-
BriefingMay 2016
EPRS | European Parliamentary Research ServiceAuthor: Martin
RussellMembers' Research Service
ENPE 582.045
Religious pluralism in IndonesiaHarmonious traditions face
challenges
SUMMARY
A mosaic of cultures, languages and religions, Indonesia shares
not only the EU's motto(Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, Unity in Diversity),
but also many of its values, such astolerance, pluralism and, since
the 1998 downfall of former dictator Suharto, alsodemocracy. With
many other Muslim-majority states torn by conflicts and
persecutionof religious minorities, Indonesia stands out as an
example of a country wheredifferent faiths are able to co-exist
harmoniously.
Despite this globally positive picture, there are some concerns
about religiousfreedoms in the country. It is true that the rights
of the largest minorities, such as theChristians and Hindus, are
enshrined in primary and secondary legislation. On theother hand,
blasphemy laws have been used to repress smaller minorities, and
somerecently adopted legislation reflects Islamic values.
The wave of intercommunal violence which broke out after
Suharto's downfall hassince subsided, but occasional attacks
continue against certain minorities such as Shiaand Ahmadi Muslims.
While the number of such incidents is very low for a country
ofIndonesia's size, they point to wider underlying intolerance.
Over the years, the Indonesian authorities have not done enough
to promote religiouspluralism, sometimes showing bias against
minorities. New president Joko Widodomade tolerance one of his
priorities, and since he took office in 2014 his governmenthas made
some encouraging gestures. However, there are as yet no signs of
realchange on the ground.
Istiqlal Mosque in Jakarta, Southeast Asia's largest mosque.
In this briefing: Indonesia's heterogeneous cultural
mix Legislative framework for religious
freedom Interreligious relations The threat of radicalisation
Official responses to interreligious
violence and intolerance Position of the European Parliament
Main references
-
EPRS Religious pluralism in Indonesia
Members' Research Service Page 2 of 12
Indonesia's heterogeneous cultural mixIndonesia's population of
237 million comprises 19 ethnic groups with a population ofone
million or more, speaking around 700 regional languages, scattered
across over6 000 inhabited islands.
Figure 1: Ethnic groups (% population) Main languages Main
religions(language used in daily life)
Data: 2010 Indonesian census. The discrepancy between ethnic
groups and languages is due to the fact thatnumerous Indonesians
have switched from regional languages such as Javanese to Bahasa
Indonesia, the nationallanguage, which is based on Malay.
Main religions of IndonesiaIslam was brought to Indonesia by
Arab traders and missionaries in the 13th century;over the next 300
years, it displaced Hinduism as the dominant religion.
However,pockets of Hinduism remain, particularly in Bali and some
parts of Java. The majority ofIndonesian Chinese are Buddhist,
while Portuguese and Dutch colonial rule (16th-20thcenturies)
brought Protestantism to Papua and North Sulawesi, and Catholicism
toFlores and Timor.Religion Geographical spread Number of believers
(% of total population)
Islam Throughout the country 207 million (87%)Within this
dominant religion, the vast majority are Sunni Muslims.Shia Islam
Java, Madura, SumatraAlthough Shiites were some of the earliest
Muslims to arrive in Indonesia , they are now only a small minority
(estimated atbetween 1-3 million), and encounter significant
discrimination.Ahmadi Islam JavaAhmadi Islam originated in 19th
century India, based on the belief that Punjabi cleric Mirza Ghulam
Ahmad was Mohammed'ssuccessor. Around 400 000 Ahmadis form one of
the country's most persecuted minorities.Protestantism Papua, North
Sulawesi, Maluku 16.5 million (7.0%)Brought by Dutch and other
European missionaries. Numerous denominations, including Reformed,
Calvinist, Evangelical, etc.Catholicism Flores, West Timor, Papua
6.9 million (2.9%)The first Catholic missionaries arrived in
Indonesia from Portugal in the 15th century. Under Dutch colonial
rule, Catholicism wassuppressed until the early 19th
century.Hinduism Bali, Java, Kalimantan 4 million (1.7%)Displaced
from the rest of the country by Islam, Hinduism remains strong in
Bali. It is also practised by some minorities in Java.Buddhism
Java, North Sumatra, West Kalimantan 1.7 million (0.7%)The vast
majority of Indonesian Buddhists are Chinese (Indonesia's 3 million
Chinese are split between the main religions asfollows: 53%
Buddhist, 35% Christian, 5.4% Muslim, 3.9% Confucian)Confucianism
Bangka Belitung (Sumatra), West Kalimantan, Java 117 000 (0.05%)By
far the smallest of the six officially recognised religions; again,
most followers are Chinese.Indigenous religions Java, Kalimantan,
Papua Estimates range from 10 to 20 million (4-8%)Many followers of
indigenous belief systems, such as animism, combine them with other
religions, such as Islam.
Data: 2010 Indonesian census.
Islam in IndonesiaBrought to south-east Asia by commerce (rather
than military conquest, as in NorthAfrica), Islam was able to
co-exist peacefully with the Hindu practices and
traditionalanimistic belief systems preceding it, and the Christian
churches which arrived duringthe colonial period.
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.htmlhttps://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.htmlhttp://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan
penduduk
indonesia/index.htmlhttp://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_109_2.asphttp://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_109_2.asphttp://www.reformiert-online.net/weltweit/64_eng.phphttp://time.com/3101443/hindu-tenggerese-festival-indonesia/http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=39755073&site=ehost-livehttps://www.amnesty.nl/sites/default/files/public/blasphemy_report_indonesia_web.pdfhttp://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_109_2.asphttp://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan
penduduk indonesia/index.html
-
EPRS Religious pluralism in Indonesia
Members' Research Service Page 3 of 12
Two contrasting tendencies have emerged: on the one hand, a
peculiarly Indonesiantraditional syncretism combining Islam with
elements from other religions, and on theother, since the late 19th
century, a move to purify the religion from extraneouspractices,
partly driven by Middle Eastern influences.
