the Mantramarga s ScripturesThe Non Saiddhantika Mantramarga s ExegesisThe Kulamarga
Exegetical Literature of the KulamargaSalvific Alchemy and Procedures for Victory m Battle
Pratyabhijna and SpandapratyabhijnaNon Saiddhantika Saiva HymnographyLater DevelopmentsNonprescnptive Evidence
Hinduism and JudaismIndo Judaic Studies and the Jews of India
The Comparative Study of Hinduism and Judaism
Hindu Jewish DialoguesSecularism
Secularism and Religion State Relations in Modern India
Meanings of Secularism
Religion and State in the Colonial Era
Independence and the Constitution
Contemporary Practices and Problems
Secularism A Search for Conceptual SpacesBackground Conditions
Hinduism
The Idea of Conceptual Spaces
Background Conditions of Religious Freedom in the Ancient Hindu World
Secular Elements in the Pre nationalist World of Hindus
Guru Pir Tradition
© Komnkhjke Brill NV Leiden 2014
Also available online - www brill com
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Akbar 64
Unorthodox Social Movements in the 19th and Early 20th Century 66
Ancient Ideas in New Forms. Gandhian Secularism 67
Political Hinduism and Political Secularism 68
Nagas 72
Tnmurti 81
Historical Development 81
Iconographic Testimonies 85
Western Encounters 86
Conclusion 88
Austria 91
"Hindus" and the "Hindu Religious Organization Austria" 91
Hindu Mandir Gemeinschaft (Hindu Mandir Community), Vienna 92
Hindu Mandir Gesellschaft (Hindu Mandir Association), Vienna 92
Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Sanstha 93
Sri Sri Radha-Govinda Mandir (Gaudiya Math Vienna) 93
Sri Hari Om Sanatan Dharm Mandir 94
Conclusion 94
Germany 95
"Indian" Migration to Germany 95
Low-scale Organizations as Associations 95
Temples and Communities of Tamil Hindus 96
Afghan Hindus 97
Further Tokens of Plurality 98
Conclusion Hindus in Public Society 98
Brahma Kumans and Dada Lekhraj 100
Founder Dada Lekhraj and His Vision 100
The Early Years. Om Mandali and the Move to Mount Abu 102
The Teachings of the Brahma Kumans 102
Membership and Practice 105
The Movement Today 106
General Index 109
Additional Indices 401
Gods, Goddesses, and Powers 403
Groups of Gods, Goddesses, and Powers 420
Religious and/or Philosophical Traditions (pre-1900) 423
Religious Specialists/Roles 427
Poets, Teachers, Saints (pre-1900) 431
Festivals 446
Performance Traditions 449
Primary Sources 451
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