Bricklaying is more than Flemish bond Bricklaying qualifications in Europe

Michaela Brockmann, Linda Clarke, Christopher Winch (Editors)

Bricklaying is more than Flemish bondBricklaying qualifications in Europe

Linda Clarke and Michaela Brockmann (Editors)

Bricklaying is more than Flemish bond

The European construction industry, with its increasingly qualified

workforce of 14.5 million and a high level of labour mobility,

exemplifies the significance and urgency of moves towards mutual

recognition of qualifications. Bricklaying, as a key construction

occupation, provides an ideal case to examine the ways in which

this might be achieved. The European Qualifications Framework

(EQF) and the credit system for vocational education and training

(ECVET) are intended to promote the mobility of labour and

facilitate opportunities for lifelong learning by enhancing the

comparability and transferability of qualifications and competences

across the Member States.

This report examines the problems likely to be encountered in

their implementation in relation to bricklaying qualifications in

Belgium, Denmark, England, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands,

and Poland. It shows how bricklaying qualifications and

competences are embedded within their respective customs, laws

and institutions and encompass different ranges of activities and

knowledge requirements. While bricklaying in Germany centres

on a comprehensive notion of Beruf and a broad knowledge base,

in England it is confined to a relatively narrow range of tasks with

minimal underpinning knowledge.

Even given the divergence in bricklaying qualifications and VET

across Europe and in the work of the bricklayer in practice on site,

similarities are also evident. Mutual recognition may be premised

on the establishment of ‘zones of mutual trust’ and a sectoral

qualifications framework, each of which is considered in the

proposals put forward. The report represents the results of a

two year Leonardo project coordinated by the construction social

partners at European level, FIEC and EFBWW, and funded by the

European Union. The project has involved many people in each

country, including the social partners, researchers, individual

employers, training institutions and – above all – bricklayers.

The report reflects the richness, commitment and enthusiasm

of this involvement.

Michaela Brockmann, Linda Clarke, Christopher Winch (Editors)

Bricklaying is more than Flemish bondBricklaying qualifications in Europe

ISBN 978-0-903109-27-7© 2010 CLRAll rights reserved.No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, whether electronic, mechanical, by means of photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the permission of the publisher.

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Cover and interior design: Beryl Janssen, Cologne.

Printed by: Drukkerij Schaubroeck NVSteenweg Deinze 154B-9810 Nazareth

Leonardo Da Vinci Project Bricklaying Qualifications, Work and VET in Europe:

Bricklaying is more than Flemish bond

The following persons, representing the respective project partners, contributed to this publication:

Linda Clarke, Michaela Brockmann; University of Westminster/UK

Christopher Winch, Kings College London/UK

Tom Leney; Institute of Education University of London, Danish Technological Institute/UK and Denmark

Philippe Méhaut, Dominique Hervy-Guillaume; LEST/France

Kristof van Roy; FVB-FFC/Belgium

Anneke Westerhuis; ECBO – Expertisecentrum Beroepsonderwijs/The Netherlands

Daniele Verdesca, FORMEDIL/Italy

Volker Paul; BIBB – Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung/Germany

Jakub Kus, Budowlani/Poland

Sidse Buch, Flemming Jensen; 3F Byggegruppen in co-operation with BAT/Denmark

Domenico Campogrande; FIEC/Belgium

Rolf Gehring; EFBWW/Belgium.

Gerhard Syben; BAQ Bremen/Germany

This is a CLR publication and its preparation was also supported by CLR, the European Institute for Construction Labour Research; Brussels/Belgium.

Editors: Michaela Brockmann, Linda Clarke, Christopher Winch

With the financial support of the DG Education and Cultureof the European Commission.

This publication reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

Table of contents

4 Foreword

6 Introduction

8 A trans-national synthesis

of European bricklaying qualifications

26 Country reports

28 Belgium

34 Denmark

40 England

47 France

53 Germany

59 Italy

65 Netherlands

74 Poland

80 Proposal for establishing mutual recognition

of European bricklaying qualifications

83 A qualifications framework

for the European construction industry

86 Considerations by the European sectoral social partners

of the construction industry

The research for the Leonardo da Vinci ‘Bricklayers’ project

was organised throughout 2009 and 2010 by the European

Construction Employers Federation (FIEC) in partnership with

the European Federation of Building and Woodwork (EFBWW).

Research teams from eight European countries prepared

reports about both the wider national context and specific

aspects of vocational education and training (VET) for

bricklayers: Belgium, Denmark, England, France, Germany, Italy,

the Netherlands and Poland. Linda Clarke, Michaela Brockmann

and Christopher Winch in London led the research activity,

including the collaborative planning, report writing and

analysis. The close involvement of the European social

partners for the construction sector in the organisation of the

project – together with an effective research team gathering

data and carrying the analysis – means that the results of the

study should have considerable influence, both within the

European construction sector and for the wider project of

opening up European Labour markets to greater and easier

mobility of workers.

The research compares bricklaying qualifications in the eight

countries involved. Thus, it maps some common aspects of

participating European countries’ labour markets in the

construction sector as well as some common aspects in the

training and professional activity of bricklayers in different

European countries. However, it also demonstrates some sharp,

important and probably enduring differences in all these

respects. Further analysis is based on this mapping and aims

to examine the significance of the research findings in the

wider European policy settings such as the European

Qualifications Framework (EQF) and the proposed construction

sector qualifications framework (Construction SQF). The

analysis also pays attention, as concerns mobility of labour, to

the important distinction between the formal qualifications

that a person possesses – often from the initial stage of their

career – and the skills, competences and attitudes that people

develop through experience and on-the-job. In particular, the

research makes a coherent attempt to point up some of the

lessons for the European social partners in the construction

sector, as they attempt to co-ordinate improvements in the

legibility, transfer value and quality of bricklaying qualifications

and the mobility of bricklayers in Europe.

The following are among the main conclusions of the study.

1. Three predominant models of VET are identified. In Group 1

countries bricklaying is a trade under pressure, VET for

bricklayers has low currency and tends to be rather limited

in the scope of knowledge, skills and competence

acquisition that is expected. There is little integration of

VET into the wider education process. Social partnership in

the governance of qualifications is limited. In Group 2

countries, VET is school-based, and this is characterised by

a holistic and broad notion of qualification that also places

emphasis on the wider skills of project management. Social

partnership is limited. Five of the eight countries are found

in Group 3. This is characterised by a dual approach to VET,

with governance responsibility divided between the state,

employers and trade unions. There is strong occupational

identity and breadth, and a shared and distinctive notion of

occupational competence. Teaching is shared between

workplace, workshop and classroom.

Foreword

2. In terms of mutual recognition of the qualifications and

skills of bricklayers across European national borders,

Countries in Group 2 and Group 3 probably form a more

‘natural’ zone of mutual trust with one another than they

do with countries in Group 1. Nevertheless, mutual trust

relies on a number of factors; in any case, a more efficient

mechanism for enabling mobility in the open European

labour market would also need to incorporate procedures

to recognise and validate the skills and competence that

people have gained on the job, through experience.

3. The EQF is expected to be a useful meta-tool that helps

to describe and align qualifications of different types and

levels and in different countries. Yet, when applied to the

professional field of bricklaying and probably to the

construction sector more widely, the terms of the EQF

may prove too restrictive, unless great care is taken. First,

it really is difficult – and in some cases counter-productive

– to separate radically the knowledge and skills expected

through completing a qualification from the context in

which the learning takes place. Secondly, the term

‘competence’ remains more problematic across different

European cultures and usages than the EQF formulation

would have us believe.

4. Turning to the Construction sector qualifications

framework (Construction SQF), the analysis of the

bricklayer case studies suggests that some further

development may be needed. The study concludes that

the current formulation (knowledge ‘knows’; skills ‘can’;

competence ‘is able to’) can be confusing. Also, it may

not take account of developing skills needs, particularly as

new, generic skills such as project management and other

management skills become more important for

bricklayers. The recommendation is made that the

construction employers’ and trades union federations look

carefully at the current development of NQFs in some

countries (particularly Germany) to see how some of the

limitations that probably reside in the current

Construction SQF can be overcome.

The study suggests some more detailed steps that the social

partners can take at the European level, as they attempt to

widen the avenues for mobility of labour among bricklayers.

Thus, it is timely, analyses some important issues and is

constructive in proposing certain ways forward.

For colleagues engaged in the sector this is important because

construction has such prominence in the European economies

and labour markets, because in uncertain times construction

sector labour markets are immediately responsive to economic

growth, stagnation or decline, and because this is one of the

sectors with a history and potential for European labour

market mobility – particularly as many older EU member

states will soon remove barriers to migration from the newer

member states.

For the wider policy, research and provider communities, the

Leonardo da Vinci ‘Bricklayers’ project is also an interesting

and suggestive case study. It explores the question of how we

may in future be able to link intelligently across Europe

approaches to understanding competence that are developing

in different workplaces with the introduction of competence-

based approaches to VET by the variety of providers. The

research points up the importance of this direction of travel,

but also suggests that this is complex territory and that

solutions are not yet necessarily easy to achieve.

Tom LeneyLondon November 2010

Introduction

Michaela BrockmannLinda ClarkeChristopher Winch

Bricklaying qualifications, work and vocational education and training (VET)

The Lisbon Strategy set out the strategic goal for theEuropean Unions as follows:‘to become the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world capable of sustainable economicgrowth with more and better jobs and greater socialcohesion’ (Lisbon European Council, 2000: 2).

One of the main outcomes of the Lisbon processdesigned to contribute to achieving this goal is thedevelopment and implementation of the EuropeanQualifications Framework (EQF) and its corollary, the creditframework for vocational education and training (ECVET),meant to promote the mobility of labour by enhancing thecomparability and transferability of qualifications andcompetences across Europe. At the same time, by improvingthe accessibility and transparency of qualifications, the EQFand ECVET are designed to facilitate opportunities forlifelong learning.

The European construction industry, with a workforce of14.5 million, a high level of labour mobility, and widespreadon-the-job learning, exemplifies the significance and urgencyof moves towards mutual recognition of qualifications. Therise in non-standard forms of employment – includingsubcontracting, self-employment and agency work –potentially undermines the value of qualifications and work-based training schemes. It is also sensitive to change –economic, social and technological – affecting workorganization and skills required and necessitating a constantreassessment of qualifications.

A key precondition for mutual recognition of qualificationsis the establishment of ‘zones of mutual trust’, i.e. a mutualunderstanding of qualifications concerning their nature,content, regulation and their value in the labour market.However, given the divergence of qualifications and VETacross Europe, achieving recognition of qualifications will bea challenging process.

The diversity ranges from highly formalised ‘input’-oriented systems (e.g. in the Germanic countries), based onformal learning processes and curricula, to much moreflexible outcomes-based systems (the UK). There is a diverserange of VET in terms of governance, location, scope ofactivities, and knowledge requirements. While bricklaying inGermanic countries centres on a comprehensive notion ofBeruf and a broad knowledge base, in England it is confinedto a narrow range of tasks with minimal underpinningknowledge.

The project extended over 24 months, from December2008 to November 2010, and involved the evaluation ofbricklaying qualifications in 8 EU countries (Belgium,Denmark, England, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands,and Poland), based on macro and company/site studies. Itexamined similarities and differences in the nature, content,regulation and labour market currency of qualifications,competences and learning processes, thus providing a basis

Reference: Lisbon European Council (2000) Presidency Conclusion. Online. http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/ec/00100-r1.en0.htm (accessed 15 November 2010).

7

for discussions of zones of mutual trust. It further sought toidentify the scope for and barriers to the implementation ofEQF/ECVET and sectoral frameworks.

The overall aim of the project has been to further the

recognition of qualifications and competences in relation to

bricklaying by enhancing their transparency and

comparability, thereby increasing the effective mobility and

quality of labour across Europe. It did so by elucidating the

cultural embeddedness of qualifications and competences

within the broader institutional framework as well as their

operationalisation at firm and site levels, thus enhancing

understanding of the significance of bricklaying

qualifications in practice. The specific objectives were to:

• Develop a framework for the comparative assessment ofbricklaying qualifications, to be of relevance to otheroccupations;

• Assess and compare the nature, content and regulation ofdifferent qualifications and VET for bricklaying in theeight countries, representing diverse VET and labourmarket systems;

• Identify the learning processes whereby qualifications areacquired in each country, including non-formal andinformal learning;

• Describe the place and status of bricklaying within thesector, the qualifications, skills, competences andknowledge required of bricklayers, social andtechnological changes affecting these, and differentbricklaying job profiles in each country;

• Relate bricklaying qualifications to the respective nationalqualification frameworks (NQFs) (where applicable) and

assess possibilities, means and problems concerningimplementation of EQF/ECVET and the emergingsectoral framework in relation to bricklaying, includingthe development of zones of mutual trust;

• Develop proposals for discussion by the Europeanconstruction Social Partners with their national membersregarding a possible agreement concerning the mutualrecognition of qualifications;

• Build on the active participation of European andnational social partners in the sector, facilitate networkingwith key stakeholders, and disseminate the findingswidely within and across countries, as a central strategyfor gradually building up the involvement of key targetusers.

The project was run by the European sectoral Social Partnersfor the construction industry, Domenico Campogrande ofFIEC and Rolf Gehring of EFBWW. The scientific co-ordination lay with Professor Linda Clarke and MichaelaBrockmann, both of the Westminster Business School,University of Westminster, London. Tom Leney, Institute ofEducation, London and Danish Technological Institute,Denmark, was the external evaluator of the project. Thepartners from the eight European countries were: Kristof vanRoy, FVB, Brussels; Sidse Buch and Flemming Jensen, 3F,Copenhagen; Christopher Winch, King’s College London,England; Dominique Hervy-Guillaume and PhilippeMéhaut, LEST, Aix-en-Provence; Volker Paul, BIBB, Bonn;Daniele Verdesca, Formedil, Rome; Anneke Westerhuis,ecbo, s’Hertogenbosch; and Jakub Kus, Budowlani, Warsaw.We would like to thank all partners for their hard work whichmade this project possible.

A trans-national synthesis ofEuropean bricklayingqualifications


IntroductionThis report presents recommendations for the developmentof a common framework for comparison of bricklayingqualifications within the European Qualifications Framework(EQF) and the European Credit System for VocationalEducation and Training (ECVET). It is based on nationalreports on bricklaying in Belgium, Denmark, England,France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Poland andincludes an evaluation of ways of aligning the knowledge,skills and competence components of bricklayingqualifications with the EQF, ECVET, Sectoral Frameworksand, where possible, National Qualification Frameworks(NQFs). Key points concerning bricklaying qualifications inthe eight countries are first summarised before discussion ofthe structure and aims of EQF and ECVET. The ways inwhich each country is developing a NQF are described andthe proposed Construction Sectoral QualificationsFramework (SQF) and its relevance to the comparison ofbricklaying qualifications examined. Finally, issues concernedwith the comparison and acceptance of qualifications acrossnational boundaries are considered, including the possibilityof establishing Zones of Mutual Trust (ZMTs) in the light ofsimilarities and differences in the qualifications in the eightcountries.

The report should be read against the background of theprospects for the European construction industry over thenext ten years. Broadly speaking, employment in the sectoris forecast to remain relatively stable, though it is moredifficult to predict the ability levels required, not least becausequalifications are often used (as in the CEDEFOP Report(2010: 54) and in EU 2010a) as a proxy for know-how (or‘skill’ in the usual, somewhat misleading, terminology). Thisis a problem because the qualification stock may increaseindependently of any movement in the demand for know-how. Another problem relates to the policy thrust within theEuropean Union (EU) to promote the accreditation of priorexperiential learning (APEL) (EU 2010b, c); it is difficult tocharacterise occupational know-how in terms ofqualifications if, at the same time, qualifications are awardedfor experientially acquired know-how. The report ‘FutureQualifications and Skills Needs in the Construction Sector’provides, however, an important clue to the nature of futuredemand in claiming that there will be an increasing need for:planning and management skills; ‘increased self-managementinvolving self-governing teams of workers with greaterautonomy in the implementation of tasks’ and co-operationwith others to achieve goals ((DTI 2008: 23).

Bricklaying qualifications in the eight countries studiedshow considerable variation. EQF classifies all qualificationsin terms of Knowledge, Skills (or, more broadly, know-how)and Autonomy/Responsibility. This framework needs to beadapted to the sectoral and occupational levels in order tomake sense of bricklaying qualifications, to provide a way ofcomparing them across countries, and, in particular, to allowfor of the possibility of accreditation, not only ofqualifications, but of experience acquired in a relevant field(EU 2010b).