Traditional 'Archipelago Islam' combines elements from different
religionsIn Muslim Java, performances of Hindu epics such as the
Ramayana are central to theculture; many Javanese also combine
their Islamic beliefs with animistic practices suchas ancestor
worship, shamanism and attachment to holy places such as Mount
Bromo.Since 1926, followers of these syncretic Muslim traditions –
sometimes referred to asIslam Nusantara, 'Archipelago Islam' – have
been represented by the Nahdlatul Ulamamovement, with 50 million
members.
Efforts to purify Islamic practices reflect Middle Eastern
influencesNot all Indonesian Muslims are in favour of this mixing
of religious customs. In the late19th century, Wahhabism and
Salafism became increasingly influential in Indonesia, notleast due
to the growing number of pilgrims travelling to Mecca. Alongside
thecontinuing popularity of the Haj (nearly 170 000 travelled in
2015, with thousands moreon a waiting list), Middle Eastern
influences are channelled through Saudi and Qatarifunding for
religious schools and militant groups.
Reflecting these influences, the Muhammadiyah movement was set
up in 1912 to'purify religious practices that obviously violate the
Islamic teachings in the forms ofsuperstition or heresy'; it now
has 29 million members. Despite this emphasis on
purity,Muhammadiyah does not advocate intolerance towards other
religions, for exampleopening its school buildings in 2005 to
Christians lacking their own venues to celebrateChristmas.
A rising tide of piety among Indonesian MuslimsSince
democratisation following the end of President Suharto's
authoritarian rule in1998, orthodoxy has also spread to all areas
of daily life. A growing number of Muslimwomen wear 'jilbabs'
(headscarves) – formerly a personal choice, now virtuallycompulsory
in certain situations. Demand for halal food is on the rise, and
Islamicfinancial institutions grew twice as fast as the rest of the
banking sector in 2014. Newlegislation also reflects Islamic values
(see following section).
The legislative framework for religious freedomPrimary and
secondary legislation guarantees freedom of worship for the
country'smain religions, but with an intrinsic bias towards the
Muslim majority.
The constitution enshrines religious diversityIndonesia is a
non-sectarian, but not a secular state. Sukarno, the country's
firstpresident, wanted to include all Indonesians, and not only the
Muslim majority.Accordingly, the 1945 Constitution and the official
Pancasila ('Five Principles') stateideology enshrined in its
preamble refer to 'belief in the One and Only God' (using
theneutral term 'Ketuhanan' – deity, rather than the Muslim Allah)
as the basis forIndonesian statehood. In addition, freedom of
worship is guaranteed by Article 29 ofthe Constitution.
On the other hand, this emphasis on 'one God' excludes not only
atheists but also non-monotheistic faiths; for example, in the
1950s Hindus were declared as being withoutreligion and therefore
in need of conversion to Islam. In order to gain
recognition,Indonesian Hindus and Buddhists and animists have had
to adapt by declaring their
http://qz.com/456563/in-the-worlds-largest-muslim-nation-hindu-epics-survive-and-thrive/http://livinginindonesia.info/item/religion-mysticismhttps://kudubatja.wordpress.com/2014/12/28/bromo-the-holy-mountain-of-east-java/https://en.qantara.de/content/indonesia-confronts-extremists-with-own-brand-of-islamhttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/indonesian-muslims-counter-isis_us_565c737ae4b072e9d1c26bdahttp://www.europarl.europa.eu/EPRS/EPRS-Briefing-568339-Understanding-branches-Islam-FINAL.pdfhttp://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/09/21/indonesian-pilgrims-flock-overcrowded-mecca.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2003/07/05/international/asia/05INDO.htmlhttp://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/organizations/muhammadiyahhttp://www.muhammadiyah.or.id/en/content-176-det-ciri-perjuangan.htmlhttp://www.indonesiamatters.com/56/muhammdiyah-offer-places-for-christians/http://www.insideindonesia.org/no-longer-a-choicehttp://www.insideindonesia.org/no-longer-a-choicehttp://www.daganghalal.com/HalalInfo/HalalArticlesDtl.aspx?id=218http://www.reuters.com/article/indonesia-banking-islamicfunds-rules-idUSL6N0TA04P20141120http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---ilo_aids/documents/legaldocument/wcms_174556.pdfhttp://www.indonesianembassy.org.uk/human_right-2.htmhttp://everything.explained.today/Hinduism_in_Indonesia/http://everything.explained.today/Hinduism_in_Indonesia/
-
EPRS Religious pluralism in Indonesia
Members' Research Service Page 4 of 12
belief in supreme beings, named Sanghyang Acintya (for Hindus)
and Sanghyang AdiBuddha (for Buddhists); for their part, Dayak
animists from Central Kalimantan (Borneo)affiliated themselves to
Hinduism after it became an official religion, despite havinglittle
in common with its core beliefs.
Secondary legislation protects official religions, but does not
recognise other beliefsAccording to a presidential decree enacted
in 1965, Indonesia has six official religions:Islam, Protestantism,
Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism. Official
statusprovides protection from 'abuse and defamation' as well as,
since 2003, the right forchildren to receive religious education at
school from members of their own religion.This means that even in
Muslim-majority schools, Christian pupils learn aboutChristianity
during two lessons per week from fellow Christians. Not only
Islamicfestivals, but also the main festivals of four other
official religions, such as Christmasand Diwali, are public
holidays throughout Indonesia.
While non-official religions are not forbidden, practitioners
are required to identifythemselves as belonging to one of the six
official religions for administrative purposes,for example on
documents such as birth and marriage certificates, as well as
identitycards. Only since 2006 has it been possible to indicate
other religions by way of a minussign on identity cards, but very
few have made use of this option (in the 2010 census,just 0.13%
declared themselves as having another religion), and a recent
proposal todrop religious affiliation from identity cards
altogether has run into strong opposition.Membership of an official
religion is still required in order to work in the civil
service:after posting atheistic comments on Facebook in 2012, local
government officialAlexander Aan was sentenced to two and a half
years in jail, among other things forfalsely claiming to be a
Muslim in order to get his job.
