Slide 1 Bricks and Mortar Slide 2 Mortar Cushions the masonry units (MUs) Gives the MUs full bearing against one another despite surface irregularities Acts a seal to prevent wind and water penetration Adheres MUs to one another to form a monolithic structure Important to the appearance of the finished masonry wall Slide 3 Mortar Composition Historic: hydraulic lime, sand, water Modern: Portland cement, pure lime, sand, water Additions to mortar: Pigments for colors Larger aggregate particles for texture
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Slide 1
Bricksand
Mortar
Slide 2 Mortar Cushions the masonry units (MUs) Gives the MUs full bearing against one
another despite surface irregularities Acts a seal to prevent wind and water
penetration Adheres MUs to one another to form a
monolithic structure Important to the appearance of the
finished masonry wall
Slide 3 Mortar Composition
Historic: hydraulic lime, sand, water Modern: Portland cement, pure lime,
sand, water Additions to mortar: Pigments for colors Larger aggregate particles for texture
Slide 4 Shells were the source of lime
-- Gathered from middens
-- Burned in ricks (layers of shells & wood), forming quicklime
2. When water is added (slaking), quicklime becomes hydrated (slaked) lime [Ca(OH)2, calcium hydroxide].
3. Over time, hydrated lime absorbs carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere, changing back to calcium carbonate => leads to increased durability.
Burning
Slide 6 Hydraulic vs. Non-Hydraulic Lime
Hydraulic lime sets when in contact with water or atmospheric moisture. It also sets by combining with atmospheric carbon dioxide to some degree. It sets faster than non-hydraulic lime. Non-hydraulic (pure) lime does not set in the
presence of water. It sets by combining with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to turn back into chalk or limestone (i.e., it has to air dry).
Slide 7 Hydraulic Lime
Obtained from calcium carbonates (some limestones, shells) which contain impurities When burned in a rick to form
quicklime, the impurities plus the wood ash create the calcium silicates or aluminates that react with water, causing it to set
Slide 8 Non-hydraulic (Pure) Lime
Made from pure calcium carbonate (limestone or chalk) When burned in a kiln to form
quicklime, no calcium silicates or aluminates are formed; thus, it will notset in water This is the lime used in modern mortars
Slide 9 Hydrated Lime (Calcium Hydroxide)
Can be either hydraulic or non-hydraulic Produced when quicklime is slaked with a
minimal amount of water, producing a powder Add more water, and it becomes lime putty or
slurry Non-hydraulic lime putty can be stored Hydraulic lime putty sets up too quickly to be
stored
Slide 10 Portland Cement Mixture of oxides of calcium, silicon, alumina,
and iron (limestone, clay, sand)
Slide 11 How Portland Cement is Manufactured
Ingredients are crushed, ground, proportioned, blended, fired at 2600°-3000° F creates clinker After cooling, gypsum is added to retard curing Product is pulverized to powder finer than flour When water is added, it cures to a hard,
durable, impervious solid. Portland cement supplies hydraulicity to modern mortars.
Slide 12 History of Portland Cement 1824: Patented in Great Britain by Joseph
Aspdin, bricklayer Named after Portland limestone, quarried on
the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England
Slide 13 First Portland cement manufactured in the US
by David Saylor in 1872 in Coplay, PA Portland cement was imported from Great
Britain until 1885, when U.S.-manufactured quantities exceeded British imports Used primarily as an additive to shorten set
time through 1920s By 1930s, Portland cement was used in equal
parts with lime putty for mortar
Slide 14 Portland cement is today used as an
ingredient in mortar as well as concrete Manufacture of Portland cement requires
the burning of large quantities of fuel, typically coal, which along with impurities contained in the limestone can result in significant emissions of pollutants, i.e., it is NOT a GREEN substance!
Slide 15
Slide 16 The mortar should always be weaker than the masonry, so that if anything has to fail, it is the new mortar, which
is expendable.It is easier and less
expensive to replace the mortar than the masonry units.
Weaver, pp. 135-136
Slide 17 Advantages of Lime-based Mortar over
Cement-based Mortar
Is produced at lower temperatures than cement; therefore less energy is required to manufacture lime mortar, resulting in 20% less CO2 output. Lime putty absorbs CO2 in the curing
process. Non-hydraulic lime absorbs nearly its own weight in CO2; hydraulic lime, around 75% and lower.
Slide 18 Can be re-cycled, unlike cement Strong, flexible, permeable Bricks using lime mortar can be recycled
unlike the cement-bonded bricks which can only be used for hardcore — the pieces of broken stone, brick, etc. used to make the base under a floor, path, or road.