Country

Denmark

Germany

Belgium

Netherlands

France

Poland

Italy

England

Sub-sectors

New buildingsUrban regenerationRestorationRepair/maintenanceLarge-scale construction(pre-fabricated material)

House buildingCommercial buildingRestorationRepair/maintenance


House buildingCommercial buildingRepair/maintenanceRestoration – specialistqualification Level 3



House building, maintenance andrestoration, Civil engineering,


Manual

Laying bricks and blocksFlooring, TilingRoofingJointingRenderingFaçade claddingScaffoldingFitting insulationCarpentry

Constructions using brick, block, stone, concretePlasteringFinishingFormworkFitting insulationScaffoldingAlso: Civil engineering

Constructions using brick, block, stone, concretePlasteringConnecting plumbing & sewage systemsForm settingTilingScaffoldingJointingGluingFaçadeFitting insulationWoodworkingDriving

Constructions using brick, block, stone, concreteJoiningFitting insulationGluingConcreting (speialist qualification – rebuilding Level 3)

Constructions using brick, block, stone, concrete, and pre-fabricated materialRenderingScaffoldingFormworkConcretingInstalling piping

BricklayingPlasteringFinishingFlooring, TilingStonemasonryConcretingCarpentrySurveyingBondingMaking drains and lintelsFormworkFitting insulationCladding

Bricklaying (pillars, columns, arches, masonry, special coatings, parapets, barrel vaults, cross caps, cupola vaults, gothic vaults, stairways, stone arch faces, marble, tiles), installation of window sills and jambs, installation of banisters, railings and parapets, both masonry and iron made

Constructions using brick and blocksMoving and handling resources

Non-manual

Planning workQuality controlCommunicating with customersApplying health and safety measuresWorking from technical drawingsCollaborating with other actors on site/ in the industry

Planning workQuality controlCommunicating with customersTaking on contracts and delivering the workSetting outAssessing and selecting materialsReading and preparing technical drawingsMeasuringApplying health and safety measuresWorking from technical drawingsCollaborating with other actors on site/in industry

Planning the work, including ordering materials, Assessing suitability of materials, Reading and preparing technical drawings,Contacting suppliersApplying and monitoring health and safety measuresQuality control, including observing deadlines,transmitting customer requests, dealing with workpermits,Communicating with customers, contractors and co-workers

Planning and preparing the work, including workingfrom technical drawingsApplying and monitoring health and safety measuresCommunicating and co-operating with co-workersAt level 3:Instructing gang membersQuality controlConsulting with third partiesMonitoring progressReporting to firm management

Planning the work, including ensuring availability of materials, contacting suppliers, surveying and setting out, preparing and readingfrom technical drawingsApplying and monitoring health and safety measuresQuality controlDealing with site wasteCommunicating with customers, contractors and co-workers

Planning the work, including assessing suitability of materials, setting outApplying and monitoring health and safety measuresQuality controlCommunicating with co-workers, and customers and contractors (level 3)Training co-workers (level 3)

Unclear

Setting outWorking from technical drawingsSelecting materials, components and equipmentApplying health and safety measuresConforming to efficient work practicesCommunicating with co-workers

Table 1: The scope of activities of bricklayers in eight countries

9

Denmark

Germany

Belgium

Netherlands

France

Poland

Italy

England

General education andoccupation-specific underpinning

DanishSocial sciencesICTMathsTechnical drawing

GermanEconomicsSocial sciencesMathsTechnical drawing

Native languageMathsTechnical drawing

DutchEnglishMaths

FrenchA foreign languageHistoryGeographyCitizenshipSportTechnical drawing

EconomicsSocial studies:Basic ICTMathsPolishTechnical drawing

Italian, Italian and Community regulations,ICT

Functional skills(literacy, numeracy ICT)

Industrial

Work environmentMaterialsDesignEntrepreneurship and innovationProduct development and service

Labour lawHealth and SafetyEnvironmental protection

Yes

No

Labour lawHealth and safety

Labour lawHealth and safetyMaterialsEntrepreneurship

Health and Safety

Health and SafetyEnvironmental protection

Occupational (Scope)

Tiling; flooring; preparing and working from drawings;handling materials and tools; bricklaying and surfacetreatment; mathematical calculations; scaffolding; planningwork, including interfacing with customers; collaboratingwith other actors in the labour process; design concepts;health & safety; fitting insulation; bricklaying; and roofing;planning, organising and quality assuring projects.

Receiving assignments; monitoring work; work plan andwork flow; setting up, securing, clearing of constructionsites; checking, storing, selecting material; reading andapplying drawings, drawing up sketches; conductingmeasurements; quality assurance and reporting system;making construction components of wood, concrete;insulation, plaster works, building pavements, tiling,building dry mortarless constructions; setting up buildingpits and ditches, building roads, water supply and sewerage.

Basic masonry; Foundation on steel; Above-groundmasonry; Basic concrete constructions; Basementconstructions and sewers; Façade; Concrete Constructions.

Laying bricks; gluing

Preparation of the work; organisation of the workplace;installation of a structure; dealing with site waste;scaffolding; shell construction in blocks and bricks;masonry; reinforcements; formwork; concrete; components;rendering and waterproofing; piping and conduits; keepingequipment in good condition; exchanging information

Organisation and planning of the work; materials, tools andequipment; earth works; brick walls; ceilings, lintel andcornices; woodwork and iron work; concreting; plastering;joining; repair; demolition

Varies by region

Laying bricks: Conforming to general workplace safety;conforming to efficient workplace practices; moving andhandling resources; erecting masonry structures; settingout masonry structures.

Table 2: Types of knowledge and scope of know-how

1 By ‘project management abilities’ we understand the ability to do one or more of the following: plan, control, co-ordinate, evaluate in relation to extendedassignments within the contract up to and including the complete execution of a building project.

10 A trans-national synthesis of European bricklaying qualifications

independently and therefore for the degree of supervisionthat they require at work. Table 1 illustrates the situation bymapping the scope of activities of bricklayers in the labourmarket. The work carried out by CEDEFOP (2010: 14) toopredicts an increasing emphasis on transversal abilities (suchas planning, communication and coordination) between 2010and 2020.

In terms of subsectors covered there are strong similaritiesbetween the countries, with bricklayers in most countriescovering a broad range. In terms of non-manual activitiesthere is also considerable correspondence, with the notable

Comparison of bricklaying qualifications in the eightcountries in terms of the activities covered, both manual andnon-manual, reveals the range of construction activitiescatered for by each national qualification, the type of skill-based activities undertaken, transversal second order abilitiessuch as planning and communication, and last, but not least,the project management abilities required.1 Activities such asplanning, co-ordinating and evaluating manifest themselvesin different ways and cannot be identified with any oneparticular task (Ryle 1979). They are important forunderstanding the degree to which bricklayers can work

Denmark

Germany

Belgium

Netherlands

France

Poland

Italy

England

Social partner/employerregulation

Social partner

Social partner

Social partner

Social partner

Social partner

Government

Social partnersand regions

Employer

Fundingmechanisms

State + levy/grant

State + levy/grant

State + levy/grant

State + levy/grant

State + levy

State +training fund

Joint funds

State + levy/grant

Central/regional

Central

Important regional element

Important regionalelement

Central

Central

Central

Regional

Central

Responsibility for definingqualification

Social partner trade committees

BIBB+ socialpartners

Vlor + socialpartners

Social partners

CPC + socialpartners

Government

Regional via apprentice-ships

Employers/tradeassociations

Training (OLM)vs production (ILM) model

OLM/Trade

OLM

OLM

Mixed

OLM

OLM

ILM

Trade/ILM

Handwerk vs Industrydivision

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

No

Yes + coops and SMEs

No

Role of state

Confirming

Jurisdiction and supervision

Develops guidelines

Sets rules and procedures



General approach, minimal

Dominanceof quangos

Table 3: Structures of Governance of Qualifcations

11

the full-time vocational school route, although another 40%go through the apprenticeship system. The former provides avery broad qualification after 4 years (mason, form setter andsteel fixer). However, it is fully modularised, and students canopt to take the bricklaying qualification only. Theapprenticeship takes 3 years to complete and leads to abricklaying qualification.

In the Netherlands, VET in bricklaying is part of acomprehensive vocational school system. VET qualificationscan be obtained both through the school based or dualtracks, the latter being work-based with a college andworkshop element. Bricklaying is largely practice-based, andthe duration for the more common Dutch NQF Level 2qualification is 2 years.

In France, the most common route, the CAP (Certificatd’Aptitude Professionel), is integrated within the educationsystem, taking 2-3 years to complete, with apprenticeship thedominant route, (where 75% of the programme is based witha specific employer and 25% in a training centre). It is situatedat Level 3 in the French NQF.

The German qualification takes three years to complete.During the first year, VET covers the whole field ofconstruction. In the second year, trainees specialise in one ofthree construction domains (construction, civil engineering,finishing) – enabling a qualification as a skilled generalbuilding worker. Only in the third year is there a furtherspecialisation as bricklayer. VET takes place largely at theconstruction site (4 days per week) and the college (1 day aweek). Apprentices also attend block release training (up to37 weeks in total) in training centres financed by a levy.

exceptions of England and Italy (where the situation isunclear). For types of knowledge required, however, thepicture is more complex (Table 2):1. With the exceptions of England and Italy, there areelements of non-remedial general education in all thequalifications.

2. Denmark is the only country that includes a significantamount of industrial knowledge, most countriesconfining themselves to little more than relevant healthand safety and legal information about the industry.

3. Occupational knowledge is significant (but with nationalvariations) in all countries except England, Italy and theNetherlands, with evidence of a narrowing of the formalcurriculum for bricklaying in the case of England.

In terms of the governance of bricklaying qualifications (Table 3), salient similarities and differences relevant to theconstruction of a common framework include:1. The presence of social partnership arrangements in allcountries except England and Poland.

2. State and levy funding in all countries.3. Occupational labour markets in all countries exceptEngland and Italy and, to some extent in France and theNetherlands.

Country by country the situation for vocational educationand training (VET) provision can be summarised as follows:

Poland stands out in that the dominant route is through the3-year vocational school, which is based on a mixture ofclassroom and workshop provision. The curriculum is verybroadly based and includes a significant educational element.In Belgium, too, 40% of students in any one cohort follow


competence and project management ability. In Italy, verygreat variation in the status and quality of VET from regionto region is also a serious issue (DTI 2008: 29).

Group Two – Poland: generally seen as representative ofa school/education-based VET system, as is France (thoughin the case of bricklaying the French case is atypical in thatapprenticeship is dominant and social partnership strong,hence its location in Group 3). The group is characterised bythe holistic and broad nature of the qualification and aparticular concept of competence relating to the developmentof project management ability. Poland, unlike France, doesnot have a well-developed social partnership system in whichthe social partners, including the trade unions, play animportant role in the provision and administration of VET.

Group Three – Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany andthe Netherlands: representative of the dual approach to VET(although Belgium has an equally strong school-based route),with governance responsibility divided between the state,employers and trade unions, strong occupational identity andbreadth, and a distinct notion of occupational competence.Teaching is shared between workplace, workshop andclassroom. France is included in this group as the dominantform of VET for bricklaying is a dual form of apprenticeship.Dual systems of apprenticeship are characterised by twofeatures usually found together. The first is that the youngperson is an employee, albeit one involved in a contract withthe body organising the apprenticeship, as well as with theemployer. During the course of the dual system of VET, theapprentice follows a broad programme which includescollege and workshop as well as workplace environments ina structured and sequential programme. ‘Dual’ here refers tothe two elements of workplace and non-workplace learning,although as the German national report notes, ‘Trial’ is moreaccurate as workshop learning is a distinct element in thepedagogic strategy (Paul 2010). They are also ‘dual’ in thesense that governance responsibilities are shared between thestate and the social partners (which can include employerassociations, trade unions, educationalists and regionalauthorities depending on the country). Social partnership isgenerally favourable to the development of consensus, ofattention to the sometimes conflicting interests of thedifferent partners and to the fostering of stable and long-termarrangements for VET.

These Group Three systems are broadly characterised bybreadth of scope in capacity to undertake technicaloperations within the construction industry and also by theiremphasis on general education and the development ofproject management abilities. While there is very littlevariation in technical scope for Belgium, Denmark andGermany, technical scope is much more restricted in the caseof the Dutch bricklayer, being more akin in this respect toEngland. Both the main Dutch and the English qualificationsare best located at EQF level 2.

Thus social partnerships and the integration ofeducational and work-based elements are both important inthese Group Three systems, although the Danishqualification appears to be at a higher level and with a broaderscope than the other three. Both the Netherlands and

In Denmark, in some contrast to the German system, therehas historically been a greater emphasis on the classroom-based element of apprenticeship, with the apprenticespending an initial period of at least 20 weeks at thevocational school. However, traditional apprenticeships havealso been introduced. Programmes take 3 years and 8months to complete. They are in two stages: students canqualify as a tiler after 2 years, and obtain the bricklayerqualification on completion of the full programme (3 � years).

By contrast, bricklaying in England is dominated by highlevels of informal on-the-job learning, with the accreditationof existing skills through on-site assessment. Theapprenticeship (typically taking 2 years) consists of the NVQ(National Vocational Qualification), which is the work-basedelement, and the Construction Diploma (the technical andtheoretical element) and so-called ‘functional skills’. Theseelements are narrow in scope with little integration betweenthem. VET in bricklaying is increasingly college-based, withtrainees following courses to achieve Diplomas.Construction VET courses are characterised by a strongdemarcation between different construction trades with nocommon basis. The dominant bricklaying qualification is atEnglish NVQ Level 2.

In Italy, the most common type of VET is apprenticeship(with one system for young people from the age of 15, andanother ‘professional apprenticeship’ for those aged 18 to 19).However, in the context of the scant value attached to formalVET, the uptake of apprenticeship is low, if increasing. Thecontent and structure of apprenticeship is largely determinedby regional collective bargaining agreements.

Crossnational summary of bricklaying VET: three generic cases

From our eight countries, it is possible to discern threepredominant models of VET associated with differentbricklaying qualifications and variously reflecting distinctionsbetween: trade and occupation; narrow and broad range ofactivities; and work-based and school-based elements (seeTable 4). Despite these variations, labour mobility in theconstruction sector across Europe suggests some localknowledge of the different nature of qualifications held byprospective employees, as well as accumulated experience ofmany bricklayers for which, as yet, limited formalaccreditation is available (though ECVET aims to make thisrelatively easier).

These variations are associated with the predominantmodes found in:

Group One – England and Italy: where bricklaying is atrade under pressure, a pressure evident in the low currencyof VET, shortages in apprenticeship provision, changes in thescope of the occupation, integration into the educationprocess, the nature of social partnership, and notions of

Broad General Project School Dual Traditional Social Brick and Civic Management based Apprenticeship Apprenticeship Partnership

Curriculum Education Capacity (time-served)

Denmark G3 √ √ √ minimal √ (Minor route) √

Germany G3 √ √ √ Minor route √ √

Belgium G3 √ √ √ √ √ √

Netherlands G3 √ √ but at √ √ √level 3 only

France G3 √ √ √ Minor route √ √

Poland G2 √ √ √ √ Minor route limited

Italy G1 Regional Dominant routevariation

England G1 dominant Minor route Minor routewith limited

educational element

Table 4: Comparison of Bricklaying VET at a glance

Competence (Autonomy and

Levels Knowledge Skill Responsibility)

Level 1 (lowest)

Level 2

Level 3

Level 4

Level 5

Level 6

Level 7

Level 8 (doctoral)

Table 5: Outline of the European Qualifications Framework:Cognitive Characteristics

13

initial and continuing education. However it goes further in –following European terminology and recommendations –aiming at qualifications which recognise learning acquiredthrough ‘formal’, ‘informal’ and ‘non formal’ processes. Inorder to do this, but also on account of the failure of previousEuropean attempts to elaborate a system of equivalencebetween qualifications, it is founded on learning outcomes. Itthereby breaks with the ‘input-output’ approach (number ofyears of study, number of hours of VET (inputs) and, forexample, an exam pass mark signifying a level of knowledge(outputs)).

As shown in Table 5, the design features of the EQF areintended to achieve two explicit objectives. 1. ‘Horizontal’ comparability of qualification levels

between countries, supposedly necessary in the contextof learner and labour market mobility in Europe, andpresented as a preliminary to ECVET, the EU credittransfer scheme for European VET.

2. ‘Vertical’ comparability, more concerned with intra-national considerations in the context of life-long VET

Belgium have a strong school-based, as well as a dual system.Nevertheless, there are sufficient affinities between GroupTwo and Group Three systems in respect of bricklaying forthere to be reasonable prospects for the development of aZMT and subsequently a common methodology for theconstruction of a common framework for comparison.

In contrast, Group 1 has characteristics that set it apartin terms of equivalences and the fragmented way in whichbricklaying is organised.

Key Points of EQF includingomissions in design

Adopted by the European Parliament in 2008, the EQF isdescribed as a ‘meta-framework’, designed to promote botha common terminology and a common reference point forthe comparison of qualifications of the member countries ofthe European Union (EU) (Méhaut and Winch 2011). It canbe seen as part of the general tendency, supported byinternational organisations (notably the OECD), to developsuch frameworks at national and international level. TheEQF is what Raffe (2009) describes as a ‘CommunicationFramework’ designed to make qualifications moretransparent and easier to understand. However, it also hasfeatures of a ‘Reforming Framework’, designed to reformexisting qualification structures and even of a‘Transformational Framework’ by instituting a process oftransforming or creating NQFs which will be based onlearning outcomes (Raffe 2009: 35).

The EQF appears as a comprehensive framework, aimingat transcending the boundaries between vocational andgeneral education and thus consonant with one of the aims ofEuropean policy. The EQF is also fully engaged with theEuropean policy of lifelong vocational and professionaleducation, covering without distinction qualifications in both


pedagogic routes. However, the term ‘learning outcome’ ismore often used in the sense of a ‘standard’, that is a set ofcriteria marking progress through a curriculum and servingas the basis for the design of assessment instruments(Brockmann et al 2008a; Allais et al 2009). These instrumentsmay determine the degree to which a candidate following thecurriculum has or has not met the standard (Coles 2007).