Blasphemy laws occasionally used to repress non-official
religious minoritiesThe same presidential decree that established
Indonesia's six official religions prohibitspublic 'interpretation
and activities ... in deviation of the basic teachings' of a
religion.Between 2005 and 2014, this and related laws were used in
39 cases to impose heavyfines and jail sentences of up to six years
on over 100 individuals, for offences rangingfrom leading prayers
in Indonesian rather than Arabic, disseminating hereticalteachings,
leading 'deviant' sects, proselytising for non-official religions,
disruptingworship and making insulting remarks about Islam.
Blasphemy laws were mainly used in defence of Islam (37 out of
39 cases; of the tworemaining, one was in relation to Catholicism,
the other to Hinduism). In addition tomembers of a variety of
(mostly Islamic) small sects, those convicted included twoBaha'is,
one Shiite cleric and one atheist.
Paradoxically, the number of blasphemy cases has grown since
post-1998democratisation: under former President Yudhoyono
(2004-2014), ten times as manywere sentenced as during the 33 years
of Suharto's repressive rule. However, thisnumber is still very low
in relation to Indonesia's population of 237 million.
New legislation inspired by Islamic valuesAnti-pornography
legislation potentially threatens minority traditionsDemocracy has
also brought a wave of Islamic-inspired new legislation as
politicians viefor the Muslim vote. An Islamic agenda is driven by
parties across the board, not only bythe four Islamic parties
currently holding 31% of seats in the country's parliament.
Atnational level, this includes a 2008 law on pornography and
porno-action, which among
http://everything.explained.today/Acintya/http://www.undv.org/vesak2012/iabudoc/05WilisFINAL.pdfhttp://www.undv.org/vesak2012/iabudoc/05WilisFINAL.pdfhttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/26/world/asia/borneo-tribe-practices-its-own-kind-of-hinduism.html?pagewanted=all&action=click&module=Search®ion=searchResults%230&version=&url=http%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fsearch%2Fsitesearch%2F%3Faction%3Dclick%26region%3DMasthead%26pgtype%3DHomepage%26module%3DSearchSubmit%26contentCollection%3DHomepage%26t%3Dqry62%23%2FDayak&_r=0http://www.dpr.go.id/dokjdih/document/uu/UU_1965_1.pdfhttp://www.insideindonesia.org/teaching-religious-tolerancehttp://asianews.it/index.php?art=32640&l=enhttp://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/may/03/indonesia-atheists-religious-freedom-aanhttp://www.amnestyusa.org/sites/default/files/_index-_asa_210182014.pdfhttp://www.amnestyusa.org/sites/default/files/_index-_asa_210182014.pdfhttp://www.insideindonesia.org/hot-debates
-
EPRS Religious pluralism in Indonesia
Members' Research Service Page 5 of 12
other things outlaws scanty dress and kissing in public, except
in certain ill-definedsituations.
The vague wording of this legislation means that it could
potentially be used to restrictcertain cultural practices, such as
the low-cut dresses worn in Bali and parts of Java,near-nudity
among some of the indigenous peoples of Papua, and sexually
evocativetraditional dances. It has therefore been criticised by
representatives of Christian andHindu minorities, such as the
members of the Bali and North Sulawesi regionalparliaments, as well
as by Papuan church leaders and politicians. Other opponentsinclude
Muslim moderates defending pluralism, and women's groups who argue
thatthe new law restricts their rights.
Sharia-inspired regional legislationUsing the extensive powers
devolved to them since 1999, provinces and districts haveadopted
their own 'perda syariah' (Sharia regulations). As many as 440 of
these Sharia-inspired by-laws have been adopted, mostly in regions
with large Muslim majorities andtraditions of Islamist militancy,
such as West Java, East Java and South Sulawesi.
Restrictions on alcohol sales, gambling and prostitution can be
defended on the groundsof protecting public health and morality.
However, some of these rules clearly promotespecifically Muslim
values, for example by requiring women (including non-Muslims)
towear headscarves, imposing compulsory donations to the poor (in
line with the Islamicprinciple of giving, 'zakat'), or obliging
local government officials to read the Koran everyFriday. They have
been criticised not only for discriminating against religious
minorities,but also on constitutional grounds: firstly, religious
matters have not been devolved tothe regional or district level;
secondly, the authors of Indonesia's 1945 Constitutiondropped the
words requiring Muslims to comply with Sharia law from a previous
text,an argument for considering Sharia incompatible with the
spirit of the Constitution.
Sharia law in AcehWhile some Indonesian regions have adopted
Sharia-inspired laws, the only province toapply Sharia more broadly
is Aceh in northern Sumatra, which was granted the right todo so as
part of a 2005 agreement ending a 30-year separatist insurgency.
Described asIndonesia's 'Verandah of Mecca', the province was one
of the first parts of thearchipelago where Islam gained a foothold,
and also has the highest percentage ofMuslims (98.2%, compared to
the national average of 87%). Its criminal code hasintroduced
caning for gambling, gay sex and extra-marital sex (on the other
hand, aproposal to stone adulterers was blocked by the provincial
governor). The extent towhich these rules apply to the province's
80 000 non-Muslim residents is unclear.