Slide 19 Traditional buildings built using lime
mortar move and absorb moisture because the lime mortar 'moves' with the structure and so prevents masonry from cracking. No expansion joints are needed. Cement mortar is rigid; may require
expansions joints to prevent cracking of the masonry.
Slide 20 Cement mortar is impervious, which
prevents it from absorbing water from the surrounding masonry. Lime mortar wicks up moisture from the
surrounding masonry, and allows it to evaporate. Lime mortar keeps the masonry dryer and lessens the risk of spalling.
Slide 21 Advantages of Cement-based Mortar over Lime-based Mortar
Stronger Sets quicker Good to use in areas of damp, or below
grade Good to use in areas that carry heavy
loads, e.g. arches
Slide 22 Lime-based vs. Portland-based mortars: Traditional vs. Modern
Huge variations in limestones – could be surprised with result Limes could be poorly mined, burned, and slaked;
Portland offers a predictable premix Making traditional mortars is like making biscuits or
cornbread – there are countless recipes, varieties of ingredients, and production conditions – it was not an industrialized and regulated process.
Slide 23 Mortar Joints
Vary in thickness from ¼” to ½”; most common are ⅜” and ½” Joints are tooled 1-2 hours after laying
the masonry units Gives neat appearance Some joint profiles can provide weather-
The brick (top left) is the famed Savannah Gray, and was made my slaves in the 1800s. The fingerprints are thought to be from a slave. http://www.alexbeephoto.com/trip-to-savannah/ Handmade bricks (bottom right) at the Salzburgers Jerusalem Lutheran Church in Ebenezer, GA, built in 1769. http://savannah.for91days.com/tag/lutherans/
Slide 40 Fired Brick Clinkers (closest to the fire) — overburned,
distorted, unsuitable as exposed brick Bricks near fire — burned but not distorted,
good exterior facing bricks, more weather-resistant Bricks further from fire or lower in the kiln —
softer, used on interior walls, good insulation, “salmon” bricks Bricks on perimeter — not fired sufficiently for
any use, discarded
Slide 41
Historic bricks were fired at lower temperatures (around 1500°-1800°F) compared to the much higher temperatures achieved in modern kilns (up to 2400°F) Salmon bricks fired at around 850°F
Firing Brick
http://www.colonialwilliamsburg.com/plan/calendar/firing-brick-kiln/ Colonial Williamsburg's "brick gang" hand-molds as many as 20,000 bricks each season. The bricks are used in construction projects throughout the town.
Slide 42
Incompletely fired brick with
“salmon” interior
Slide 43 Unevenly fired and burned bricks — used on an interior wall of the basement. Still structurally sound but not attractive for an exterior use.
Attic of Rebekah
Slide 44 Clinkers as design features
Brick wall with clinkers, http://www.flickr.com/photos/ottonomy/2637706217/ Clinker bricks are formed during the firing process when wet bricks are placed too close to the heat source. Originally, clinkers were discarded because of their dark, uneven color, and their odd shapes made them difficult to lay in even rows. Later, during the Arts and Crafts movement of the early 20th century, architects and builders were drawn to their interesting earthy texture and colors and often incorporated them into their designs. Clinkers—from the Dutch word “klinken” meaning “sound”—were so named because when tapped they make a distinctive clear sound. Anacortes, WA house, ca. 1910: http://museum.cityofanacortes.org/AHPB/documents/FindItClinkerBrick.pdf
Slide 45 Serpentine/ribbon/crinkle-crankle walls use 25% fewer bricks and their curved shape increases lateral stability so they can be built one wythe thick. Used for centuries in England, Thomas
Jefferson introduced them at the University of Virginia ca. 1820.
Types of ties: http://www.advancedbuildingproducts.com/clientsuppliedcontent-forms/BIATechNoteTextPDFs/Tech%20Note%2028.pdf Veneer over backup walls: http://www.aecinfo.com/1/company/05/39/29/cadlist1051_1.html
Hammering an accordion tie into place: http://www.diyadvice.com/diy/patios-walls/masonry/brick-veneer-house-wall/ Unit ties with mortar laid over: http://mymason.ca/chimney-repair-Ottawa.html
Slide 50 Brick veneer construction using metal ties
Slide 51
Diaper Pattern — surface decoration (carved, painted, or created by placement of
stones/bricks/tiles) generally square or diamond shape,
often containing other simple figures (e.g., flower, leaves). The pattern is repetitive and is usually based on a grid.