A multilingual construct – what may be lost in translation

EQF is available in each of the languages used within the EUand this poses problems of translation and interpretation. Totake the example of English, the vertical subdivisions of‘knowledge’, ‘skill’ and ‘competence’ can be applied in aspecifically English context and there is a danger thatimportant differences in the concepts as applied in differentcountries are not properly appreciated:

Knowledge: English does not distinguish explicitly betweensystematic and non-systematic knowledge in the way that,for example, German does through the distinction between‘Wissen’ (systematic knowledge) and ‘Kenntnis’ (non-systematic knowledge). However, the German version ofEQF renders ‘Knowledge’ as ‘Kenntnis’, though thedeveloping NQF uses the term ‘Wissen’.

Skill: the English term is notoriously elastic, rooted in theidea of ability to carry out a type of task and does notencompass any idea of breadth or occupational capacity, forexample, as German does through the specification of‘berufliche Handlungsfähigkeit’ or ‘occupational actioncapacity’. German also makes the distinction between ameta-ability, such as the ability to plan or to co-ordinate,which is rendered as a ‘Fähigkeit’ and task-related knacks orskills, called ‘Fertigkeiten’. The Berufsbildungsgesetz(Vocational Education and Training Act), which regulates themajor part of the German system, and theAusbildungsordnungen (VET ordinances) which regulate thecompany part of dual system apprenticeships, also refer toFertigkeiten, Kenntnisse and (since 2005) Fähigkeiten, whilstWissen is applied to the framework curricula(Rahmenlehrpläne) for vocational schools. Although the aimof the German initial VET system is to develop anindividual’s berufliche Handlungsfähigkeit (Hanf 2007), theEQF rendering of the term ‘skill’ is ‘Fertigkeit’. The subtletiesof classification of ‘know-how’ – as a more apt term than‘skill’ – are thus lost in the translations offered within theEQF. This is an important issue for this project as the abilitiespredicted for construction workers over the next ten yearsare precisely those which are manifested not in the carryingout of any one particular kind of task (‘skills’), but rather ina variety of different kinds of activity associated with bringinga project to fruition (Fähigkeiten) (DTI 2008: 23).

Competence is the term that embodies the most complexityand potential for confusion. The EQF has itself sometimes

and vertical pathways from one qualification to another(as in the French or Dutch systems).

A third objective of the EQF, however, largely implicit, is thatof position ‘on the labour market’, being presented as aninstrument for the mobility of workers, facilitatingcomparison of qualifications and vocational abilities.‘Competences’ are thereby formulated around a concept ofautonomy which refers back to autonomy in learning butalso to autonomy in the workplace.

The framework is thus ‘meta’ in the sense that: • different NQFs can be compared (presupposing a certainflexibility in the use of language);

• all qualifications can be assimilated, whatever theirnature, goals and origins;

• whilst aimed at the development of general andvocational education policy, it goes beyond this towardsthe old aspiration of ‘the free movement of labour’.

How the EQF works

EQF does not directly certify competences as its purpose isto act as a meta-framework, an indirect comparator forqualifications in different countries. If certificatedachievements can be specified in an NQF in terms of learningoutcomes, then it should be possible to lay two or morequalifications alongside each other on the EQF grid todetermine their degree of equivalence. If nationalqualifications are themselves based on learning outcomes andconform to the structure of the EQF, comparison becomesall the easier. The concept of a learning outcome isnevertheless problematic and interpreted in different ways.As developed for NVQs in England, for instance, it assumesthat if someone demonstrably has the ability to do somethingin workplace conditions, s/he should be accredited for thatachievement, irrespective of how it was acquired – whether inthe workplace, workshop or classroom. Crucial to thisperspective is the set of descriptors setting out thecompetence to be guaranteed by certification. This sense of‘learning outcome’ is, however, quite specific and does notcorrespond to the broader way in which this term is oftenused (Brockmann et al 2008a).

Both the EQF and NQFs are similar in the sense thatthey use a grid of vertical and horizontal classifications ofqualifications in terms of cognitive characteristics (columns)and levels within an academic hierarchy (rows).Comparisons between two national qualifications are effectedby locating two or more qualifications in rows within theEQF grid and, if the location of the row coincides for thenational qualifications, the qualification level is deemedequivalent (Table 5). The EQF thus enables nationalqualification levels to be compared with each other.

Because of its strong learning outcome design feature, theEQF is also intended to encompass certified learningoutcomes achieved through APEL – that is, distinct from aformal learning process – as well as through conventional

15

Key points of ECVET and how it relates to EQF

The EQF is part of a larger design for the recognition andaccumulation of qualifications across Europe. ECVET isintended to allow for the accumulation of vocationalqualifications across the EU and is similar to, but moreambitious than, the ECTS (the European Credit Transfer andAccumulation System) which operates in Higher Education(HE). The intention is that, for example, someone mightaccumulate credits towards a bricklaying qualification inEngland and subsequently use these towards theaccumulation of further credits in bricklaying in, for example,Germany. The EQF is a necessary instrument for ECVET asit provides the basis for recognition of credits accumulated inone country prior to their being used in another. It is,however, like the EQF, an enabling instrument and thusvoluntary and likely to be more difficult to implement,though the current target date for this is 2012. Units will becharacterized as learning outcomes and credits will beawarded at any given level on the basis of notional hours ofstudy; for example, a year of full time VET will counttowards 60 credits (EU 2010c). Alternatively, rather thanbeing related to hours of study (although these are proposedas a guideline), it has been suggested that ‘learning outcomes’be interpreted in terms of their relative weight – therebyopening up a significant APEL route for vocationalqualifications (EU2010a).

ECVET relies on: modularization, credit transfer and creditaccumulation, in addition to learning outcomes. A module isa self-contained unit of study which can be transferred toanother – larger – programme of study composed of largelyself-contained units. Once completed and accredited, itsholder can enter another programme and use the achievedcredit points, together with the ones subsequently achieved,to accumulate a larger number of credits, ultimately leadingto a recognized exit qualification. Even though this is notpresupposed, ECVET is designed to take account ofmodularisation, so that a sub-qualification at the unit levelcan be used as a preliminary to another programme of studyand is thus self-contained and detachable from theprogramme of study to which it originally applied. ECVETis not, therefore, in this respect appropriate for thosequalifications, like the diplomas that issue from the Germandual system, which are holistic rather than modular (Paul2010; Ertl 2002). These presuppose the completion of thewhole programme of study and the successful integration ofall the unit components of the qualification in an assessmenttaken at the exit point from the programme. Thus, thoughthe programme might be packaged into modules and usedfor credit accumulation and transfer into other programmeswithin the dual system, assimilation of modules from othersystems is excluded – giving rise to serious reservationsconcerning ECVET

A device such as ECVET, although requiring aframework like the EQF for implementation, causes tension

been described as a ‘competence framework’ (EU 2010c)However, the holder of a qualification will be expected toshow attributes, more or less integrated, across all three ofthe columns in Table 5 and will, in this sense, have attainedlearning outcomes that involve knowledge, skill, autonomyand responsibility. The English term ‘competence’ and itsassociated terms in other languages, such as ‘Kompetenz’ inGerman and ‘compétence’ in French have particular meaningsin the vocational context. Thus the English term tends torefer to attainment of a skill or bundle of skills at a thresholdlevel and does not embrace personal independence or thebringing to bear of judgment informed by systematicknowledge in the way that it does, for example, in the Dutch,French and German terms (Winch 2011; Brockmann et al2008b; Brockmann et al 2008c).

More critically, the idea of autonomous workers who canplan, control, co-ordinate and evaluate their own work isvery different from position within a managerial hierarchy,which is what ‘autonomy and responsibility’ in the thirdcolumn of the EQF grid can be seen to signify (Table 5). Thishas important consequences for the comparison ofbricklaying qualifications because, as we have already seen –these attributes are important in at least six of the eightcountries in this study and will become increasinglyimportant over the next ten years.

A further critical omission from the framework, one thatis likely to cause major problems when sectoral andoccupational frameworks are created, is that of scope. Asapparent from Tables 1 and 6, qualifications in differentcountries that nominally cover the same occupation (forinstance, bricklayer, maçon, Maurer) may embrace a verydifferent range of activities. Thus in some countries (e.g.England) the bricklaying qualification is focussed largely onjust laying bricks, whilst in others it covers a great deal more.To take the example of the French qualification, directedtowards the expectation that a qualified maçon is able toconstruct a house with some assistance from otheroccupations, the specific competences incorporated include:preparation of the work; organisation of the workplace;installation of a structure; dealing with site waste; scaffolding;shell construction in blocks and bricks; masonry;reinforcements; formwork; concrete; components; renderingand waterproofing; piping and conduits; keeping equipmentin good condition; exchanging information (Méhaut andHervy-Guillaume 2009; Brockmann et al 2008c). Thesevariations in scope, which are considerable betweencountries, are not taken account of in the EQF so that itprovides an incomplete outline of the terrain that needs to bemapped out at occupational level. Any occupationalqualification framework for bricklaying would need to detailwhat the qualification contains and thus address this ‘scope’dimension.

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17


Knowledge, Skills and Autonomy/Responsibility. Germanyand probably the Netherlands will use an overarchingconcept of competence for organising their NQFs. Allcountries are using some conception of learning outcomes asa basis for the framework descriptors.

Belgium (Flanders)

Belgium has adopted a two category, eight level framework(Knowledge/Skills and Context/ Autonomy/Responsibility).It is organised around learning outcomes, based onoccupational profiles and defined with the involvement ofsocial partners. In bricklaying, learning outcomes, thoughthey may be acquired in non-formal settings, are related tocurricula and are hence of an input related kind rather thanpurely output based as envisaged by the architects of EQF (vanRoy 2010: 25). The Committee to recommend referencing ofthe Flanders NQF to the EQF began work in 2010.

Denmark

The main purpose of the Danish NQF is to provide a betteroverview of all officially-recognised public qualifications, tosupport mutual recognition of Danish and foreignqualifications and to make the relationship betweeneducation and training and the labour market moretransparent (Bjørnåvold and Pevec Grm 2010: 55). Thisoverview is supposed to make visible the pathways leading toa qualification, how they can be acquired and what they canbe used for. Based on a learning outcomes approach, theframework aims to facilitate comparison between differentdegrees and certificates and to see how they relate to eachother. However, the approach does not appear to be strong inthe case of bricklaying qualifications, since learning outcomedescriptors are derived from existing curricula (Shapiro et al2010: 20). The Danish NQF is an eight level structure withthree vertical divisions of knowledge, skills and competences(including learning how to learn). Social partnershipinvolvement has been high, although some employers havequestioned the value of the process. Referencing to the EQFis treated as an integrated part of the implementation of theNQF. A coherent use of learning outcomes necessitates –according to a ‘best fit’ principle – placing existing VETqualifications at different levels in the national framework,involving the introduction of step-wise qualifications into theVET system.

England

England has had a NQF for a number of years and a ‘secondgeneration’ NQF, the Qualifications and Credit Framework(QCF) since 2008. The aims of the QCF are to: provide acommon framework for academic and vocationalqualifications, to increase transparency and comparabilityand to enable learners to acquire qualifications at their ownpace. This latter is achieved through the award of creditpoints achieved after notional hours of study at Award,Certificate and Diploma grade at the relevant level. It is a nine

as there is a quantitative element to a credit-bearingqualification that is difficult to account for in other than inputterms. According to the EQF descriptions, though, theoutcomes of a module may be realized irrespective of what,if any pedagogic process is involved. Take the example ofbricklaying modules in country A and country B, classed atlevel 3 on the EQF grid, with one bearing 120 credits and theother 180 credits because the scope of the qualification isdifferent in each case. In the ECVET framework there is animplication that a certain number of hours of learning areneeded to achieve a certain number of credits so that 120credits would be the equivalent of two, as opposed to three,years of study within a structured VET programme. Themost reliable method of computing that learning time is toassess tuition and practice time in a learning environment, asAPEL routes are, by their nature, too heterogeneous toprovide a basis for doing this. ECVET does, then, appear tointroduce input-based considerations back into theframework, implying a different meaning for ‘learningoutcomes’ from that applied in the EQF methodology.

Progress with NQFs and the referencing process in each country

The second stage of implementation of the EQF, thealignment or reconciliation (‘referencing’ in official language)of national qualifications or NQFs with the EQF, isnecessary in order that there is at least a nominal equivalencebetween the status (level) of a national qualification and anEQF level. If the EQF is to serve as the medium oftranslation between the level of a qualification belonging tocountry A and a qualification belonging to country B, then itneeds to be consistent and trustworthy. The very process ofreferencing puts pressure on individual countries to producea NQF if this does not already exist, as referencing ofindividual qualifications to the EQF would otherwise beinvolved and thus become too burdensome. However, thelack of a standard procedure for referencing or of amandatory international peer review of national referencingexercises brings the danger that the process will not betrusted, particularly as there is a potential conflict of interestbetween impartial referencing at the EU level and the politicaland economic imperatives of individual countries. Aparticular national referencing process may also notcommand international confidence if it is not sufficientlyrigorous and thorough.

Progress with NQFs and referencing in each of the eight countries

All eight countries in the study have developed or aredeveloping NQFs. Most of these are eight level frameworks,modelled on the EQF with three vertical divisions into

Entry Entry Entry QCF level 1 level 2 level 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

EQF 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8

(Bjørnåvold and Pevec Grm 2010: 169).

Table 7: Referencing the English QCF to the EQF

Structure of requirements

Occupational competence Personal competence

Knowledge Skills Social competence Self-competence

Depth and breath Instrumental and systemic skills, Team/leadership skills, Autonomy/responsibility, judgment involvement and communication reflectiveness and learning competence

Table 8: The German NQF Structure

19

together both academic and vocational qualifications as wellas higher and non-higher qualifications.

Germany

Largely in response to the advent of the EQF, Germany iscurrently developing an NQF whose aims are to: increaseboth the vertical and the horizontal permeability ofqualifications and the role of learning outcomes in theirdescription and design; emphasise the vocational element inqualifications; and enhance individual employability byrecognition of German qualifications elsewhere in the EU(Bjørnåvold and Pevec Grm 2010: 78, 80). Though theGerman NQF will be based on learning outcomes, it isunlikely to be predicated on a ‘strong’ interpretation of theseas they are conceived as at least partly input-based, derivedfrom currently existing input and curricular requirements. Anational, social partnership-based steering group has beeninvolved in the NQF design and decisions based on consensus.

The framework has eight levels and is organised aroundthe German conception of competence (Table 8) (Hanf 2007;Brockmann et al 2008b, 2009), making a clear distinctionbetween, on the one hand, occupational competence basedon knowledge and know-how, and on the other, personalcompetence relating to social and self-management.Competence in this sense »signals readiness to useknowledge, skills and personal, social and methodologicalcompetences in work or study situations and foroccupational and personal development.« (Bjørnåvold andPevec Grm 2010: 79). Referencing to the EQF is being carriedout by a committee consisting of national and regionalrepresentatives with input from the federal body, the DQRBüro, set up to advise on the NQF construction process.

Italy

Central to the Italian situation is the strong regional variationin the VET system, together with regional qualificationframeworks, making the development of an NQF – whichhas been going on since 2003 – a particular challenge

level framework in which QCF level 2 is deemed to beequivalent to EQF level 3. The introduction of a creditframework within the English NQF implies ‘input’ criterionfor awards, which will be in tension with the stronginterpretation of learning outcomes in the English framework.

The most controversial aspect of the QCF is thereferencing exercise which took place through the agency ofa consultant in 2009 (Table 7), of particular relevance tobricklaying qualifications which may be considered to liemainly between EQF levels 2 and 4. Thus the English NVQlevel 2, the typical bricklaying qualification, is on thisclassification deemed to be a level 3 EQF qualification,creating potential credibility problems with the Englishreferencing exercise.

France

France has had a five level NQF since 1969, although it isnow in the process of re-organising this into an eight levelstructure. The main aims are to ensure transparency andquality assurance. Social partnership involvement in bothrevision and referencing is well-established. Compétence isan important element in this structure, reflecting alongstanding attempt to make qualifications relevant to thelabour market. Learning outcomes may be defined in termsof curricula as well as performance descriptors, so that theframework cannot be described as strongly ‘learningoutcomes’-based, although it does take full account of thecompetences (in the French sense) to be developed(Bjørnåvold and Pevec Grm 2010: 74). Referencing to theEQF has been an ongoing process since 2006 and poses aparticular problem for France in that the five level structure isdifficult to reconcile with EQF levels 1-3 and all the lowerFrench qualifications have – for the time being – beenreferenced at EQF level 3. There is concern about othercountries’ referencing of nursing and Meister qualifications atlevel 5 of the EQF, whilst in turn referencing of theBaccalauréat at level 4 may cause problems of comparisonwith higher secondary qualifications in some other countries.France is strongly committed to a unified NQF which brings

Knowledge Skills Attitudes

Scope Communication Identity/autonomyDepth of Understanding Problem Solving Co-operation

Using Knowledge in Practice Responsibility

(Bjørnåvold and Pevec Grm 2010: 132).

Table 9: A Possible Polish NQF Structure.


process of education; and, in the other (preferred byeducational authorities), learning outcome units are givengreater recognition than VET outcome units.