Inter-religious relationsIn most parts of the country religious
communities co-exist harmoniously. However,there was an upsurge in
violence around the millennium in certain hotspots; since thenthe
situation has calmed, with only isolated clashes but continuing
tensions.
http://www.insideindonesia.org/hot-debateshttp://www.thenational.ae/news/world/asia-pacific/ministers-bid-to-ban-miniskirts-using-anti-pornography-law-angers-indonesian-womenhttp://www.globalisationanddevelopment.com/2011/06/decentralisation-of-indonesia-what.htmlhttp://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/e2915158-4a42-11e5-9b5d-89a026fda5c9.htmlhttp://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/e2915158-4a42-11e5-9b5d-89a026fda5c9.htmlhttps://asiafoundation.org/resources/pdfs/ShariaRegulations08RobinBush.pdfhttp://www.asianews.it/news-en/West-Java:-Tasikmalaya-authorities-impose-Sharia-law-and-compulsory-veil-24989.htmlhttp://islamizationwatch.blogspot.be/2009/10/indonesia-muslim-civil-servants-in.htmlhttp://nicholasparsons.net/Parsons
and
Mietzner.pdfhttp://pancasilaislam.blogspot.be/2010/02/jakarta-charter-is-not-islamic-law.htmlhttp://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/e2915158-4a42-11e5-9b5d-89a026fda5c9.htmlhttp://papanidea.com/2011/07/history-of-aceh-the-veranda-of-mecca/http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan
penduduk
indonesia/index.htmlhttp://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-10-24/indonesian-aceh-province-enacts-islamic-sharia-criminal-code/6882346http://www.benarnews.org/english/news/indonesian/Qanun-Non-Muslims-10272015155848.html
-
EPRS Religious pluralism in Indonesia
Members' Research Service Page 6 of 12
Figu
re 2
:Int
erco
mm
unal
con
flict
and
relig
ious
into
lera
nce
in In
done
sia,
199
6-20
16
Data
:Set
ara
Inst
itute
.
http://setara-institute.org/
-
EPRS Religious pluralism in Indonesia
Members' Research Service Page 7 of 12
Intercommunal violence breaks out after the downfall of
Suharto's regimeThe fall of President Suharto's authoritarian
regime in 1998 unleashed a wave ofviolence across the country,
lasting for several years. Anti-Chinese riots in the finalweeks of
Suharto's rule left hundreds dead. In 2001, following earlier
clashes in 1996,Dayak headhunters in Central Kalimantan (Borneo)
massacred hundreds of Muslimmigrants from Madura Island and drove
tens of thousands from their homes. Even moredeadly, intercommunal
conflicts between Christians (mostly Protestant) and Muslims inthe
Maluku islands between 1999 and 2002 killed thousands and left many
morehomeless; violence flared up again in the same region in 2011,
though on a muchsmaller scale.
Religious intolerance not necessarily the main cause of
intercommunal violenceEven though each of these incidents pitted
religious communities against one another,religious differences
were probably not the main cause. Anti-Chinese riots
targetedChinese shops and homes rather than temples and churches,
and violence appears tohave been fuelled by resentment against the
prosperity enjoyed by many Chinese at atime of economic crisis,
deliberate provocation by the security forces, and
long-standingsuspicion of a minority until recently classified in
Indonesian law as 'non-native'.
In the Maluku islands, waves of mostly Muslim migrants,
including under government-sponsored transmigration programmes,
tipped the demographic balance away from thelocal Christians, the
majority group until the 1990s. Violence appears to have
beentriggered by Christian resentment of Muslim migrants and fear
of losing power and jobsto them. In Kalimantan (Indonesia's part of
the island of Borneo), once again migrants,many of whom had moved
there as participants in transmigration programmes, weretargeted by
attacks.
Violence has subsided since the 2000s, but some tensions
continueSince the early 2000s, Indonesia's economic and political
situation has stabilised, andintercommunal violence has subsided.
In 2015 the Indonesian NGO, Setara Institute,1
which monitors religious freedom in the country, recorded 197
cases of religiousintolerance; these included 22 incidences of hate
speech and 16 of discrimination; therewere also four cases of
violence, one case of arson involving a place of worship and 13of
vandalism. Very similar figures are reported by the Wahid
Institute, anotherIndonesian NGO. Although both NGOs noted a
substantial increase in intolerance in2015, the numbers are still
very small for a population of 237 million.
Figure 3: incidents of religiousintolerance (2007-2015)
Victims of intolerance(2015)
Places of worshipattacked (2007-2014)
Data: Setara Institute, 2015 Freedom of Religion/Belief Report
(not yet published), and infographic. Religious intolerance
includes:violence, vandalism, and hate speech. Attacks on places of
worship include: vandalism, arson, demolition, and disruption of
worship.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3811219.stmhttp://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/maluku.htmhttp://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/south-east-asia/indonesia/B128-indonesia-trouble-again-in-ambon.aspxhttp://mprk.ugm.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Panggabean-Smith-Explaining-Anti-chinese-Riots-in-Late-20th-Century-Indonesia.pdfhttp://livinginindonesia.info/item/chinese-indonesianshttp://www.downtoearth-indonesia.org/old-site/ctrans.htmhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/602251.stmhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3811219.stmhttp://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2016/02/24/survey-finds-rise-faith-based-intolerance.htmlhttp://setara-institute.org/http://setara-institute.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/infografik-kbb-8-tahun_2007-2014-page-001.jpg
-
EPRS Religious pluralism in Indonesia
Members' Research Service Page 8 of 12
Certain regions and minorities are disproportionately
affectedWhile the overall number of incidents is very low, certain
regions and communities areparticularly affected. In 2015, the
provinces with the highest concentration ofintolerance were West
Java in absolute terms (44 incidents for a population of43 million)
and Aceh in per capita terms (34 incidents for a population of 4.5
million).These figures correlate with a 2015 government survey
measuring perceptions ofinterreligious harmony, which found that
perceived levels of intolerance were higher inMuslim-majority
regions such as Aceh, than in Muslim-minority regions such as
Papuaand Bali.
With regard to victims of intolerance, non-official religious
minorities such as Shiites andAhmadis are disproportionately
affected. One recent hotspot was Madura Island, offthe east coast
of Java, where Shiite communities have come under repeated attack.
InDecember 2011, a mob set fire to a Shiite boarding school on
Madura Island,permanently displacing several hundred people from
their homes. In August 2012,another mob attacked a Shiite school
group from the same area, leaving two dead andfive injured before
setting fire to several houses.
Ahmadis are also frequent targets; 90 of them have lived in
temporary accommodationsince their village in Lombok was destroyed
by rioters in 2005. In one particularlyhorrific incident in 2011,
rioters in West Java stormed a house where Ahmadis werepraying
before bludgeoning and stoning three of them to death. While no
killings werereported in 2015, the number of attacks remained high
(31 and 13 against Shiites andAhmadis respectively).