Alexander-Withrow Building, ca. 1789, Lexington, VA
Decorative Brick Patterns
Slide 52 Diaper patterned brick on GSU campus
1925 Kell Hall
Slide 53
Brick details from Server Hall, Harvard University, Boston,
MA.
Specially shaped bricks create voids
Herringbone brickwork —bricks laid diagonally, sloping in alternate directions
Slide 54 Brick Sculpture
http://media-cache-ec0.pinimg.com/736x/6c/4c/d1/6c4cd128618211b34578243dfbe2156b.jpg (left photo) The Brick Association of the Carolinas commissioned this sculpture honoring the AIA of both North and South Carolina. In keeping with the literary theme of The Green, sculpture garden, "Life Is An Open Book" by Brad Spencer shows brick children climbing an open brick book. This is only one of many unique and thought-provoking sculptures in the park that deserve exploring. In Charlotte, NC. Stone children climb on a giant brick book statue, one of the many public art offerings in Charlotte, North Carolina. The statue is located on The Green Uptown, a passive park (an urban wild area with a natural ecosystem found in a developed urban area) located atop an underground parking garage next to the Ratcliffe Condos in Center City Charlotte, NC. The Green, one of the many things to see and do in downtown Charlotte, includes fountains, landscaped walkways, motion-activated stone walls, chess boards built into stone tables and riddles on the ground. http://patrickschneider.photoshelter.com/image/I0000.WaMxyREJ4E (right photo)
Slide 55 Common Types of Brick
Cored Hollow Frogged
(Solid not pictured)
Slide 56 Once produced in large quantities to meet consumer demand, specially shaped bricks all but disappeared during the 1970s and 1980s as suburbia advanced in monotonous regularity. They are now beginning to make a welcome return.
Composition and proportions of the clay and shale Temperature of fire in kiln Glazing
Slide 65 Victorian
Polychromy
Keble College, Oxford University, Oxford,
England Architect William
Butterfield, constructed 1867-1883
Slide 66
Townhouses in the Victorian District, Savannah, GA, late 1800s. Brick walls on second floor bays intersect at angles > 90°, creating surface voids. Victorian polychromy
Slide 67 Glazed Brick Trust Company
Bank, Atlanta, GA,
Architect Henri Jova, 1961-1962.
Slate gray brick with bright blue glazing; veneer laid in soldier
courses. Mortar is mix of light and dark
grays.
Slide 68 Savannah Gray Brick Lightweight, porous, oversized Manufacturing began in 1730s Often covered with stucco
Savannah gray brick in the Main Line Viaduct of the Central of Georgia Railroad, built ca. 1850s.
Slide 69
St. Simon’s Island (GA) lighthouse keeper’s dwelling built of
Savannah gray brick,
1872
Slide 70
Slide 71
Slide 72 Deterioration of Historic Brick
Underfired bricks crumble when exposed to moisture Improper pointing repairs with Portland
cement-based mortar Treatment with water repellant coatings
– Retains water within brickwork Improper cleaning (esp. sandblasting) Failure of ties or anchors
Slide 73
Prolonged contact with water Removes mortarWater-soluble salts form crystals, leading
to exfoliation or spalling Acid rain & pollution – dissolve mortars,
Re-tool mortar joint Re-attach using appropriate mortar Remove and replace brick — replace in
kind Dismantle and rebuild wall Do all work in accordance with the
Secretary’s standards
Slide 75 Mortar Repairs
Replacement mortar must match the historic mortar in composition (esp. type of sand), texture, color, and tooling (joint profile) Replacement mortar must have great vapor
permeability and be softer* than the MUs Replacement mortar must be as vapor
permeable and as soft or softer than the historic mortar *Softness measured in compressive strength
Slide 76 What’s wrong
and why?
John Deere Plow Company 326 Nelson Street, Atlanta5-story building, built in 1914, listed in National Register & in the Castleberry Hill Historic District; now 49 loft apartments
Slide 77
What’s wrong and why?