An interesting feature of the proposed Polish NQFstructure (Table 9) is the presupposition that knowledge beput into practice, thus demarcating it from purely task-baseddescriptors of the English NVQ variety. Significant featuresinclude self- and project management, problem-solving andan attitudes category which together indicate the possibilityof personal progression towards greater ability in seeing aproject through and developing the individual as a person –intellectually, emotionally and ethically. Referencing has yetto take place.

The Sector Qualification Framework –Construction (SQF-Con)

The SQF (Sector Qualification Framework) project workedout the framework for the construction sector, leavingsubgroups to fill in the details for the different levels andcolumns (Syben 2009). SQF has the feature of setting out thework phases of construction from inception to handover:• planning;• setting out the site;• surveying;• building production;• civil engineering production;• checking, calculating and accepting.

Proposed SQF levels (Table 10) are roughly equivalent tothose in the EQF. For bricklaying, the phases of particularrelevance are: participation in planning (level 4); surveying(levels 3, 4); building production (levels 2- 3); civilengineering production (levels 1- 4 inclusive). Because of thegenerality of SQF, it is not possible to specify in any greatdetail – though a level 3 construction worker should have theindependence necessary to carry out work without detailedsupervision. The SQF is regarded as both compatible with(using a very similar vertical structure: Knowledge, Skills andCompetence) and supplementing the EQF in sufficient detailto be of use to the construction industry, taking account offuture as well as current needs. There is as a result acorresponding emphasis on elements of know-how thattranscend manual skills.

As is evident from Table 10, each vertical division of theSQF is also subdivided into components. Whilst theKnowledge column is relatively straightforward, the

(Bjørnåvold and Pevec Grm 2010: 102). The main aims of theprocess are to: achieve national integration of qualificationsand increase labour market mobility and the recognition ofinformal and non-formal routes to the achievement ofqualifications. The framework will be based on a learningoutcomes approach. In VET, it is intended that curriculashould be redesigned on three and four year cycles using anational standard of competences available since 2000.Referencing to the EQF is being conducted by a nationaltechnical group in liaison with homologous groups in othercountries in order to ensure transnational consistency andtransparency in the co-ordination of national with EQF levels(Bjørnåvold and Pevec Grm 2010: 102).

The Netherlands

It is envisaged that an NQF – seen by some as a vitalprecondition for the referencing of Dutch qualifications to theEQF – should be ready in 2010. The use of learningoutcomes is well-developed in the Dutch VET system,although the English NVQ approach to this has long beenregarded as inappropriate, as is the recognition of informaland non-formal learning (Westerhuis 2011). A key aim of thereform is to increase the transparency of the Dutchqualification system, though this is complicated byperceptions of ‘reform fatigue’ and limited ‘added value’, aswell as by the particularly Dutch interpretation ofcompetence (kompetentie) which cannot be readilyincorporated into the existing EQF structure. The parallelconstruction of the NQF and the referencing process withEQF has also posed a challenge, as in Germany. Socialpartner involvement is central to both the construction of theNQF and the referencing process, although indications are itwill play a greater role in the latter.

Poland

Poland officially expects to present final proposals for itsNQF at the end of 2010. Its construction has followed thedevelopment of the EQF, based on learning outcomes and,as well as presenting a unified qualification structure,designed to align qualifications more closely with the labourmarket and to facilitate their stocktaking in both the privateand the public sectors. The learning outcomes approach isrelatively unfamiliar in Poland and there has beenconsiderable development work involved in coming to termswith it. For instance, a number of experts still use the term‘qualification’ as equivalent to ‘competence’ and there are twoviews on the definition of learning outcome units: in one,learning is regarded as active personal participation in the

Knowledge ‘knows’ Skills ‘can’ Competence ‘is able to’

Tools, equipment practical operations Managing, controllingMaterial Logical operations Achieving resultsRules, Norms, Regulations Planning, organising Taking responsibilityProcedures Communicating Frames of actions, actors, interfaces

(Syben 2009: 13).

Table 10: The SQF Framework

Structure of requirements

Occupational competence Personal competence

Knowledge Know How Social competence Self-competence

Tools, equipment, Skills: Transversal Abilities: Team/leadership skills, Autonomy/responsibility, materials involvement and achieving results,

Manual, Planning, communication reflectiveness and Depth and breath, Intellectual Organising, learning competence, Systematic, Controlling taking responsibilityNon-systematic Scope of Assessing

activities to beundertaken Scope of activities

to be undertaken

Table 11: A Proposed Revision of the SQF Structure.

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of managing small occupational groups, though perhapsmost useful as an option for a necessary qualification gainedafter some industrial experience and additional theoreticaleducation. This level 3a should not, in any case, be confusedwith the German Polier qualification, which requires 600hours of continuing VET together with several yearsexperience as a skilled worker in the relevant occupation andwhich should be considered as at least a level 4, if not a level5, qualification (as reflected in rates of pay) within the EQF(Paul 2010: 9, 11). The SQF is in this way a frameworkwithin which any comparator for bricklaying qualificationsshould be able to fit, subject to caveats outlined aboveconcerning the classification of different kinds of practicalability and the knowledge and experience needed to achievedifferent levels.

Qualification and Zones of Mutual Trust (ZMTs)

Construction is a sector characterised by a high degree oflabour, firm and capital mobility. Mutual recognition ofvocational qualifications and experience is an important andperennial practical issue. Implementation of the EQF comesunder the Open Method of Coordination and thus takesplace on a voluntary basis, albeit with significant EUencouragement. Based on the proposals of Coles and Oates(2004) and adopted within the EQF proposal, it is envisagedthat ZMT will develop within which quality assurance for thenational qualifications that are to be compared can beestablished (EC 2008). A ZMT is defined as:

distinction between ‘can’ and ‘is able to’ in the second andthird columns could more clearly distinguish between: a)practical skills; and b) a category of ‘polymorphous’ activitieswhich do not have a single physical manifestation but arenevertheless essential to an articulated sequence of activityand which capture the degree of independence and personalresponsibility of the individual in the way that most nationalframeworks covering bricklaying qualifications do. It is alsonecessary, as in the German NQF, to take account of self andproject management in order to capture the full range ofabilities and aptitudes required of bricklayers now and in thefuture.

Any adaptation of the SQF needs to:1. capture the distinction between systematic and non-

systematic knowledge (Knowledge column);2. distinguish between know-how that is manifested in: the

achievement of identifiable types of task (skills); and avariety of different activities (polymorphous ortransversal abilities);

3. capture those elements of intentional ability that largelyinvolve elements of character and disposition (personalcompetence).

These are not watertight categories, but do justice to what isincreasingly expected of bricklayers, including the abilities to:control their own labour process; work in a co-ordinatedway with others; and learn from experience. Recategorisingthem in the way indicated in Table 11 has the benefit ofindicating that, apart from task-based activities, most of theconstruction labour process does do not just rely on specificskills but on more broadly-based abilities.

SQF covers levels 1 to 5 of the EQF framework, with theaddition of a level 3a, which is primarily designed for the role


European modes. The basis on which VET is constructedand its underlying assumptions in the ‘Dual’ systems (fardistant from the nineteenth century model of apprenticeship)are indicative of the importance attached to VET and thecommitment to a broad education, as well as the role, valueand status accorded to labour, and the place of occupations inestablishing social identity. Likewise, those countries, such asPoland, adopting an ‘educational’ model in their VETsystems, where considerable emphasis is laid on broadereducational elements such as civic education andunderpinning knowledge (e.g. mathematics), are likely tofind it easier to understand each other than those whichsubscribe to the ‘training’ model, where the emphasis israther on the skills required for specific workplace activities(and vice versa). In this regard, France and Germany tend tounderstand each other’s systems better than say France andEngland or Germany and Italy. VET systems that recognisethe importance of transversal abilities and personal and socialqualities are also better able to adapt to changing conditionswithin an occupation. In this study, broadly based VETsystems for bricklaying include all but England and Italy.

ZMTs have to work in the labour market if the mutualrecognition of qualifications is to take place. Trust musttherefore exist between the prospective employer and theissuer of the qualifications presented. This means thatagreement between governments and/or sectoral bodiesconcerning the referencing of qualifications against the EQFmay be a necessary but not sufficient condition fordeveloping mutual trust. Detailed development of aconstruction SQF and of a Bricklaying Framework may be apreliminary to the operation of the EQF in bricklaying, butthis does not mean that it will be taken seriously byemployers and trade unions. ‘Officially’ designatedequivalences may encounter difficulties in recognition withinthe labour market. The goal of credit transfer andaccumulation will be all the more valuable if it takes accountof the full range of activities required of a highly qualified andexperienced bricklayer and goes together with acomprehensive SQF.

Any occupational qualification depends for its validity onthe involvement and agreement of all stakeholders; the lessthe agreement and involvement of all those concerned, theweaker its currency and status in the labour market is likelyto be. In turn, the weaker this currency, the less effective isEQF likely to be and the greater the difficulty in mutuallytrusting and recognising qualifications. For instance, inEngland, the process of recognition of occupationalqualifications represents a top-down approach, designed tobe employer-led and to favour market-based solutions,implying no meaningful partnership with those whosecommitment is essential to establish ZMTs and at odds withthe social partnership based systems of France, Germany andthe Netherlands (Brockmann et al 2010). Social partnership isgenerally favourable to the development of consensus and tothe fostering of stable and long-term arrangements. In thisrespect, it is no accident that in England only a smallminority of bricklayers holds an NVQ 3 level qualificationand that, though there are increasing numbers qualified to

An agreement between individuals, enterprises and other

organisations concerning the delivery, recognition and

evaluation of vocational learning outcomes (knowledge,

skills and competences). They offer practical help with

decisions about the value of qualifications and

certification, further learning and recruitment into

employment. They may be dynamic in nature and may

become more or less formal in scope and form according

to the mutual confidence and needs of the stakeholders

involved. (Coles and Oates 2004: 8).

Trust means relying on someone else to do something towhich he or she has agreed, implicitly or explicitly, withoutthe need for external scrutiny and usually involvesknowledge of the attitudes, values and behaviour of the otherparty; in mutual trust arrangements, this will be a two-wayprocess. In everyday life, trust is most easily establishedbetween partners who share a common way of life which isinterdependent, so that there is a bond of common interestand values, which has an affective, as well as an instrumentalnature. If people rely on each other just in thosecircumstances and for such time when it is mutuallyconvenient to do so, then it may be doubted whether such anarrangement is likely to hold. One apparent difficulty inapplying a notion of trust at the international level is,however, that nation states may find it difficult to trust eachother as they do not necessarily share common valuesregarding the development of labour through VET. This isunlikely be a problem if two or more nation states have longco-operated on projects of mutual interest, conditions whichare at least met in some EU regions. There are similarities anddifferences in the role that VET plays and in the philosophicaland ethical underpinnings of different systems, and it may bepossible to identify distinct families of approaches (Green1990; Ashton and Green 1996; Clarke and Winch 2007;Green et al 1999).

For example, for congruent national systems a‘Germanic’ VET approach can be identified, where thedominant VET route is represented by a modification of thetraditional apprenticeship into a scheme whereby a junioremployee takes part in an integrated programme ofeducation involving classroom, simulatory workshop andworkplace (the ‘Dual System’). This family would includeGermany, Austria, and Switzerland, with the Netherlandsand Denmark as outlying members. Here responsibility forVET is jointly shared between the government and the socialpartners (employers and trade unions), VET is a key subjectof collective bargaining, and sectoral training funds supportprovision. Within this perspective, Germany, theNetherlands, Denmark and Belgium share similar features inbricklaying VET, joined by France where a structured,education-oriented, apprenticeship route into bricklaying isdominant.

If VET systems are grouped in terms of structuraltypology, then distinct families of trust are evident acrossdifferent countries, as suggested in the approach adopted byGreen, Wolf and Leney (1999) which identifiedapprenticeship, alternance and mixed systems as dominant

23

• the lack of a general and civic educational element• the limited development of a capacity for self and projectmanagement

• the relatively low, though increasing, labour marketcurrency.

It is possible that experience may narrow this gap. Forexample, an apprentice working for a small firm in Englandmay acquire a range of skills and abilities that may not be soreadily available with a large labour-only bricklayingsubcontractor. Personal and social competences are alsolikely to grow with experience within more polyvalent rolesof smaller firms. If ECVET is to take account of suchdevelopments, however, further work will be necessary inorder to provide convincing methods of accreditation and tomake up for the lack of underpinning knowledge. These arevery considerable divergences at initial VET level whosecorrection is likely to entail considerable curriculum reformin bricklaying if there is an intention to make them at leastroughly equivalent with Group Three countries. Beyondthis, however, is the issue of the structure and governance ofbricklaying.

The various micro-studies we have conducted in firms,sites and colleges in the eight countries suggest that there areconsiderable differences in the stability of the structures thatunderlie bricklaying VET. An important precondition for thedevelopment and retention of trust is familiarity withinstitutions and ways of working, premised, in turn, onrelative stability. Those countries with relatively stableinstitutional and governance structures will find it easier towork with each other than those which do not. The criticalinstitutional structures are: industry-wide bodies, includingemployer associations, trade unions, and VET organisations;group training providers such as the Samenwerkings-verbanden in the Netherlands, the Institutions for TrainingWorkers in the Building Industry in Italy, and theCompagnons du Devoir in France; the construction firmsthemselves, colleges and training centres. To ensurepermanence in the structures through which VET isorganised, social partnership arrangements tend to be moreeffective than the alternatives of market forces on the onehand and strong state control on the other. Once again, thosecountries with social partnership governance of bricklayingVET together with relatively stable firms and traininginstitutions at the point of delivery should find it easiest to co-operate and to develop practices of mutual trust.

Towards a methodology forcreating a common framework

Whilst difficulties in setting up a framework for thecomparison of VET qualifications appear surmountable,gaining agreement between countries to conform to this isstill more difficult and beyond our scope to consider. Acommon comparative framework for bricklaying would needto meet the following requirements:

Level 2, many of those working hold no qualification. Thiscontrasts with bricklayers in Group Two and Threecountries, the majority of whom are qualified to at least theequivalent of Level 3, with the exception of the Netherlands(Brockmann et al 2010).

Such differences in the labour market currency ofbricklaying qualifications are associated with distinct notionsof the occupation itself which in turn also reflect differencesin the labour market and systems of governance (Brown et al2001).The difficulty in the English case is that, unlike theother countries, the scope and content tends to be defined onthe basis of custom and practice and not, as in Belgium,Denmark, France, Germany and the Netherlands, throughlengthy negotiation and discussion with all the partiesinvolved. The result in the continental case is that thequalifications attached to bricklaying are valued for the oftenbroad and social competences which they embody and act asa key means of entry into the labour market, creating whatmight be termed occupational labour markets (Marsden2007). Indeed, the general tendency is the development ofqualification-based labour markets, involving defined entryroutes, though these may or may not be predicated, as withthe Dutch bricklayer, on a qualification which is related tocollectively agreed wage grades.

Common and divergent elementsin bricklaying qualifications in the eight countries

The most basic common element is that in all eight countriesthe qualification requires the holder to be able to lay bricks.Beyond this, it is difficult to identify completely commonelements in all eight countries, only different Groups ofbricklaying VET and qualifications, especially the GroupThree members – Belgium, Denmark, France, and Germany.The Netherlands would conform to this group too were itnot that the bricklaying qualification is typically theequivalent of Level 2 and is rather narrow in scope. Poland isslightly more difficult to place because of the school-basednature of its system, though any constraint in attaching toGroup Three is likely to depend on the industrial experienceof the qualified Polish bricklayer rather than on the breadthand depth of the VET. An individual with the level 3bricklaying qualification, who also possesses sufficientindustrial experience, should be as acceptable, if not more so,than a recent graduate from a Dual route. In fact, the issue isnot peculiar to Poland and Group Three countries, sinceBelgium, England, France, Germany and the Netherlandsalso have school-based routes and graduates from these willalso need to gain experience in order for their qualificationsto attain their full value on the labour market.

The main divergence in the bricklaying qualifications ofEngland and- to a lesser extent – Italy and the other sixcountries may be summarised as:• the narrowness of scope• the weakness of the knowledge base


characterised as a trust issue at the national level. It rests on aperception that learners who have not carried out part oftheir initial VET in operational conditions within theconstruction industry are less well-equipped than those withsimilar school and workshop-based input but with theaddition of apprenticeship –type, work-based experience.

Our conclusion for Group Two and Group Threecountries is therefore that the elements for a ZMT exist, givencertain national modifications, due to broad similarities in theaims and content of the respective systems. Group Onecountries, however, highlight the difficulties in integrating alleight countries in a common ZMT as these are ‘outliers’ withrespect to the other six. Above all in England, bricklaying isorganised more as a trade, based on narrow and specialisedtask descriptions. General education and projectmanagement are insignificant elements in the initial VETprogrammes. In addition, the lack of social partnershiparrangements for the governance of bricklaying VETcontributes to a lack of labour market credibility in the natureof the curriculum and the qualification structure. When theseare at the disposal of the state and/or major contractors, thenthe temptation is to change them according to the needs ofthe moment, leading to confusion even within the nationalindustry itself as changes follow each in bewilderingsuccession. Furthermore, the development of a ZMT withincountries with Group One characteristics is itself problematicdue to this constant change, their differences from each otherin respect of technical scope and, in the case of Italy, strongregional variation.