Christians are less frequently targeted by physical violence,
but have suffered numerousattacks on churches (163 between 2007 and
2014). This trend continued in 2015 inAceh, where a church was
torched by Muslim hardliners. In Indonesia as a whole,30 Christian
places of worship were either destroyed during the year by
rioters,demolished by the authorities over alleged construction
permit irregularities, or closeddown.
Other recent targets of violence include several thousand
followers of the nowdisbanded Gafatar sect (which combined elements
of Islam, Christianity and Judaism),who became homeless after a mob
set fire to their settlement in January 2016.
The Islamic Defenders Front, a radical Islamic vigilante
networkWhile most intercommunal violence is spontaneous rather than
organised, the IslamicDefenders Front (FPI) has played a prominent
role in inciting intolerance. Most of itsraids have targeted venues
such as nightclubs, brothels and massage parlours, but it hasalso
attacked religious minorities. For example, FPI activists
vandalised an Ahmadimosque in 2011, and have been involved in
attacks on Christian congregations2 andtheir buildings (in 2012,
they forced 19 churches to close down in just one week). In2014 its
members demonstrated against the appointment of a Christian
governor ofJakarta, arguing that only a Muslim could lead the city.
Altogether, the organisation wasinvolved in 13 cases of religious
intolerance in 2014, and again in 2015. Despitecommitting acts of
violence, the organisation has been able to operate with
impunityand enjoys widespread support both from public opinion and
political leaders; allegedly,at one point it even received police
funding.
http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2016/02/11/more-harmony-muslim-minority-regions.htmlhttp://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2016/02/11/more-harmony-muslim-minority-regions.htmlhttp://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/05/08/sampang-shia-peril.htmlhttp://jakartaglobe.beritasatu.com/archive/two-killed-as-hard-liners-attack-shia-school-group/https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/36000/asa210062010en.pdfhttp://europe.newsweek.com/persecution-indonesias-ahmadi-muslims-68737?rm=euhttp://foreignpolicy.com/2015/10/20/islamist-hardliners-attack-indonesian-churches/https://www.worldwatchmonitor.org/2015/12/article_4183571.html/http://www.smh.com.au/world/indonesia-cracks-down-on-deviant-sect-gafatar-after-village-burned-down-by-mob-20160125-gmdj11.htmlhttp://www.asianews.it/news-en/Jakarta-Police-Chief:-The-Islamic-Defence-Front-must-be-eliminated-32414.htmlhttp://www.asianews.it/news-en/Jakarta-Police-Chief:-The-Islamic-Defence-Front-must-be-eliminated-32414.htmlhttp://themuslimtimes.info/2012/10/26/indonesians-celebrate-eid-al-adha-2012/http://themuslimtimes.info/2012/10/26/indonesians-celebrate-eid-al-adha-2012/https://www.opendoorsusa.org/takeaction/pray/tag-prayer-updates-post/indonesian-churches-attacked-pastor-faces-prison/http://www.voanews.com/content/indonesian-islamists-protest-rise-of-christian-to-jakarta-governor/2461357.htmlhttp://setara-institute.org/en/english-local-administrations-main-violators-of-religious-freedom/http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Jakarta-Police-Chief:-The-Islamic-Defence-Front-must-be-eliminated-32414.htmlhttp://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/09/05/wikileaks-national-police-funded-fpi-hard-liners.html
-
EPRS Religious pluralism in Indonesia
Members' Research Service Page 9 of 12
Isolated incidents point to wider intoleranceIn some parts of
the country Christians see incidents such as those mentioned above
aspart of a pattern of growing persecution; some have even reported
an atmosphere offear, including among those not directly affected.
Moreover, although intolerance is notoften overtly expressed, it
can shape underlying attitudes, as surveys have consistentlyshown.
For example, nearly half the respondents to a 2009 poll carried out
in Jakartadeclared themselves in favour of outlawing Ahmadis; 34%
and 68% of respondentsrespectively to a 2012 Center of Strategic
and International Studies survey3 wouldobject to neighbours and
places of worship of other faiths in their neighbourhood;levels of
intolerance remained high even among those with a university
education.There is also little interest in learning about other
religions, with 87% of religiouseducation teachers opposed to
interfaith studies.
Radicalisation: a long-standing threat, though still
marginalIndonesia has a long tradition of Islamic extremism.In the
1940s and 1950s, Darul Islam declared an Islamic state in Indonesia
and led anarmed insurgency which for a while had control over large
areas of Java, Sulawesi andAceh. The Jemaah Islamiyah movement,
which split off from Darul Islam in 1993 andhad links to Al-Qaeda,
was fuelled by the return of jihadists from Afghanistan, wherethey
had fought alongside Mujahideen rebels; in 2002 it organised the
Bali bombing,which claimed over 200 victims. More recently,
ISIL/Da'esh has also gained a foothold inthe region.
However, radicalisation has been successfully containedAfter
Bali, the execution or imprisonment of most of Jemaah Islamiyah's
leaders put thegroup out of action for several years, and effective
counter-terrorism measures havemostly contained the terrorist
threat since then. The January 2016 terrorist attack inJakarta, for
which ISIL/Da'esh claimed responsibility, was the first major
incident sincetwo suicide bombers targeted Jakarta hotels in 2009.
Lacking effective coordination orsophisticated weaponry, the latter
incident failed to deliver a bloodbath, with only fourcivilian
casualties.
Only 400 Indonesian jihadists are fighting in Syria, around the
same number as fromBelgium, even though Indonesia's Muslim
population is three hundred times larger. Thecountry also scores
reasonably well in the 2015 Global Terrorism Index produced by
theInstitute for Economics and Peace, its 33rd place putting it on
a similar level to Franceand the United States, and ahead of the
United Kingdom.
Some concerns about future attacks remainThe return of
ISIL/Da'esh-affiliated jihadists from Syria could boost the group's
presencein Indonesia. A more serious threat for the time being is
newly resurgent JemaahIslamiyah, estimated to have 2 000 members,
though it has yet to strike. Indonesia'sNational Intelligence
Agency is calling for a 60% staff increase and additional powers
tohelp prevent future terrorist attacks.