982 North Highland Avenue, Atlanta, 1914
Craftsman bungalow
Slide 78 PLASTER Generic term for cementitious substances applied to a
surface in paste form that harden to a solid material Prehistoric plaster — mud smeared over masonry
walls or over a mesh of woven sticks and vines (wattle & daub) Egyptians and Mesopotamians developed fine plasters
based on gypsum and lime Portland cement added in late 1800s Chosen wall surface until ca. World War II, replaced
by drywall (gypsum board)
Slide 79 Early Plaster
Clay and water Sand added to reduce shrinkage Straw, grass added as reinforcement
Slide 80 Lime Plaster
Composed of non-hydraulic lime, sand, fiber or hair, and water Can be applied directly to masonry or
over wood or metal lath More water resistant than early plaster Used in finish coats
Slide 81 Gypsum Plaster
More rigid than lime plaster Requires furring strips against masonry More vulnerable to water damage Has more sculptural potential than any
other architectural material
Slide 82
Sedimentary rock with low hardness Alabaster is a type of gypsum Uses: manufacture of wallboard,
cement, plaster of Paris, soil conditioning, and as a hardening retarder in Portland
Gypsum
http://geology.com/minerals/gypsum.shtml Gypsum mine in Albuquerque, NM: http://www.thelocationguide.com/blog/wp-content/gallery/location-focus-albuquerque-new-mexico/albuquerque-gypsum-mine.jpg
Slide 83
Quarried, crushed, dried, ground to fine powder, heated to 350° F to remove most of the moisture (calcining) Calcined gypsum ground to fine powder is
Plaster of Paris (discovered by Egyptians) When mixed with water, rehydrates and
recrystallizes rapidly, giving off heat as it hardens, and expands
Gypsum, cont.
Slide 84 Characteristics of Plaster
Major disadvantage — water soluble Durable Lightweight Somewhat soundproof Easy to work, wet or dry Fashioned into a variety of shapes and textures
Inexpensive Highly resistant to fire
Slide 85 Historically, plaster applied by hand using hawk and
trowel; now usually sprayed on
Slide 86 Plaster Application
Can be applied directly to masonry surface Most often applied to lathWood strips nailed to wood framing with small
spaces in between allowing keying of the plasterHand split (riven) lath Accordion lath Sawn lath
Metal lath, must be attached with furring strips
Slide 87 Accordion Lath, ca. 1800, Portsmouth, RI
Accordion lath, Almy-Cory House, ca. 1800, Portsmouth, RI: http://www.newportrestoration.org/writable/slideshows/full/almycory_july_2004_detail_16_slideshow_a27.jpg
Slide 88 Hand split (riven) Lath on left; Sawn Lath on right, 1867, Bristol, VA
Riven lath on left; sawn lath on right: http://ih.constantcontact.com/fs050/1105780001568/img/16.jpg?a=1107614948952 I. C. Fowler House, Bristol, VA, 1867
Slide 89
Sawn Lath, 1911, 491 Auburn Ave.,
Atlanta, GA
Slide 90 Three-coat application
SCRATCH BROWN
FINISH
1. 2.
3.
Slide 91 The scratch coat forms “keys” when it oozes between the lath. These help hold the plaster onto the wall.
http://archive.org/stream/No.639GeneralCatalogueOfBuildersPlumbersMaterials/TheIronMarbleCo.Ltd.Cca593511#page/n213/mode/2up The Iron and Marble Company, Ltd. (Bristol, UK), Catalogue 639, General Builder’s Ironmongery, etc. April, 1936.
Slide 94 Ornamental Cast Plaster Poured into molds “Running” with a template to make linear
ornaments
Slide 95 Kenmore Dining Room
Built by Fielding Lewis & wife, Betty, sister of George Washington,
1770s, Fredericksburg, VA
Kenmore, one of the most elegant colonial mansions in America, lies in the heart of historic Fredericksburg. Built in the 1770s by patriot Fielding Lewis and his wife, Betty (the sister of George Washington), the house contains some of the most elaborate plasterwork from colonial America. It was crafted by an unknown artist who also completed plasterwork at Mount Vernon. This house was originally part of a plantation of almost 1,300 acres just outside the village of Fredericksburg. Fielding Lewis lived in the house until December of 1781, when he died just weeks after Cornwallis surrendered to George Washington. Betty remained at Kenmore for another 14 years although the property was inherited by Fielding's oldest son, John, who was the last Lewis family member to own Kenmore. John sold the property in 1797. After 1797, the plantation was sold several times. The Gordon family purchased the property in 1819, later naming it "Kenmore" after their ancestral home in Scotland
(Kenmuir). The Gordons added the slate roof and stone portico that are still in existence today. They occupied the property until just before the Civil War. The house remained in private hands until the Kenmore Association saved the house from destruction or division into apartments in the early 1920s. In 1970, the National Park Service designated Kenmore as a National Historic Landmark.
Slide 96 Problems with Plaster It is rigid, will crack Structural movement, settling, vibrations Lath movement
Poor workmanship; e.g., too much sand crumbling Improper application Improper curing Lath set too closely, keys cannot form Water - softens plaster, rots wood lath,
corrodes nails, causes iron lath to rust
Slide 97 Solutions
Filling cracks Patching Re-plastering Veneer plaster replacement system
All fills, patches, replacements should be compatible with the original for