As the initial VET systems and qualifications forbricklaying in Group Two and Three countries generallyserve them well, the alternatives suggested are:• Group One countries, and in particular England, reformtheir bricklaying VET by, for example:- Introducing greater social partnership arrangements forthe recognition of qualifications.

- Revising the curriculum to accommodate greatertechnical scope, more general education and thedevelopment of project management ability

• Group One remains outside the initial process of forminga ZMT for bricklaying or for the construction industrywithin the EU. If a workable system of APEL were to bedeveloped for bricklaying, part of the asymmetrybetween Group One and Groups Two and Three mightbe mitigated.

The consequences of the second alternative are, however,likely to be asymmetric: flows of bricklayers from othercountries into Group One countries are likely to continuebecause employers already have a good understanding oftheir qualities and find them valuable for certain purposes.Group One bricklayers may gain access to the labourmarkets of Group Two and Three countries but beincreasingly confined to relatively narrow and subordinateroles compared with bricklayers from Groups Two andThree. The transparency afforded by the EQF will reinforcethis tendency.

• work within EQF/SQF structures;• make certain modifications to the EQF;• give consideration to a level 3a as recommended by theSQF report;

• interpret learning outcomes flexibly and in a broadersense than purely outcomes-based as this is unlikely to berealisable in a practical sense (Brockmann et al 2008a);

• include a scope dimension to take account of the range ofbricklaying and related activities and to ensure that thedescriptors in each national qualification genuinely matcheach other in descriptive content rather than just being ofa nominally equivalent level. This is potentially tricky incutting across the other dimensions of the frameworkmaking it, in effect, three dimensional. Without it,however, the framework would be of little use. At itssimplest, scope can be accommodated by addingactivities to the proposed SQF table (Table 11). For amore prescriptive framework, core and optional activitieswould need to be specified – as indicated in Table 6;

• clarification of ‘competence’ to emphasise self and projectmanagement, through modifying the ‘autonomy andresponsibility’ column;

• independent referencing for bricklaying to avoid thepossibly highly unsatisfactory outcomes of the currentEQF process;

• be acceptable to a majority of the participating countries.

Prospects for creating a common framework forcomparison of qualificationswithin EQF and ECVET

Group Two and Group Three bricklaying qualificationsshow good potential for the development of a ZMT based onthe similarities of their respective VET systems. Thedevelopment of technical breadth, general education andproject management abilities are common curricular features,although, in the case of the Netherlands, there would need tobe considerable changes made to the technical curriculum inorder to bring bricklaying qualifications into a common ZMTwhere these were recognised as equivalents with those of theother countries. However, all six countries should find itrelatively easy to accept each other’s qualifications in thelabour market (given the proviso above about theNetherlands) and, if appropriate and relatively minor changeswere to be made, the curricula, would be very similar – asindicated in Table 6. The common emphasis on projectmanagement and personal responsibility helps to generate ajustified set of common expectations concerning the ability ofbricklayers from these two groups to work independently,co-operatively and responsibly, with relatively low levels ofsupervision.There remains an issue concerning the relative labour marketvalue of school-based as opposed to apprenticeship- or Dual-based qualifications but this is an issue that could be

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Brockmann, M.; Clarke, L.; Winch, C. (2010) ‘Bricklaying Qualifications, Work and VET in Europe’, CLR News, No 1

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Clarke, L., Winch, C. (eds) (2007) Vocational Education: International Developments and Systems, London, Routledge.

Coles, M. (2007) Qualifications Frameworks in Europe: platforms for qualifications, integration and reform, Brussels: EU, Education and Culture DG.

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remains unclear, largely because of ECVET itself and inparticular whether or not it will be possible to base aworkable system for awarding purely on output basedlearning outcomes. The issue is important in allowing foraccumulated experience to be accredited in a bricklayer’squalification portfolio. However this will depend not onlyon credible assessment of learning outcomes but also onensuring that the skills (know-how), competences andknowledge not directly embodied in the learningoutcomes are nevertheless properly taken into account.

Two conclusions follow:• An SQF adapted as an Occupational QualificationFramework (OQF) along the lines suggested in Table 11would be suitable as an instrument for developing a ZMTfor bricklaying. In effect it would serve as a sectoral andoccupational instrument of mutual recognition, havingthe additional benefit of ‘future proofing’ a bricklayingframework because of its flexibility and the relative easyof adjustment according to need.

• The relationship between an OQF/SQF and ECVET

Country reports

England

Belgium

Denmark

France

Germany

Italy Netherlands

Poland

The Belgian bricklaying qualification

Kristof Van Roy/FVB/FFC

IntroductionThe qualification of the Bricklayer in Belgium was researchedthrough a macro-level and a micro-level study. The macrolevel study explored the national context, including theconstruction industry, the bricklaying occupation andqualification. It investigated the way competences areunderstood, the currency of the occupation and thequalification, etc. It also identified the different routes toobtaining the qualification and the respective learningoutcomes. This information was based on available publicdocuments and research undertaken by the studydepartment of the FVB/FFC. The micro level studyinvolved: a) interviewing twenty bricklaying companies onthe basis of a standardized questionnaire concerning theminimal criteria for entry into the labour market as abricklayer and the way the competences of bricklayers evolvefrom the beginning of their career; and b) interviewing afurther fifteen bricklaying companies on a number of topicsrelated to the bricklaying occupation such as: • Recruitment of bricklayers• Minimal entry requirements• Qualification of bricklayers• Work organisation • Vocational Training

The main results from this micro and macro level study arepresented in this chapter.

Belgian bricklayers are skilled workers who buildconstructions out of brick, block and stone, using mortar.They construct inner and outer walls and lay foundations.They connect plumbing and sewage systems. Sometimesthey assemble scaffolding and install insulation. Besides thesetasks bricklayers also perform certain non manual tasks:Planning: • planning and organising the work• inventory of materials• contacts with suppliersguaranteeing safety and hygiene.• Observing health and safety measures• Filing complaints when necessaryQuality management• Observing deadlines• communicating client specifications• Dealing with work permits• Dealing with customers, contractors and co-workers

Research shows that bricklayers also perform tasks related tothe following occupations:• Formwork• Tiling• Scaffolding• Jointing• Woodworking• Driving

Table 1: Number and percentage of bricklayers by company size

Company size 1-4 4-9 10-19 20-49 50-99 100+ Total

Bricklayers 1,346 1,942 3,746 7,263 3,697 6,006 24,000

Percentage 5.6% 8.1% 15.6% 30.3% 15.4% 25.0% 100%

All blue collar workers 7,200 12,000 20,000 48,640 22,880 49,440 160,000

percentage 4.5% 7.5% 12.5% 30.4% 14.3% 30.9% 100%

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Bricklayers are confronted with a number of safety and healthrisks:• Bruises and injuries as a result of getting caught in a mortar mixer or as a result of handling heavy and large bricks or stones.

• Electrocution • Slipping and/or falling from a scaffold.• Injuries as a result of handling cement (burns, irritation, etc.)

• Injuries as a result of handling insulation materials (e.g. rock wool or glass wool)

• Inhaling of dust• Loud noises can impair hearing• Lifting of heavy objects can result in problems with joints and muscles

The governance system of VET related to bricklaying

Different actors

The role of the state

The main role of the state is the development of educationpolicy. The Ministry of Education and Training prepares adecree (equivalent to a law). In this preparatory stage, theMinistry of Education is required to obtain the advice ofdifferent third parties (e.g. concerning finance, the validity oflegislation). One of these third parties is the ‘AdvisoryCouncil for Education’. The Council operates independentlyfrom the Department of Education and Training and thecompetent Minister. After this Advisory Council has had theopportunity to formulate its advice, the decree can be passedby parliament. It is the responsibility of the Executive (theDepartment of Education) to implement policy. Duringimplementation, the policy is evaluated by schools andinspection (auditing) services.

Branches

Freedom of education is enshrined in the Belgianconstitution, and education is organised by different‘networks’ or branches’ (In Dutch: ‘netten’, in French:‘résaux’). This guarantees the right of schools to adopt theirown educational approach. There are three major branches: • Education organized by the community

Bricklaying in the context ofthe building industry

The Belgian construction industry comprises companiesactive in demolition, deconstruction, laying foundations,excavating, drilling, groundworks, bricklaying, woodwork,roofing, HVAC (heating, ventilation and air conditioning),plastering, painting, masonry, plumbing, scaffolding,dredging, renovation, restoration, road building, watermanagement, etc. Bricklayers are mostly active in sectorssuch as house building, commercial building, repair andmaintenance, and restoration.

As is shown Table 1 below, bricklayers more often workin smaller-sized companies. Numbering 24,000, they representthe largest occupational group in the construction industry,followed by woodworkers (20,000). There are about 160,000blue collar workers (manual labour), 20,000 white collarworkers, and 40,000 self-employed active in the constructionindustry.

The Belgian workforce is characterised by lowgeographical mobility. The construction sector has a highlevel of labour turnover of 25%, with employees movingwithin the sector and leaving for other sectors. This meansthat one in four employees leave their employer for anotherin any one year; of these, 10% find a new position withinconstruction and 15% leave the industry (due to retirement,change of sector, unemployment, etc.). The high labourturnover applies also to bricklayers, although the particularsectors and size of company in which bricklayers are activeexperience even higher turnover levels.

Recruitment is often through informal channels, forexample through word-of-mouth (friends, family, etc.).Sometimes entire gangs of bricklayers change one employer foranother. Another entrance route is an apprenticeship. In largercompanies, entrance routes can be more formal in nature.

»As there is a shortage of skilled (or qualified) workers

in the construction industry, companies do not specify

formal qualification requirements. In general, about

20-25% of newly recruited bricklayers have formal

qualifications. Although companies state that they do not

always have formal qualification requirements, they

expect certain competences. As most of the work is done

in teams, willingness and ability to work in teams are

deemed essential. «

Source: Hoefnagels K. (2001) Basic competences of a bricklayer

30 Belgium

whether learning outcomes are achieved. Moreover, theAuditing Service seeks to ensure that: • schools meet minimal requirements and follow the approved educational programmes;

• learning outcomes are met; and• the infrastructure is adequate.

To perform these audits, the different teams evaluatedocuments as provided by the schools regarding: • Vision• Decision making (reports, etc.)• Quality Management• Human Resources Management• Well-being Learning Programmes and Curriculum • Outcomes (transition, completion rate, etc.)• Client SatisfactionThe Audit Service also makes site visits.

The structure and content of VET and qualifications for bricklaying

Competence relates to the performance of workplaceactivities in a defined occupational field and is based on theintegration of knowledge, know-how and attitudes. It isassumed that, in order to perform tasks, students draw onknowledge (properties of mortar), know-how (laying ofbricks and combining them with mortar) and (work)attitudes (e.g. a certain degree of accuracy, efficiency,teamwork, etc.). Learning outcomes are described in termsof competences: a student can perform a task; a studentknows certain facts; or a student has a certain attitude.

A qualification is defined as an exhaustive set ofcompetences for which people can obtain an officialdocument. A qualification defines those competences that arerelevant for a specific job, social function or entry in a certaincourse or educational scheme. In order to obtain thequalification of a bricklayer, different routes exist. As a shortintroduction: the different educational levels in theeducational system will be explained (in general, in Belgiumsecondary education starts from the age of twelve years).

Special Secondary Education (BuSO)

This is an educational system oriented towards students witha physical disability, with learning difficulties or withdevelopmental disorders (such as ADHD, autism, etc.).Students can obtain a qualification as a bricklayer as a resultof education in this system. In order to obtain this, a studentfirst follows a minimum of two and a maximum of four yearsof training, consisting of a period of classroom and workshoplearning in a school, specifically oriented towards bricklaying.This is followed by the qualification phase, again two, threeor four years of training, which includes a placement in a

(= organised by the state)• Official subsidized education (organised by Municipalities or provinces)

• Free subsidized education (mainly Catholic schools

Development, recognition and regulation of qualifications and skills

The first step is the drawing up of occupational profiles,which are based on the demands of the construction industryOccupational profiles are validated by social partners. Theyare the basis for the learning outcomes in different pathways.Occupational profiles are developed according to an analyticprocedure. First, different source material is gathered:courses, manuals, literature, but also interviews withcompanies and experts. Secondly, a draft version isproduced. This draft version is presented to social partnersand experts in the field, so as to allow for corrections andchanges. Thirdly, the final document is presented to allrelevant social partners. After this stage, minor alterationsremain possible. This process guarantees that all socialpartners agree on the content of the document. As such, itcan be used as an occupational standard or reference material.It is therefore used as source material for school courses andmodules, as well as for courses in training centres, etc.The second step is the drawing up of educational profiles, atask which is undertaken by the above-mentioned ‘AdvisoryCouncil for Education’. The profiles aim to meet thefollowing objectives:• To match education and labour market demands• To promote the transition of qualified workers• To guarantee the quality of education

The profiles contain the required know-how andunderpinning knowledge that are expected of a constructionworker at the beginning of his/her career. The objective of theprofiles is the development of an instrument, validated by aspecific sector, which enables VET to be matched to thereality of the labour market.

The third step is the drawing up of educationalprogrammes, which is most often undertaken by therespective umbrella organisations. The curriculum consists of:• General courses, involving students working on a project,enabling them to achieve relevant learning outcomes.

• Practical courses, related to construction (bricklaying)• Company placements.

The schools develop the educational programme. The State(the Ministry of Education and Training), determines thedevelopment of goals and objectives (= learning outcomes).The ways in which these objectives are met is theresponsibility of the vocational schools and/or trainingcentres. Much of the responsibility regarding the quality andeffectiveness (are the learning outcomes achieved?) ofeducational schemes lies within the discretion of thegoverning body or the school. The State audits schools to see

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There are two different systems. Although they are similarwith regards to the vocational training, there are differenceswith regard to the governing body and the overall aim.• Industrial apprenticeship (JLW): a scheme that qualifiesstudents for employment as skilled workers.

• Self-employed apprenticeship (Leertijd): a scheme thatqualifies students for self-employment. The majordifference between this type of apprenticeship and theindustrial apprenticeship is that it covers basic knowledgeof ‘business management’. This is a prerequisite for self-employment. The training within the company is moreor less the same as the industrial apprenticeship, exceptthat students spend 80% of their time in the company. In the industrial apprenticeship this can only be 60%. As discussed, the training in the school (there are specificlearning centres for this form of apprenticeship) alsoteaches the students business management. Manystudents do not become self-employed immediately butstart as construction workers in a firm in order to gainexperience.

Proportion of students in any one cohort following the different routes (different types of full-time education versus apprenticeship)

• Special education: 20%• Professional education: 40%• Industrial apprenticeship: 20%• Self-employed apprenticeship: 20%

The structure and content of VET and qualifications forbricklaying is fully modularized. This means that the entirecurriculum is divided into different modules; the completionof one module entitles the student to a certificate. Thisimplies that students who do not complete the entire set ofmodules necessary for the qualification obtain a certificate foreach completed module. In order to present the structure andcontent of the curriculum, the different modules that makeup the qualification of Bricklayer (Metselaar) are shown below.

The entire qualification of Bricklayer can be obtained aftercompletion of the seven modules. Within the professionaleducational system, the education is not limited to thesemodules. After completion of the domainMasonry/Bricklaying and Concrete work in ProfessionalSecondary Education, one obtains the qualification of All-round construction worker. This qualification entails threeother qualifications: Mason/ Bricklayer, Formworker andSteel Fixer. But even if one does not fully complete thissecondary education, the aggregate of the different modules,as presented in the scheme below, results in the qualificationof bricklayer.

company. Afterwards a student can opt for an optional yearof learning through a system of alternance (two days perweek in school, three days per week in a company). Successfulcompletion results in the qualification of bricklayer.

Educational systems focus on three different domains:• General education: how to function in society anddevelop oneself as a human being;

• Preparatory education: to prepare a student for higher education;

• Labour market orientation: the acquisition ofcompetences that can be used to find a placein the labour market.

All schools (need to) pay attention to general education,preparatory education and labour market orientation.However, the emphasis in the type of education can differ.Special education is almost completely oriented towards thelabour market. On the other hand, General SecondaryEducation (ASO) schools prepare students almost solely forhigher education.

The six years of secondary education (between the agesof 12 and 18) is divided into three grades of two years. Thefirst grade (years 1 and 2) within all these educational systemsis the same. In the second grade (years 3 and 4), a studentchooses a certain domain (e.g. construction). And, the third(years 5 and 6) consists in the choice for a more specificdomain (e.g. all-round construction worker).

Professional Secondary Education (BSO)

The main route for obtaining a bricklaying qualification is fulltime education: Professional Secondary Education. Thiseducational system qualifies students for employment asskilled workers, and contributes to the students’ professionaland social development. In the second degree (ages 15-16),students can opt for the domain Construction, in the thirddegree (ages 17-18) they can opt for the specific domainMasonry and Concrete Work. As a result they obtain thequalification: all-round Mason/bricklayer and Concreteworker. This qualification is somewhat broader than justBricklayer because of the demands of the labour market.

Adult Education

Adults can follow courses in centres for adult education andobtain the qualification of Bricklayer (Metselaar) by followingseveral modules.

The educational systems referred to above consist of fulltime education in a school (albeit it with certain periods of in-company learning – work placements). However, youngpeople who reach the third grade can also opt for anapprenticeship in alternation. In these systems, young peoplespend most of their time (60 – 80%) in a company, with theremaining time spent in a recognized vocational school.