Official responses to inter-religious violence and
intoleranceDespite a declared commitment to promoting
inter-religious dialogue, Indonesiangovernments have been less
successful in tackling religious intolerance than the threatof
radicalisation, and have often failed to stand up for minorities
facing intolerance.
http://www.dw.com/en/indonesias-christians-fear-persecution/av-16713148http://www.christianpost.com/news/indonesia-christians-living-in-fear-of-growing-intolerance-and-violence-91565/http://www.christianpost.com/news/indonesia-christians-living-in-fear-of-growing-intolerance-and-violence-91565/http://www.pwtp.org/ahmadi-persecution-at-its-extreme-indonesia/http://www.insideindonesia.org/teaching-religious-tolerancehttp://www.insideindonesia.org/teaching-religious-tolerancehttp://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/south-east-asia/indonesia/op-eds/jones-darul-islams-ongoing-appeal.aspxhttp://www.reuters.com/article/us-indonesia-usa-security-idUSTRE62H13F20100318http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-35312794http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-35312794http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-35310951http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-35310951http://www.i24news.tv/fr/actu/international/asie-pacifique/102937-160215-indonesie-des-militants-pro-ei-projetant-des-attaques-arretes-par-la-policehttp://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2015/11/belgium-radical-islam-jihad-molenbeek-isis/416235/http://economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Global-Terrorism-Index-2015.pdfhttp://news.trust.org/item/20160214230244-6quhm/?source=hpMostPopularTheWirehttp://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/wanted-2000-more-spies-for-indonesia
-
EPRS Religious pluralism in Indonesia
Members' Research Service Page 10 of 12
Government measures to promote inter-religious
dialogueIndonesia's Religious Affairs Ministry includes a Centre
for Inter-religious Harmony withan annual budget of around €10
million. Most of this funding is used to promotemoderate Islam
through interfaith discussion events, educational
programmes,publications and surveys.
In addition, since 2005 advisory Forums of Inter-religious
Harmony comprising therepresentatives of the six main religions
have been set up in nearly all of Indonesia's34 provinces and 405
districts. Their main purpose is to facilitate dialogue, for
exampleby issuing recommendations on regional by-laws with
religious implications and, inurban areas, planning permission for
new places of worship.
However, the effectiveness of these forums is often limited, as
the majority religion in agiven area also holds a majority of
seats, making it harder for minorities to assert theirinterests. If
anything, the forums have made it even harder to obtain building
permitsfor minority places of worship – still a major bone of
contention in Muslim-majorityareas (see below). Nor have they
improved the situation of non-official, and
thereforenon-represented, religious minorities.
National and regional governments side against non-official
minoritiesThe Indonesian government is often reluctant to stand up
for the rights of non-officialreligious minorities. For example,
after 60 Ahmadi activists at a Jakarta rally wereinjured by
Islamist militants in 2008, it responded by ordering Ahmadis to
stopspreading 'deviant' beliefs. Four years later, then Religious
Affairs Minister,Suryadharma Ali, suggested that Ahmadis and
Shiites targeted by mob violence shouldconvert to Sunni Islam to
prevent future clashes.
Regional authorities are equally non-supportive of minorities.
Rather than take effectiveaction to prevent violence, officials in
western Java have ignored a series of attacks onlocal Ahmadi
communities. In February 2011, these culminated in a brutal
massacre,during which policemen were seen watching helplessly as a
mob bludgeoned threeAhmadis to death. Authorities responded to this
with sentences of just a few months forringleaders, while clamping
down on Ahmadi activities. Meanwhile, a local governmentin Madura
caved in to majority pressure by ruling that hundreds of Shiites
driven fromtheir homes would not be allowed to return to the area
due to Sunni protests.
Local authorities reluctant to grant building permits for
churches in Muslim-majorityareasChristians have also been affected
by this bias, with local authorities in some parts ofthe country
unwilling to upset Muslim majorities by issuing construction
permits forchurches. In the West Java city of Bogor, a Protestant
congregation ended up having toworship on the pavement after the
city council refused to issue a permit, despite aSupreme Court
ruling in favour of the church. In Yogyakarta (adjacent to Central
Java) aPentecostal group without a church was attacked by Islamist
militants, only for itspastor to end up in court, accused of
violating a government ban on using privatehomes for religious
worship. In Aceh, after a church was destroyed by a mob,
theauthorities responded by demolishing several more, citing a lack
of building permits.
MUI: an advisory body which promotes intolerant policiesOfficial
intolerance often reflects the influence of the Majelis Ulama
Indonesia(Indonesian Ulama Council – MUI), a state-funded Muslim
clerical body which isregularly consulted by the government on
religious policy and legislation. For example
http://pkub.kemenag.go.id/index.php?a=artikel&id=17609&t=3609http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/41229d02-e4cc-11e5-a09b-1f8b0d268c39.htmlhttp://www.clubmadrid.org/img/secciones/SSP_II2_FKUB_Indonesia.pdfhttps://www.hrw.org/report/2013/02/28/religions-name/abuses-against-religious-minorities-indonesiahttps://www.hrw.org/report/2013/02/28/religions-name/abuses-against-religious-minorities-indonesiahttps://www.hrw.org/news/2008/06/10/indonesia-reverse-ban-ahmadiyah-secthttps://www.hrw.org/news/2008/06/10/indonesia-reverse-ban-ahmadiyah-secthttp://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/09/06/shia-conversion-solution-minister.htmlhttp://europe.newsweek.com/persecution-indonesias-ahmadi-muslims-68737?rm=euhttp://www.asiasentinel.com/society/indonesian-religious-radicals-attack-shiite-school-group/http://www.insideindonesia.org/religious-deviancy-and-lawhttp://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/05/08/sampang-shia-peril.htmlhttp://jakartaglobe.beritasatu.com/archive/supreme-court-upholds-permit-of-church-in-bogor/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2015/country-chapters/indonesiahttp://jakartaglobe.beritasatu.com/news/aceh-tears-churches-religious-violence/https://www.amnesty.nl/sites/default/files/public/blasphemy_report_indonesia_web.pdf
-
EPRS Religious pluralism in Indonesia
Members' Research Service Page 11 of 12
in 2016, after the MUI declared Gafatar incompatible with Islam,
Religious AffairsMinister Lukman Hakim Saifuddin branded the sect
as 'illegal' and a potential source ofradicalism.
The MUI has consistently opposed religious pluralism and
liberalism, which itcondemned in a 2005 fatwa. At one point it even
considered prohibiting Muslims fromwishing Christian neighbours a
merry Christmas. While it claims at national level toaccept Shia as
a legitimate form of Islam, Shiites are not represented in
theorganisation, and they have been branded by the MUI's East Java
branch as heretics.The MUI is even tougher on the Ahmadi minority,
issuing a fatwa against it in 2006.
The MUI's influence goes beyond its role in advising the
government. It was involved inseveral of the blasphemy cases
mentioned above, and though its fatwas are not legallybinding, they
help to fuel intolerance which in turn can lead to violence – for
example,Shiite villagers on Madura were attacked just months after
being denounced forblasphemy by the regional branch of the MUI.
According to the NGO, Setara Institute,the MUI was involved in 12
cases of religious intolerance in 2015.
Indonesia's new president makes encouraging gestures – but
little real changeA promising start for the new governmentAfter
widespread criticism of former President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono
(2004-2014)for his failure to promote religious harmony, new
President Joko Widodo (October2014–), popularly known as 'Jokowi',
has raised hopes for a new start. Tolerance wasone of the
priorities of his presidential election manifesto. It is
encouraging thatJokowi's deputies in his previous roles as mayor of
Solo and governor of Jakarta werefrom minorities (a Javanese
Catholic and a Chinese Protestant respectively; the latterhas since
become the capital's first non-Muslim governor in 50 years).
Initial proposals by the new Religious Affairs Minister, Lukman
Hakim Saifuddin,reflected this spirit of tolerance: a new law to
protect groups such as Shiites andAhmadis, among other things by
making it easier for them to build new places ofworship and defend
existing onesfrom attack; official status for theBaha'i, followed
by less than 0.1% ofIndonesia's population.
Government actions have not lived upto initial promise of
toleranceHowever, little progress has beenmade since then. The
proposal onBaha'is has not been taken up byInterior Minister Tjahjo
Kumulo, whilethe bill on protecting religiousminorities has been
stuck atparliamentary committee level forseveral months; unless it
can garnerthe support of the three Islamicparties in the governing
coalition, it seems unlikely to succeed.
Despite his reputation for tolerance, recent statements by
Lukman have tendedtowards Islamic orthodoxy. In mid-2015 he came
down in opposition to interfaith
The Gafatar sectEstablished in 2012, Gafatar mixes elements
ofIslam, Christianity and Judaism. Treatment ofthe sect shows how
little has changed underthe new government: after the MUI
denouncedthe sect as 'criminal' and 'heretical', a mobtorched a
Gafatar settlement in Borneo inJanuary 2016. Over 5 000 members of
the secthave been evacuated from the area and are tobe re-educated
by the authorities in order togive them an 'understanding of the
real Islam'.Religious Affairs Minister Lukman has describedthe
group as 'illegal' but has not identified anyviolations of
Indonesian law.
http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2016/01/13/controversial-gafatar-group-govts-radar.htmlhttp://jis.oxfordjournals.org/content/18/2/202.short?rss=1&ssource=mfchttp://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/12/23/the-controversy-over-merry-xmas-where-s-fatwa.htmlhttp://foreignpolicy.com/2012/09/07/indonesias-shiite-minority-feels-the-heat/https://www.alislam.org/http://setara-institute.org/en/english-local-administrations-main-violators-of-religious-freedom/https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/08/25/president-yudhoyonos-blind-side-religious-violence-indonesiahttps://walizahid.com/2014/07/president-jokowis-9-priorities-for-indonesia/http://www.asianews.it/news-en/A-Muslim-and-two-Christians-lead-in-Jakarta-politics-25271.htmlhttp://time.com/3594125/indonesia-jakarta-chinese-christian-governor-joko-widodo-jokowi-ahok-basuki-purnama/http://www.loc.gov/law/foreign-news/article/indonesia-law-proposed-to-protect-religious-minorities/http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_109_2.asphttp://jakartaglobe.beritasatu.com/news/mui-urges-govt-disband-heretical-gafatar/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/44ef9206-ca54-11e5-be0b-b7ece4e953a0.htmlhttp://nasional.kompas.com/read/2014/11/10/15421751/Kendati.Dilindungi.Konstitusi.Baha.i.Belum.Bisa.Dicantumkan.di.KTPhttp://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/44ef9206-ca54-11e5-be0b-b7ece4e953a0.htmlhttp://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/44ef9206-ca54-11e5-be0b-b7ece4e953a0.htmlhttp://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2016/01/13/controversial-gafatar-group-govts-radar.htmlhttp://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/09/22/tolerant-religion-minister-wanted.html
-
EPRS Religious pluralism in Indonesia
Members' Research Service Page 12 of 12
marriages, ruling out a more flexible interpretation of the law
that would have allowedthem.
The spread of Islamic-inspired legislation continues under the
new government, withnew restrictions on the sale of alcohol in
small shops, and further laws banning drinking,gambling and
prostitution under consideration.
No real improvement in the situation of religious
minoritiesFigures from the Setara Institute show that, compared to
2014, cases of intoleranceincreased by over 50% during 2015, the
first full year of Jokowi's presidency (althoughthey were still
fewer than in most of the preceding years). Criminal prosecutions
forblasphemy remained at a similar level to previous years – nine
cases in 2015, comparedto ten in 2014 and one in 2013.