Basic Masonry

Foundation on steel

Above ground Masonry

Basic Concrete Constructions

Basementconstructions and sewers

FacadeQualification:

Mason/Bricklayer

Concreteconstructions

ContentA. Basic competences

The student can: 1. plan activities2. follow guidelines concerning quality,

well-being and environment3. perform groundwork4. execute subterranean foundation masonry5. construct floors6. install scaffolding and ladders7. perform masonry 8. glue bricks and building blocks9. install moisture insulation10. joint11. install thermal insulation12. install elements in the masonry

B. Integrated learning outcomes(these are integrated into general courses (maths, language, etc.)

The student can:1. Use language and social skills2. Read and interpret a schematic representation3. Use and understand textual material and forms.4. Organise, execute and evaluate simple individual

assignments. In the case of a group assignment, theycan negotiate and participate, follow instructions, reflect.

5. Respect the environment6. Use gathered information orally, put simple

information in writing7. Calculating proportions8. Plan, organise, execute, evaluate and adapt assignments9. During group assignments they can:

a. discuss and participateb. execute assignments in teamc. reflect and adapt

10. Are motivated to look after own and others’ health andwell being.

11. Assume a safe attitude in daily situations.

C. Key Skills

i. Persistenceii. Plan ones workiii. Ability to learn

32 Belgium

iv. Safety and environmental consciousnessv. Oriented towards ergonomics.vi. Accuracy vii. Flexibilityviii. Result-orientedix. Autonomyx. Sense for co-operationxi. Sense of aesthetics.

In the Belgian educational system, each school is responsiblefor enabling students to achieve learning outcomes.However, the ways in which students achieve these lieswithin the discretion of the school. Therefore, thepedagogical approaches can be quite divers.

The bricklayer in the labour market

Bricklaying is the most important occupation in constructionwork. Most houses are still built using brick. However,although employers prefer qualified workers, qualificationsare not a precondition for labour market entry. Bricklayersare among a number of occupations for which there is ashortage of skilled workers in Belgium. Therefore, someonewho has the qualifications/skills is valued highly on thelabour market. However, because of the lack of skilledworkers, construction companies often have to make dowith other non-qualified workers. Often those unskilledworkers receive on-the-job training or they follow shortmodules in private or public training centres.

A survey of several construction companies showed that

only four of fifteen bricklaying companies tend to recruit

qualified bricklayers.

The degree of specialisation varies. In larger companies, thereis a higher degree of specialisation, whereas smaller companiesrequire bricklayers that are more polyvalent (e.g. plastering,etc.).

The same survey found that a bricklayer in a small-sized

company tends to perform a wider array of activities

compared with a bricklayer in a large company. This was

reflected in the scope of competences that newly-recruited

bricklayers learn during their careers. The number of

competences that bricklayers learn in smaller companies

exceeds those of bricklayers in larger ones.

There is a link between qualifications (and/or skills) and wagelevels. The graded wage structure in the Belgian constructionindustry consists of 6 different wage scales. Someone whohas obtained a qualification as a result of full-time educationimmediately enters in the second wage scale. Someone whohas obtained the qualification as result of an apprenticeshipstarts on the first wage scale. This is re-evaluated after 9months. These wage grades are determined by means of a

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• Governance responsibilities are shared between the state,the educational sector and the social partners. Socialpartnerships and the integration of educational and work-based elements are both important in the Belgian system.

With regards to the EQF and the translation to a NationalQualification Framework (NQF), Belgium has adopted atwo category, eight level, framework (Knowledge/Skills andContext/Autonomy/Responsibility). It is organised aroundlearning outcomes. A qualification is defined as an exhaustiveset of competences for which people can obtain an officialdocument. A qualification defines those competences that arerelevant for a specific occupation, social function or entry ina certain course or educational scheme. The qualificationstructure shows the knowledge, skills and attitudes that arethe result of competence development. As such, it does notfocus on input (how competences are acquired), but onoutput (the acquired competences). A qualification istherefore defined by learning outcomes: competences that arethe result of competence development – be this in a formal ornon-formal setting (e.g. on the job training or formalvocational training). Since the qualification of bricklayer andthe NQF are also based on learning outcomes, the twoframeworks can be related to each other.

collective labour agreement (CLA). They are the result ofnegotiations between social partners. All blue collar workersin the construction industry are subject to this CLA,regardless of the profession. Furthermore, social partnersnegotiate a CLA, which specifically deals with VET in theconstruction industry. In order to implement the CLA, thesector industry founded a foundation for vocational trainingin the construction industry (FVB/FFC).

ConclusionsIn Belgium, 40% of students in any one cohort follow thefull-time vocational school route, although another 40% gothrough the apprenticeship system. The former provides avery broad qualification after four years (mason/bricklayer,form setter and steel fixer). However, it is fully modularised,and students can opt to take the bricklaying qualification only.The apprenticeship takes three years to complete and leads toa bricklaying qualification. This dual system of apprenticeshipis characterised by two features usually found together: • that the young person is an employee, albeit one involvedin a contract with the body organising the apprenticeship,as well as with the employer.

The context of the Danish building industry

The Danish construction sector consists of around 36,000companies, of which approximately 8,000 are – amongstother activities – working with bricklaying. The turnover ofthe sector in 2008 was DKK 241 billion (approximately 32billion €), of which companies working with bricklayinggenerated around DKK 34 billion (c. 4.6 billion €). The totalconstruction workforce is approximately 170,000 personsand bricklaying is one of the smaller occupations comparedto carpenters and electricians. About 12,000 were employedas bricklayers in 2008 in both the public and private sectors,the majority in SMEs (see Table 1). Since the financial crisis,the unemployment rate for bricklayers has been increasing,to reach 9% in 2010 and a growing number are also likely toretire in the near future. In 2008, every fourth employee wasan apprentice, and about one-third of the labour force wasmore than fifty years old. According to local agreementscompanies are committed to using skilled bricklayers and atleast 95% of the workforce holds a qualification as a skilledbricklayer. According to estimates, about 6,000 foreignworkers were working in the Danish construction sector in2007, undertaking a range of activities and with a moregeneral occupational profile than Danish constructionworkers; with the crisis this number has decreased. From2012 it is anticipated that the demands for skilled labourwithin building and construction will increase, driven – as ina range of EU countries – by demographics, as well as byfactors specific to Denmark, including investments ininfrastructure projects totalling DKK 94 billion (c. 12.5 billion€) decided by Parliament in January 2009.

Results from the case study: employment stability

All bricklayers in the three firms studied are employed on

an hourly wage and may be discharged at one day’s notice.

Yet, none of the firms have experienced large changes in

their staff: in the smallest firm many of the employees

have been employed at the company for 10-15 years, in the

medium size company (where two employees recently

celebrated 25 years with the company) for 10-20 years, and

in the large firm for an average of 10 years though many

had been there more than 20 years. None of the firms have

or have had foreign employees as a part of their staff and

all three firms emphasized the bricklayers’ right to

unemployment benefits or other assistance if they are

members of an unemployment fund and a union:

»A typical bricklayer in the company is an ethnic Danish

man between 17 and 61 years of age. The average age of

those in the company is 35-40 years, and the bricklayer

will typically be employed as a skilled worker. The

bricklayer could be a person of non-Danish background, but

this is not the typical bricklayer. All employed bricklayers

have a skilled worker certificate.«

The Danishbricklaying qualification

Flemming Jensen /3F Sidse Buch / Bat-kartellet

Number of employees in the company 1 2-9 10-49 49-99 100+

The share of bricklayers by company size 20% 63% 14% 2% 1%

»A typical bricklayer in the company is a man of 45 years

of age with an ethnic Danish background; he can hold all

positions: principal, supervisor, skilled worker, project

leader, and more. All employed bricklayers have a skilled

worker certificate.«

The Governance structure of the Danish VET system

The Danish (upper secondary) national vocational educationand training (VET) system offers qualifications that arerecognised nationally by employers, trade unions andeducational providers. The system is characterised by close,institutionalised, tri-partite collaboration at all levels,guaranteeing that VET programmes are responsive to thelabour market and that qualifications are recognised inbusiness and industry. The vocational colleges that offerupper secondary vocational qualification are all public.

Since reform of the VET system in 1991, its governancehas been highly decentralised, based on a principle of‘management-by-objectives’. The system has been in an on-going evolutionary process, delegating greater responsibility(content, execution, finance, quality management) andauthority to the vocational colleges. This is to ensure that itcan respond to changes in the labour market and the widersociety as well as meet local conditions and specific needs.Broad educational Acts regulate the programmes byspecifying educational objectives and principles concerningthe organisation of programmes (basic structure, durationand apprenticeship). It is the responsibility of the programmeproviders to organise education and training to achieve theseobjectives. Since 1991 the VET system has undergone anumber of reforms to adjust to different external demands.Most recently, and as a follow up to the Danish GlobalisationCouncil, the Minister of Education appointed a Task Forcefor future validation of VET. One of its central aims has beento propose new solutions to improving VET completionrates and the attractiveness of the programmes to studentswith different profiles. The Task Force has formulated a rangeof recommendations, which are referred to below.

The role of the state

The Ministry of Education organises a coherent system ofVET aimed at the private and public sectors of the labourmarket, approves new programmes and can discardprogrammes upon the recommendation of the Council forInitial Vocational Education (REU). The Ministry alsostipulates the main VET Act as well as educational mandatesfor individual VET qualifications upon the recommendation

of REU. Following resolution by the Trade Committees, theMinistry of Education defines the duration and structure ofindividual programmes such as for the bricklayerqualification, including the balance between the school andcompany components. This also includes regulationsgoverning the transition from the basic to the mainprogramme.

The Council for Initial Vocational Education and Training (REU)

REU is a formally constituted advisory body to the Ministryof Education on all matters concerning the governance anddevelopment of the VET system. The Minister of Educationappoints the head of the Council which has an equal numberof representatives from employers and trade unions as well asincluding representatives from the regions and municipalities(as public employers), public servants (as public employees),students, teachers and management from the colleges ofcommerce and trade, and technical colleges (in total 24members plus the head of the Council). Members areappointed for a four year period. The Ministry of Education,the Ministry of Industry and the Ministry of Labour eachappoint one representative, and the Ministry of Educationprovides secretarial support to the Council.

The Council gives advice to the Minister and the Ministryon matters concerning the VET system such as its structure,the accreditation of colleges and the content and assessmentframework. To ensure a dynamic VET system aligned tolabour market needs, the Council has the responsibility tofollow general developments in the labour market so as toadvise the Ministry on the need for new programmes or thecancellation of existing programmes which are no longer ofrelevance to the labour market. The use of statistics plays acentral role in monitoring developments in the VET system,including transition rates into the labour market followingthe journeyman’s test. The Council also advises the Ministryon VET supply/provision and other matters relevant to thegovernance of the system.

The trade committees

The employers and employees set up trade committees –approximately 50 – which cover all existing programmes.The trade committee for bricklayers has four representativesfrom the employers and four from the trade unions. Thecommittees monitor labour market developments withintheir particular sector and related areas with regard to thedevelopment of new programmes and the revision orcancellation of programmes. In many instances they havesecretariats to undertake many of these tasks.

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Table 1: Employment of bricklayers by size of firm

36 Denmark

Funding principlesThe Danish VET system is funded on a rather unique principlethat has created interest in other systems, based on a fundingmodel which involves employers, regardless of whether theytake apprentices or not, and the State.

Education costs for vocational education

The basic financial management principle for VET is targetand framework management. Vocational colleges receive arated system of block grants composed of:• A teaching element dependent on activity levels, to coverteachers’ salaries and teaching materials and equipment;

• A collective expenses element to cover expenses thatcannot be linked to specific educational programmes,such as administration and management costs,operational costs, materials and equipment;

• A building and maintenance element dependent onactivity levels, to cover capital costs including buildingrental, interest and payments on mortgage debt, andexpenses related to the maintenance of buildings;

• A completion element, introduced in 2003, that is paidout when the student graduates;

• An apprenticeship taximeter, which is paid out for eachapprenticeship contract.

In addition, VET programmes are dependent on a range offixed subsidies such as basic grants (currently composed ofan activity-level independent basic grant, which is budgetedas a unit grant, and an activity-dependent basic grant, whichis intended to provide support for the institutional structure)and sales tax reimbursement for institutions offeringvocationally-oriented programmes, and a range of smallersubsidies for research and development work, etc.

Other elements in the total cost of vocational education

Another aspect of the total costs in vocational education isrelated to the national Student Grant and Loan Scheme (SU).Students enrolled in basic programmes can be entitled to SUgrants. This expenditure is greater for commercialprogrammes as they contain a longer basic programme thantechnical programmes. In addition, the Employers’ TraineeReimbursement System (AER) provides salaryreimbursement with fixed subsidies during an apprentice’sschool-based study periods and subsidises apprentices’ travelexpenses and apprenticeships abroad. In order to qualify forAER subsidies to apprenticeships, employers must paycontributions to ATP (the Labour Market SupplementaryPension Group). Employers with only one employee – whotherefore are exempt from making the ATP contributionsthat all others pay in – can also receive subsidies. In order foran enterprise to receive an AER subsidy, the enterprise and

Within the general framework, the trade committees areresponsible for and decide on the following in relation to theprogrammes they represent:• Content of regulations concerning objectives, durationand structure including the division between the schooland company components as well as reference levels,where appropriate;

• Content of regulations concerning assessment plans forthe main area and specialist subjects, which represent thehighest level of a VET programme and aim to providethe trainee with specific vocational competenciesincluding practical skills such as Brickwork, Plastering,Flooring and Tiling, Roofing,Technical Drawing;

• Content of the regulations concerning apprenticeeducation and programme linkages to one or morepathways;

• Choice of core subjects in the main part of the specific programme;

• Approval of apprentice companies;• Special regulations in apprenticeship agreements;• Recommendations to the Ministry of Educationregarding VET programmes to be offered by colleges;

• Shortening or extension of a programme;• Complaints concerning the schools’ acceptance orfinalisation of school apprentice arrangements;

• Conflicts between apprentice companies and thestudents.

Decisions made by the trade committees cannot be appealedagainst to another authority. The trade committees assist theCouncil concerning common area subjects, and will on therequest of the Council give their views on matters ofrelevance to the Council’s work. The committees can delegatespecific tasks to local committees at institutional level.

Local education/training committees

The main VET Act stipulates that each vocational collegemust constitute one or more local educational committeeswith trade representatives for all the programmes they offer.At the local level, these committees: advise the collegesregarding the planning of the programme; cooperate withlocal trade and industry; have a role in engaging companies insigning apprenticeship contracts; and play a central role inon-going assessment including as external assessors in thefinal journeyman’s test, which consists of a practical and atheoretical test after the final college period.

In collaboration with the local committee, the collegesdefine and specify the content of regulations for eachprogramme they offer according to a local educational plan.Members of the local committees are union and employerrepresentatives from the particular occupation. There are inall twenty vocational institutions offering the bricklayerqualification, each with a local education and trainingcommittee representing the bricklayer occupation.

1 For an overview of current programs without open access, seehttp://www.uvm.dk/Uddannelse/Erhvervsuddannelser/Om%20erhvervsuddannelserne/Sporgsmaal%20og%20svar/Adgangsbegraensning.aspx

37

qualifications. The first level takes 2 years and 8 months andincludes 20 weeks at vocational college, with the remainderconsisting of company training. The student obtains aqualification as ‘Flisemontør’ (tile installer), a fully recognisedVET qualification, and has the right to return to education tocomplete the next level which leads to the full qualification ofbricklayer. Level 2 includes 15 weeks at vocational college,with the remainder consisting of company training.

For bricklayers, a total of approximately 70% is spent atthe work placement and 30% at vocational college. In-company training takes place in one or sometimes twocompanies, approved by the trade committee responsible asa training enterprise (approximately 20% of all companies areapproved as training enterprises). Thus, the in-companytraining part is the longer part of the programme and isorganised as employment with a salary on an apprenticeshipcontract basis. The apprentice takes part in the daily routinesof the enterprise, initially together with skilled colleagues,then gradually more independently. The company trainingplays a vital role in contributing to professional identitythrough interactions with peers at the work site. The socialpartners play a central role in the on-going monitoring of thequality of in-company training.

In recent years a number of measures have been taken toincrease the flexibility of the programmes to meet the needsof companies with different profiles. These include newcontractual forms whereby a couple of very specialisedenterprises may share an apprentice or the company is notobliged from the outset to sign a full contract, though thestudent is guaranteed to complete his/her education throughthe school-based apprenticeship scheme. These measureshave been implemented to expand the number ofapprenticeship contracts signed. The flexibilisation may alsoinvolve school periods taking place to accommodatefluctuating levels of activity in building work. Furthermorethe content of the main programme may to some extent beadapted to the specific needs of the apprentice company.

Quality and monitoring

The local trade committees approve companies who want toprovide training during an internship on the basis of specifiedcriteria and are responsible for monitoring the in-companytraining element. To be approved, an enterprise must have acertain level of technology, and a variety of tasks to beperformed to ensure that trainees are exposed to a full rangeof activities and tasks corresponding to the qualificationrequirements of a skilled worker. The trade committees areobliged to conduct continuous quality development andquality assurance of the VET programmes and thecompanies that offer practical training. The social partnersalso play a central role in on-going assessment, including asassessors in the final journeyman’s test.

the student must have entered into an approved trainingcontract, the student must not take on employment duringperiods of school-based education, and the student mustreceive wages in accordance with collective agreements. Thecloser the student is to graduation, the higher the level ofsubsidy.