Position of the European Parliament
The EP resolution of 7 July 2011 on Indonesia welcomed the
Indonesian government'sstatement on upholding pluralism, expressed
concerns about violence against Ahmadis andother groups, noted that
violations of religious freedom undermine the rights guaranteed in
thecountry's Constitution, pointed to potential abuse of
legislation on blasphemy and heresy, andapplauded the work of
Indonesian civil society in defending religious harmony.
Main referencesProsecuting Beliefs: Indonesia's Blasphemy Laws,
Amnesty International, 2014.
Muslim Democracy: Politics, Religion and Society in Indonesia,
Turkey and the Islamic World,Schneier E., Routledge, 2016.
Politik Harapan Minim Pembuktian (Policies of Hope not
Delivering Results), 2015 Freedom ofReligion/Belief Report, Setara
Institute, 2016 (not yet published).
Endnotes1 Unpublished figures, to be included in the Setara
Institute's 2015 Freedom of Religion/Belief Report.2 Also
documented in the Setara Insitute's 2014 Freedom of Religion/Belief
Report.3 Figures from Survei: Toleransi Beragama Orang Indonesia
Rendah (Survey: Religious Tolerance Low in Indonesia),
tempo.co.
Disclaimer and CopyrightThe content of this document is the sole
responsibility of the author and any opinions expressed thereindo
not necessarily represent the official position of the European
Parliament. It is addressed to theMembers and staff of the EP for
their parliamentary work. Reproduction and translation for
non-commercial purposes are authorised, provided the source is
acknowledged and the European Parliament isgiven prior notice and
sent a copy.
© European Union, 2016.
Photo credits: © amadeustx / Fotolia.
[email protected]://www.eprs.ep.parl.union.eu
(intranet)http://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank
(internet)http://epthinktank.eu (blog)
http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/06/24/minister-backs-mk-ruling-interfaith-marriages.htmlhttp://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-32330135http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-35055487http://setara-institute.org/en/english-local-administrations-main-violators-of-religious-freedom/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-%2f%2fEP%2f%2fTEXT%2bTA%2bP7-TA-2011-0341%2b0%2bDOC%2bXML%2bV0%2f%2fEN&language=ENhttp://www.amnestyusa.org/sites/default/files/_index-_asa_210182014.pdfhttp://setara-institute.org/book-review/from-stagnation-to-pick-the-new-hopes/http://nasional.tempo.co/read/news/2012/06/05/173408521/survei-toleransi-beragama-orang-indonesia-rendahmailto:[email protected]://www.eprs.ep.parl.union.eu/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktankhttp://epthinktank.eu/
Indonesia's heterogeneous cultural mixMain religions of
IndonesiaReligion Geographical spread Number of believers (% of
total population) Islam Throughout the country 207 million (87%)
Within this dominant religion, the vast majority are Sunni Muslims.
Shia Islam Java, Madura, Sumatra Although Shiites were some of the
earliest Muslims to arrive in Indonesia , they are now only a small
minority (estimated at between 1-3 million), and encounter
significant discrimination. Ahmadi Islam Java Ahmadi Islam
originated in 19th century India, based on the belief that Punjabi
cleric Mirza Ghulam Ahmad was Mohammed's successor. Around 400 000
Ahmadis form one of the country's most persecuted minorities.
Protestantism Papua, North Sulawesi, Maluku 16.5 million (7.0%)
Brought by Dutch and other European missionaries. Numerous
denominations, including Reformed, Calvinist, Evangelical, etc.
Catholicism Flores, West Timor, Papua 6.9 million (2.9%) The first
Catholic missionaries arrived in Indonesia from Portugal in the
15th century. Under Dutch colonial rule, Catholicism was suppressed
until the early 19th century. Hinduism Bali, Java, Kalimantan 4
million (1.7%) Displaced from the rest of the country by Islam,
Hinduism remains strong in Bali. It is also practised by some
minorities in Java. Buddhism Java, North Sumatra, West Kalimantan
1.7 million (0.7%) The vast majority of Indonesian Buddhists are
Chinese (Indonesia's 3 million Chinese are split between the main
religions as follows: 53% Buddhist, 35% Christian, 5.4% Muslim,
3.9% Confucian) Confucianism Bangka Belitung (Sumatra), West
Kalimantan, Java 117 000 (0.05%) By far the smallest of the six
officially recognised religions; again, most followers are Chinese.
Indigenous religions Java, Kalimantan, Papua Estimates range from
10 to 20 million (4-8%) Many followers of indigenous belief
systems, such as animism, combine them with other religions, such
as Islam. Islam in IndonesiaTraditional 'Archipelago Islam'
combines elements from different religionsEfforts to purify Islamic
practices reflect Middle Eastern influencesA rising tide of piety
among Indonesian Muslims
The legislative framework for religious freedomThe constitution
enshrines religious diversitySecondary legislation protects
official religions, but does not recognise other beliefsBlasphemy
laws occasionally used to repress non-official religious
minoritiesNew legislation inspired by Islamic
valuesAnti-pornography legislation potentially threatens minority
traditionsSharia-inspired regional legislation
Sharia law in Aceh
Inter-religious relationsIntercommunal violence breaks out after
the downfall of Suharto's regimeReligious intolerance not
necessarily the main cause of intercommunal violence
Violence has subsided since the 2000s, but some tensions
continueCertain regions and minorities are disproportionately
affectedThe Islamic Defenders Front, a radical Islamic vigilante
networkIsolated incidents point to wider intolerance
Radicalisation: a long-standing threat, though still
marginalIndonesia has a long tradition of Islamic
extremism.However, radicalisation has been successfully
containedSome concerns about future attacks remain
Official responses to inter-religious violence and
intoleranceGovernment measures to promote inter-religious
dialogueNational and regional governments side against non-official
minoritiesLocal authorities reluctant to grant building permits for
churches in Muslim-majority areasMUI: an advisory body which
promotes intolerant policiesIndonesia's new president makes
encouraging gestures – but little real changeA promising start for
the new governmentGovernment actions have not lived up to initial
promise of toleranceNo real improvement in the situation of
religious minorities
Main referencesDisclaimer and Copyright