Vocational education/learning

As with other apprenticeship systems, VET programmes havea broad educational basis that serves different purposes. VETobjectives stipulated in the legislation are to:• qualify students for employment as skilled workers;• provide the basis for further education and lifelonglearning;

• contribute to students’ personal and social development.

Programmes are designed with a view to employability, thatis to ensure that students acquire knowledge and skills sothey have better opportunities to switch to other occupations.The programmes are also designed with a view to ensuringthat students obtain a mix of skills and knowledge to enablethem to participate in lifelong learning; about one in fourstudents who qualify as bricklayers move to anotheroccupation.

Entry qualification level

Entry to a VET programme requires completion ofcompulsory education (9th or 10th grade). In the Danishnational qualification framework, this entry level correspondsto an EQF level 1-2. For certain programmes which do notoffer good employment opportunities, students need to havea signed apprentice contract in order to start the specificprogramme, examples being Administration, Animal Care,Digital media, Hairdresser, etc.1

Type and duration

All VET programmes consist of two parts: an initial basicprogramme and a main programme of vocationalspecialisation. The basic course is flexible in duration anddepends on the individual student’s prior qualifications andambitions. Since August 2008 basic programmes have beenorganised in 12 vocational clusters (access routes), one ofwhich is »Building and Construction« and includes 15programmes – bricklaying being one.

The duration of the bricklaying programme is 3 years and8 months, leading to a full qualification as bricklayer. Thebasic course consists of an initial 20 week programme at avocational school. The main course comprises two levels of

38 Denmark

up to 10 employees, and cover a range of different tasks –necessitating flexibility and openness to change. This is onlypossible with employees with a broad range of qualifications,who can handle a broad range of tasks. Danish bricklayersare a part of this tradition, and have a broad foundation whenit comes to both education and work experience. A qualifiedbricklayer can work in both craft-oriented and moreindustrialised construction activities.

Bricklayers work with brickwork walls, roofs, jointingand rendering, scaffolding, facade cladding, drawings, tilingand flooring. A skilled bricklayer is able unsupervised tocarry out and use ordinary working methods, techniques,materials and tools in all these areas, as well as carry outbricklaying assignments unsupervised in work relating to theconstruction of new buildings, urban regeneration,restoration and repair of buildings. They are involved in theconstruction of new houses and building complexes,construction repair/renovation and maintenance, building inthe public sector, industry and service sectors and in therestoration of historical buildings. Bricklayers also work onlarge scale construction processes where prefabricatedmaterials and components are often used, though industrialcarpenters also undertake those activities where assemblyplays a major role.

The Role of collective agreements

The collective agreements stipulate a minimum salary for askilled bricklayer and cover virtually the whole labourmarket for bricklaying. Bricklayers working in theconstruction industry are paid piecework according toperformance, while bricklayers working in crafts are paid byhourly wage. The basic hourly wage for a bricklayer is DKK129.40 per hour (c. € 17), as stipulated in the collectiveagreement, but – due to local negotiations – the wage level isalways somewhat higher. Furthermore the collectiveagreements contain a number of specific regulations linked toovertime, working on holidays etc. The average hourly wageis DKK 175-200 per hour (c. € 23-26). According toestimates, about 90 % of all bricklayers are organised in theunion and are a member of an unemployment insurancesystem. Membership gives the rights to receive unemploymentbenefits and to participate in continuing education andtraining.

Results from the case study:

wages

»The wage structure is scaled and is dependent on effort

and type of activity. New incentive structures are

frequently implemented in the scale. The wage is 200 kr.

(27 €) per hour + holiday allowance taxes, SH, and pension.

With weekly hours of 37, this corresponds to a weekly wage

of 9,543 kr. (1,272 €). This is the winter wage; if a good

effort is made, the wage can rise to 350 kr. (47€) per hour.

Pedagogical approaches

One of the main policy concerns has been to reduce thedrop-out rate from VET programmes, and to make VET anattractive educational system for students with differentprofiles. Following the recommendations of the DanishGlobalisation Council and the Committee for FutureValidating of VET, a number of measures have been taken toimprove completion rates in VET. This includes studentswith special needs acquiring a mentor and also obtainingpsychological assistance if needed. Guidance has beenintensified. Furthermore all students undergo an assessmentof prior learning as the basis for drawing up their ownindividual educational plan. For some students this will resultin a structured basic programme with extensive counsellingand opportunities for company placements. Gifted studentsmay choose subjects at higher levels with a view tocontinuing into tertiary education after having qualified as askilled bricklayer.

In order to manage the individual pathways for eachstudent, all students are assigned a counsellor when theyenter a VET programme and undertake an assessment ofprior learning in the first weeks. Together with a tutor, thestudents draw up a personal education plan describing theobjectives, and how to attain them. When the trainee startspractical training in an enterprise, the latter is also involved indefining overall objectives for the training, in cooperationwith the trainee. The enterprise has access to all the relevantparts of the apprentice’s personal education plan, aimed atimproving the collaboration between the apprenticecompany and the school.

Numbers and types of students by level of qualification

The average age of a bricklayer student was 23 years in 2007.Recent figures show that 22% of apprentices are 25 years orolder when they start the apprenticeship. Based on astatistical model, 79% of bricklaying students are expected tocomplete the qualification.

In 2007, 9,002 students started the basic programmewithin the route Building and Construction. Just over 1,000students began the main programme as bricklayers, resultingin 79% of the cohort completing the qualification. For allprogrammes concerned, the majority of drop outs occurwhile in the basic programme. There is also a tendency forstudents with low grades from compulsory school to havehigher drop-out rates.


In Denmark there is a long tradition of having broadeducational qualifications. The country is small, and between85%-90 % of businesses are also small or medium sized, with

39


changes in bricklaying

The firms emphasized digitalization and the increasing use

of information technology related to distribution and

communication as new changes in the area. Also climate

and energy consumption were referred to. When it comes

to the currency of the qualifications, the firms are not of

the opinion that these will change overnight. There is a

need and there will still be a need for the old traditional

qualifications that are necessary for the maintenance and

restoration of older buildings.

ConclusionThe Danish NQF-system is very similar to the EuropeanEQF-system. Based on the qualification frame, REU – whichincludes employers, employees and the Ministry – has set theVET bricklaying qualifications at level 4, whilst those for tileinstallers are at level 3; this applies to both the NQF andEQF. The positioning of qualifications is also set by the TradeCommittee for Bricklayers and Tile Installers. Thepositioning of VET qualifications for bricklaying and otherDanish occupations within the qualification frame will beapproved and implemented in 2010 and a website withinformation on this will be established.

The basis for the wage is the collective agreement.

The wage for apprentices is 60-96 kr. per hour (8-13 €) and

follows the collectively agreed provisions. When displaying

great effort, the apprentice may earn up to 30 kr. (approx 4

€) more per hour. This is a good motivational factor, and

more than 50% achieves this bonus.«


a broad range of activities

In all the three firms the bricklayers carry out all

different types of construction and restoration work,

including housing construction, repair and maintenance.

The activities are very comprehensive and have a broad

foundation. The bricklayers undertake all types of brick

work, including jointing and tiling, as well as larger

plastering and roofing tasks. A typical bricklayer in the

three firms has extensive competencies and can handle

all aspects of the subject. The soft competences must be

present as well, such as being able to cooperate,

communicate, plan one’s work, show responsibility, be

independent and able to make decisions. The skilled

workers should also know how to interact with the

customers and have a positive attitude when it comes

to educating apprentices. It is not sufficient to be an

expert in one area, such as tile work or facade bricklaying.

The Englishbricklaying qualification


Introduction

This report outlines the major themes of the English systemof bricklaying qualifications and vocational education andtraining (VET). It is based on a study of the nationalinstitutional and labour market contexts, which involvedinterviews with key stakeholders at national level, and a casestudy of a Further Education (FE) college and threeemployers (one large, one medium-sized and one small) inthe East Midlands region (Brockmann et al. 2010).

England is distinct from many of the other countries inthe study in that bricklaying is still largely identified as a‘trade’, based upon the narrow performance of skills, ratherthan as an ‘occupation’ based on comprehensivequalifications. The key characteristics of its traditionalbuilding sector, where bricklaying tends to be situated, arethe weak and unstable regulatory system; the lack of socialpartnership in developing and regulating qualifications andVET provision; the weakness in the currency of thebricklaying qualification; the casual nature of muchemployment, above all the use of ‘bogus’ self-employment;and the output-based nature of the wage system.

Context of the building industry

The UK construction sector is very diverse, accounting forapproximately 10% of Gross Domestic Product andemploying nearly 1.9m people, though this has droppedsignificantly in the current crisis, by approximately 375,000workers from 2008 (ConstructionSkills 2010;BERR 2008;).After a sharp decline in activity in the early 1990s,construction output steadily increased from £60 billion in themid-1990s, to reach £83 billion in 2007, only to contract byaround 13% in 2009, above all in the private housebuildingand commercial sectors. This means that bricklayers, manyof whom are in the private housebuilding sector, aredisproportionally affected by the crisis.

Repair and maintenance (R&M), including housingimprovements, many of which are carried out by small orone-person firms, account for 43% of this output, whilsthousing represents 39%. As a proportion of new work,however, housing is 31%, whilst private industrial andcommercial output represents 43% and infrastructure 11%.There are significant regional variations in output, with largeconcentrations in London and the South-East, though thereare pockets of relatively high activity in other regions,including in the South-west and the Midlands.

Some of the different sectors into which construction isdivided are significantly more regulated and demanding interms of formal VET and qualifications than others. Mostdemanding and covered by highly regulated collectiveagreements are the building services (mechanical andelectrical (M&E)) and engineering construction sectors. Thebuilding sector – embracing housebuilding and the traditional‘wet’ trades such as bricklaying, plastering, painting and

41

The governance system of VETrelated to bricklaying

Key characteristics of the English vocational education andtraining (VET) system are its voluntarist nature and weakstatutory framework. Responsibility for funding is splitbetween the Skills Funding Agency (for learners aged 19 andabove) and the Young People’s Learning Agency (for learnersup to age 18). The main responsibility for commissioningnew provision, expanding existing provision or removingineffective provision was in 2010 given to the localauthorities. The budget for education and training issupposed to be responsive to employment needs and tosupport the Sector Skills Councils (SSC), which operateunder a government licence that is reviewed every five years.SSCs are responsible for developing qualifications, makingsure that the skills needs of the sectors are met and fororganising VET provision together with the respectiveindustry, FE colleges and private training organisations.Under the new Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalitiongovernment, changes initiated by Labour have been widelytaken on, especially in relation to initiatives to increase thelow number of apprenticeship places, which has been a majorproblem in the English system. However, Labour’s flagshipinitiatives, to increase compulsory education to age 18, andthe entitlement to an apprenticeship place, have been revokedunder the current government. It proposes to set up newLocal Enterprise Partnerships, raising a question markconcerning the role of the SSCs.

As the SSC for Construction, ConstructionSkills has amajor role in developing and regulating qualifications. Incollaboration with the Occupational Working Group onTrowel Occupations, it establishes and maintains NationalOccupational Standards (NOS) – the building blocks ofqualifications – and the qualification structure for the sector,in particular National Vocational Qualifications (CITB2006a). The trade union role in training has been steadilyeroded, including in terms of membership of theConstructionSkills. Unlike in the past when trade unionswere involved in the apprentice contract which had to beregistered with the National Joint Council for the BuildingIndustry (NJCBI), they no longer have any formal andcontractual role with respect to Apprentices. Whilst theconstruction trade unions covering bricklaying are weak,especially in the private sector, so too increasingly are theemployers associations in disarray. More key than industry-wide organisations to qualifications and VET for bricklayingare the trade associations, a factor which is symptomatic ofthe continued trade nature of bricklaying in Britain. Formedby leading companies in the industry, the Association ofBrickwork Contractors (ABC), for example, with 20 fullmembers and 20 trade association members, champions theongoing importance of brick.

The key quango responsible for qualifications andworking closely with government and other agencies is theQualifications and Curriculum Development Agency(QCDA), which creates, develops and delivers the

decorating and ‘dry’ trades such as roofing, carpentry, andglazing – is much less regulated and demanding in terms ofhigher level skill qualifications, except in certain specialistareas such as exhibition work and shopfitting. The civilengineering sector is perhaps the least demanding ofqualifications in a formal sense, the wage being still to allintents and purposes constructed around the status of thelabourer, with ‘plus rates’ accorded for working on particularactivities.

The output of the industry is very varied, implying also avaried deployment of bricklaying labour and skills. Theindustry is more labour-intensive and unproductive thanmost other leading European countries, as evident fromdetailed comparative studies of housebuilding sites, whichshowed that 39% more labour was required to produce onesquare metre in England compared with Germany and 50%compared with Denmark (Clarke and Herrmann 2004a). Anauthoritative analysis of research projects across Europeplaced UK 55% on its resource-use benchmarking index,compared to 69% for Germany and 72% for Denmark (BWA2006). The report emphasised the UK’s poor record in termsof investment in research and development and training,‘exacerbated by extensive sub-contracting’, and the fact that‘low labour rates and efficiency do not go together’. Thisanalysis is supported by a series of reports prepared over thelast 50 years which, according to the Comptroller andAuditor General (2001):

»…. have identified a lack of serious and sustained

commitment to education, training, safety and research

and in particular the low levels of commitment to serious

skills development…. leading to consistently low levels of

performance in areas such as cost, time, quality, running

costs and fitness for the end user.«

Of the industry’s 186,000 private contracting companies over93% have fewer than 13 employees, though accounting foronly 37% of direct employment and 20% of the value ofprivate contractors’ work done (BERR 2008). Firmsemploying over 600 account for 18% of employment and26% of work done, and have significantly declined innumber, as have the medium-sized firms. The largestcompanies are relatively small in global terms, the highestplaced UK contractor being thirteenth in a league ofEuropean contractors based on turnover. A high proportionof contractors’ output, too, rather than being carried outdirectly, is subcontracted, estimated at about 65%, or morethan double that in other leading European countries (e.g.Clarke and Herrmann 2004b). Many bricklayers areemployed in housebuilding, laying facing bricks and blocks,and employed by labour-only subcontractors of varying size(some may have over a hundred on their books). 85% of theconstruction industry comprises such SMEs, acting assubcontractors, many not able or willing to train but simplyseeking someone with relevant knowledge, skills and aboveall experience.

42 England

The structure and content of VET and qualifications forbricklaying

In terms of formal VET, a bricklayer in England shouldacquire a National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) Level 2and if a ‘craftsperson’, as classified in the Working RuleAgreement (WRA) for the Construction Industry, a NVQ3.There is, however, a high degree of informal learning forbricklaying: many simply learn on the job and then acquirean NVQ through what is known as the onsite training andassessment (OSAT) route, implying practical skills but notheory, whereby an experienced worker’s card is obtained.OSAT is just assessment, rather than training in a formalsense. Thus, the NVQ is the critical qualification for thesector and for bricklaying.

The NVQs for bricklaying have narrowed downsubstantially over the past 15 years. In the past, there wouldhave been an overlap with other qualifications, includingstonemasonry, concreting, drainage and scaffolding, whereasnow it is mostly laying bricks. This is in part because ofchanges in materials and techniques, for example concerningdrainage; drains are mostly plastic whereas in the past theywould be clay with mortar. On the other hand, there is astrong sense among employers and trade unions that thebricklaying qualification is too narrow and no longer reflectschanging work processes. Many bricklayers also work withstone, though stonework is not included in the bricklayingNVQ, and they may also be required to build arches, thoughthese are also no longer a requirement of the NVQ.

The NVQ Level 2 in bricklaying comprises 5 mandatory and1 optional unit of a set of 7. The 5 mandatory units are:• Conform to general workplace safety• Conform to efficient work practices• Move and handle resources• Erect masonry structures• Set out masonry structures

The optional units are:• Erect masonry cladding• Lay domestic drainage• Erect thin joint masonry structures• Place and finish non-specialist concrete• Plaster and render surfaces• Maintain slate and tile roofing• Repair and maintain masonry structures

Each unit is described in terms of ‘performance criteria’ with‘scope of performance’, and ‘knowledge and understandingrelating to performance criteria’ and ‘scope of knowledge andunderstanding’. For the unit ‘Erect masonry structures’ thescope of performance comprises: interpreting informationsuch as drawings, specifications; complying with relevantlegislation; selecting resources for the work; complying withorganisational procedures (including maintaining a cleanwork environment and waste disposal); carrying out the

Government's programmes for the management and reformof qualifications, curriculum and assessment. Its coreresponsibilities in relation to VET include: working withstakeholders and strategic partners to develop innovativeeducation initiatives, such as the 14-19 Diploma and theQualifications and Credit Framework (ECVET); providingguidance and support, helping to build a VET system thatbenefits all learners throughout their lives; reformingvocational qualifications; creating the Qualifications andCredit Framework and working with awarding bodies(QCA 2009). At the same time, Ofqual (Office of theQualifications and Examinations Regulator) acts as an‘independent guardian of standards’ to regulate qualifications,exams and tests in England, including monitoring standardsand quality and overseeing awarding organisations’ systems(DCSF 2009).

Key training providers are the publicly funded FEcolleges and private training providers, including the trainingarms of major contractors such as Carillion. Of increasedimportance is the FE-based route for construction training,giving a particularly key role to FE Colleges in training. Thevast majority of first year entrants into construction, nearlytwo-thirds, are based in FE Colleges, including forbricklaying, with only about one-third in work-basedtraining, including in Apprenticeships. In 2009, legislationcame into force to introduce a statutory basis forapprenticeship (The Apprenticeship, Skills, Children andLearning (ASCL) Act 2009), though this is weak incomparison with apprenticeship systems of, for instance,Denmark, Germany or the Netherlands (Steedman 2010).The Act sets out minimum requirements (Specification ofApprenticeship Standards for England (SASE)) but does notprovide for collective interest representation of socialpartners, thereby privileging the needs of employers.

The newly instated National Apprenticeship Service(NAS) has an important role in promoting apprenticeships(particularly with employers) and in matching learners andemployers, working closely with local authorities. NAS alsohas an administering role as the so-called ‘managing agent’ ofapprenticeships, based on a contract between colleges,employers and employees. However, the SSC forconstruction, ConstructionSkills, is a managing agency in itsown right. The current level of funding is £8,000 for theapprenticeship framework (for a 2-year level 2 programme)for the age group 16-19. Over the age of 19, funding is halved.Under new proposals, training costs will be funded by thestate (100% for learners up to 18; 50% for learners aged 19and above) and the minimum wage for apprentices is set at£2.30 or 2.63€. In addition, employers will be able to receivea payment of £1,500 if they take on an unemployed personas an apprentice, fuelling concerns that the standard ofapprenticeship is being further watered down in the attemptto attract employers.

43

competences and long term capabilities of the individual. Inthis respect they are labour market- rather than education-based, seeking to meet employers’ immediate labour marketrequirements.

Our informants at the FE college considered that the

Level 2 Diploma represented a narrowing down of the

qualification it replaced, the Intermediate Construction

Award (ICA), which contained arches and decorative

brickwork. In an effort to compensate for the narrowness

of NVQs, tutors try to cover a broader range of activities to

give learners a greater breadth of experience and hence

make them ‘employable’. The also offer ‘enrichment

sessions’ on areas of activity of related occupations.

Apprenticeships require employment and an off-the-jobelement, the latter being provided through a mixture of day-and block release (in the first year there would typically beblock release). Smaller firms tend to prefer day to blockrelease, while both pedagogically and in terms of the efficientuse of resources, colleges favour block release. Thepedagogical approach is ‘formative’, with a focus on gettingstudents through the assessments through detailed coachingand feedback. Learners can take tests or have their workplaceobservations as many times as is necessary for them to pass.

There has been a persistent problem with findingemployers willing to provide training places. This is in largepart a function of the structure of the labour market, withcontractors contracting out the work to labour-onlysubcontractors and the practice of ‘bogus’ self-employmentpersisting – and especially common within bricklaying. Thesituation has been aggravated by the recession. Good trainingschemes are vastly oversubscribed and, of the 50,000applicants for construction apprenticeships in 2007, only 7,200actually succeeded in being placed with employers in theindustry (Blackman 2007). The alternative is the school-based route, going to an FE college and following abricklaying course for one or two years, perhaps onunemployed status (16 hours per week which can bemaximised to 22 hours in a 35 week academic year), andacquiring at the end the Diploma in Bricklaying. Many takethis route in order to avoid unemployment, to learn a tradeand to develop a career in construction. In 2006, the last yearwhen this information was available, over 70% of first yeartrainees at Level 1 in 2006 were studying for ConstructionAwards (now Diplomas) rather than a work-basedqualification, nearly 40% at Level 2 and 40% at Level 3 (CITB2006b). If a work placement is then acquired, it is possible toseek an NVQ2 qualification, and even progress to NVQ3.The vast majority following this route were, however, unableto find the necessary work placement; indeed of 16,751Construction Awards only 3,290 or 20% achieved a workexperience placement. Colleges go to considerable lengths toensure that full time students obtain sufficient workplaceexperience to qualify for an NVQ, but it can be difficult toensure this (CITB 2006b; ConstructionSkills 2008).

Other VET qualifications related to bricklaying are the14-19 Diploma in Construction and the Built Environment

work (measuring, marking out, laying, positioning andsecuring; using tools and equipment; erecting masonry inbrick and block or local materials for cavity wall, blockworkor solid wall structures, door and window openings and jointfinishes). The knowledge and understanding related toperformance criteria refers to non-systematic knowledgesuch as relevant legislation and procedures; knowledge ofmaterials, components and equipment; knowledge ofmethods, calculating quantities, lengths etc.; and applicationof knowledge to methods of work (for example, erectingwalling, laying blocks, determining brick/block bonds,forming joint finishes, mixing mortar, using hand tools, etc.)

According to ConstructionSkills, 24,000 apprenticeswere recruited across England, Scotland and Wales in2006/07, the bulk of whom were concentrated in fouroccupational areas: Carpentry; Bricklaying; Painting andDecorating; and Plastering. In England, there were 4,831bricklaying apprentices, the vast majority of whom were atlevel 2. Many hundreds of construction apprentices are nowlosing their placements nationally due to the recession. Forthe whole of construction, 81% of apprentices were recruitedat Level 2, with very few apprentices enrolling directly ontoa Level 3 programme. About 20% progressed from the Level2 to the Level 3 programme. The apprenticeship completionrate has been very low, with many apprentices dropping outonce they have achieved the NVQ which enables them toobtain the Construction Skills Certification Scheme (CSCS)card needed to work on most sites. The achievement rate forapprenticeships in 2006/07 was about 50% compared with75% for NVQs only. It is very difficult to progress furtherthan NVQ3 because Level 4 requires a considerable basis ofunderpinning knowledge and has an obligatory supervisionrequirement. This latter requirement is difficult to fulfillbecause it is less and less common to move from the tradelevel to site management and beyond, as graduates areincreasingly recruited into such roles. In this respectbricklaying has significantly reduced permeability incomparison with in the past.

The content of apprenticeships has been narrowed as it ismainly based on the NVQ and on the Diploma inBricklaying, which latter largely mirrors the NVQ in terms ofthe scope of tasks as well as providings the underpinningknowledge. The Diploma consists of 14 Knowledge andSkills units, which map directly onto the NVQ (Table 1). Theother components are so-called Functional Skills (English,Maths and IT), widely regarded as a remedial instrument toaddress the poor literary and numeracy standards of manyschool leavers, and Employment Rights and Responsibilities,a compulsory unit aimed at preparing young people for entryinto the labour market. Also, from September 2010, theframework includes Personal Learning and Thinking Skills(PLTS), in recognition of the growing importance of socialand personal competences. However, like the othercomponents, these are distinct skills rather than integratedelements of an overall occupational competence. Theconstituent elements of apprenticeships are aimed at thenarrow performance of tasks, based on minimalunderpinning knowledge, rather than the development of the

Level 2 Diploma

CC1001K – Know how to carry out safe working practices in construction

CC1001S – Carry out safe working practices in construction

CC2002K – Knowledge of information, quantities and communicating with others 2

CC2002S – Information, quantities, and communicating with others 2

CC2003K – Knowledge of building methods and construction technology 2

CC2003S – Building methods and construction technology 2

CC2045K – Know how to interpret working drawings to set out masonry structures

CC2045S – Interpret working drawings to set out masonry structures

CC2046K – Knowledge of thin joint masonry and masonry cladding

CC2046S – Thin joint masonry and masonry cladding

CC2047K – Know how to build solid walling, isolated and attached piers

CC2047S – Build solid walling, isolated and attached piers

CC2048K – Know how to build cavity walling forming masonry structures

CC2048S – Build cavity walling forming masonry structures

Level 2 NVQ

VR 01 – Conform to general workplace safety

VR 02 – Conform to efficient work practices

VR 02 – Conform to efficient work practices

VR03 – Move and handle resources

VR 41 – Set out masonry structures

VR 40 – Erect masonry structures

VR 42 – Erect masonry cladding

VR 44 – Erect thin joint masonry structures





VR 42 – Erect masonry cladding

Table 1: Level 2 Diploma content

44 England

full-time learners now succeed in finding employment on

completion of the course.

The college has been very active in trying to ‘engage’ local

employers, for example through open days or so-called

flexible apprenticeships. The latter involve the employer

offering limited work experience of 3 or 6 months, during

which time apprentices can gain evidence towards the NVQ.

The NVQ approach epitomises the outcomes-basedapproach in which each individual task required of the learneris narrowly defined and individually assessed by way ofobservation by an assessor of the learner’s performance ofthat task. Performance criteria relate to a scope of performance(also referred to as ‘elements of competence’) and toknowledge and understanding deemed necessary for theperformance of the task. In the assessment-led approach, themastering of that knowledge and understanding is assumedto be evident in the successful performance of the task.


In England, there are significant differences within theoccupation of bricklaying depending on the sector ofconstruction, in particular between housebuilding andcommercial work, newbuild and repair and maintenance. Inthe traditional private housebuilding sector – a sectorparticularly affected by the current crisis – activitiesundertaken most closely match those in the bricklayer NVQ,

(at level 2 or 3) and the Young Apprenticeship scheme (level2). Young people can choose these from the age of 14 as analternative to purely academic study (GCSEs). The YoungApprenticeship means spending 2 days per week on a level 2qualification such as from BTEC (Business and TechnologyEducation Council), plus 50 days work experience. In 2009there were 8,000 learners on young apprenticeships (DCSF2010). As well as being used in FE Colleges instead ofConstruction Awards, 14-19 Diplomas in a range ofoccupational fields are also being introduced into mainstreamschooling (the Diploma in Construction and the BuiltEnvironment being in the first tranche of five introduced in2008). They are a mixture of academic and applied learningand the idea is not to prepare them for a particularoccupation but learning in a context about a particular sector,so as to make learning more interesting. However, the take-up of these has been rather low (Gaston 2010). There is alsoa specialised learning option (e.g. a BTEC) if the youngperson is interested in entering the industry; BTECqualifications at levels 2 and 3 place considerable emphasis onunderpinning knowledge of the industrial sector.

The college in our case study typically take on around 45

full-time learners in any one year (of 80 to 100 applicants).

The number of apprentices has declined drastically since

the recession, from 15 apprentices before the recession

to 5 in 2008 and 2 in 2009. In addition, for insurance

reasons, employers now prefer to take young people

at age 18 rather than 16, and also because they find it

advantageous to take on people who have already

completed the Level 2 Diploma as they have a basic level

of knowledge and skills. However, only a small minority of

References

Business Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (BERR) Department (2008) Construction Statistics Annual 2008. London: BERR

Blackman B. (2007) Regulating the situation for migrants in the British construction industry, CLR News No 4/2007, European Institute forConstruction Labour Research

Brockmann, M., Clarke, L. and Winch, C. (2010) Bricklaying Country Report England. Findings from the Leonardo-da-Vinci Project ‘Bricklayingqualifications, work and VET in Europe. Unpublished report. London: University of Westminster.

Chan P., Clarke L. and Dainty A (2010) ‘The Dynamics of Migrant Employment in Construction: can supply of Skilled Labour ever match Demand?’in Labour shortages, immigration and public policy, ed. Ruhs M. and Anderson B., Oxford University Press

Clarke L and Herrmann G. (2004a) cost versus production: labour deployment and productivity in social housing construction in England,Scotland, Denmark and Germany, Construction Management and Economics, 22, 1057-1066

45

All of the available evidence suggests that the number ofmigrant workers in the construction labour market issignificantly higher than official labour market statisticssuggest, estimated at up to 10% of the workforce (Chan et al2010; Fitzgerald 2007; Pollard et al. 2008; Lillie and Greer2008).

The collective agreement does not formally recogniseskills or qualifications, but contains the traditional distinctionbetween traditional craftsman and operative, with skilledrates based on tasks carried out in between these. Theapprentice rate, only re-introduced in 2002, is very low,though increasing. On the other hand, the requirement tohave a CSCS card has enforced a link between skills and pay,with different colour cards relating to differing levels of skill(NVQs). However, in practice bricklayers in the privatesector are paid on day rates related to a negotiated price andthus to output. In the shrinking public sector in contrast,such as in the local authorities, bricklayers will be on anhourly rate related to the collectively agreed rate.

Conclusions

The English bricklaying qualifications constitute a majorchallenge in achieving one of the main objectives of the EQF:establishing equivalence of qualifications.

The former QCA completed the process of referencingthe English Qualifications and Credit Framework (QCF) tothe EQF as was required as part of EQF implementation.While the referencing was carried out by an expert (accordingto QCA internal methodology) and the consultationinvolved the social partners, SSCs and others, it is highlyquestionable that the alignment of the levels will invite thetrust of relevant stakeholders in other European countries.As the final report merely requires the signing off by BritishMinisters rather than the European Commission, the wholeprocess may represent a futile exercise.

being largely confined to laying bricks and blocks. Forcommercial activity, on large projects, and refurbishmentbricklayers may be required to carry out a much wider rangeof activities, including working with stone and concrete,erecting arches, and using sophisticated bonds. A key test ofbricklayers’ skills may be whether they can set out, readdrawings and be versatile, such us putting up terracotta oraluminium rain screens, doing tiling and ceramic work.There are some changes evident in bricklaying activity, inparticular in terms of the setting which, with thin jointsystems, can be much quicker.

Bricklaying in England is often rather narrow, requiring a

degree of specialisation which varies according to the level

of activity. However, the scope of activities varies by sector

and by area. The three employers of our case study were

all regional contractors, active in a variety of sub-sectors,

including house-building, commercial, and repair and

maintenance. The bricklayers were all polyvalent, required

to carry out a broad scope of activities, including building

walls and foundations, internal walling, floor slabs, outside

drainage, paving, and plastering and rendering.

Bricklaying is one of the construction trades most affected byskills shortages, particularly in more skilled areas such asheritage work. The CITB survey (2002) and a survey of thesocial housing sector revealed high levels of recruitmentdifficulties for the main trades of bricklaying, carpentry andjoinery and plastering (Clarke and Herrmann 2007). At thattime (2006), a large proportion of housebuilding firms wasunable to fill at least half of vacancies for bricklayers (41%),managers and senior officials (40%), carpenters and joiners(40%), supervisors (31%) and professionals (25%) – alloccupations requiring some element of training andexperience. Skills shortages may be met not by training butby bringing in migrants. A survey (Murdoch 2008) for theNational Specialist Contractors’ Council revealed that 3% ofrespondents’ workforces were made up of Polish workers.

46 England

Clarke, Linda and Georg Herrmann (2004b), ‘Cost vs. production: disparities in social housing construction in Britain and Germany’, ConstructionManagement and Economics, 22, June, pp. 521-532

Clarke Linda and Georg Herrmann (2007) ‘Skill shortages, recruitment and retention in the housebuilding sector’, Personnel Review, Vol. 36. No. 4., pp 509-527, ISSN 0048

CITB (2002) »Employers’ Skill Needs Survey«, Bircham Newton.

CITB (2006a) National Occupational Standards and Recommended Qualification Structures for Trowel Occupations (Construction) Bircham Newton

CITB (2006b) Trainee Numbers Survey 2005/6, Bircham Newton

Comptroller and Auditor General (2001) Modernising Construction: Report by the Comptroller and Auditor General London: National Audit Office.http://www.nao.org.uk/publications/nao_reports/00-01/000187.pdf (Accessed 10 May 2008).

ConstructionSkills (2008) Blueprint for UK construction skills 2008 to 2012. Kings Lynn: Construction Skills

ConstructionSkills (2010) Blueprint for UK Construction Skills 2010-14; Experian, Bircham Newton: ConstructionSkills

Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) (2010) 14-19 Reform – Young Apprenticeships. Online. HTTP www.dcsf.gov.uk/14-19/index.cfm?sid=3&pid=342&lid=321&ctype=Text&ptype=Single.

Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) (2009) DCSF News: Ed Balls announces Chair of Ofqual. Online.http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/pns/DisplayPN.cgi?pn_id=2008_0064#startcontent (accessed 18 March 2010).

Fitzgerald, I. (2007) Working in the UK: Polish migrant worker routes into employment in the North East and North West construction and foodprocessing sectors. London: TUC.

Gaston K. (2010) 14-19 Diplomas: the student experience of the Advanced Diplomas in Construction and the Built Environment, Progress SouthCentral report, Oxford Brookes University.

Lillie, N and Greer, I (2007) Industrial Relations, Migration, and Neoliberal Politics: The Case of the European Construction Sector, Politics andSociety, Vol.35, No.4, pp551-581.

Murdoch, I. (2008) NSCC State of trade report 2008: quarter 1. Newcastle upon Tyne: Northumbria University.

Pollard, N., Latorre, M. and Sriskandarajah, D. (2008) Floodgate or turnstiles? Post-EU enlargement migration flows to (and from) the UK. London: Institute of Public Policy Research (IPPR).

Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (2009) QCA and Ofqual – an introduction, www.qca.org.uk and www.ofqual.gov.uk

Steedman H. (2010) The State of Apprenticeship in 2010. A report for the Apprenticeship Ambassadors Network. London: LSE.

The Frenchmaçonqualification

Philippe Méhaut/ LEST Aix Marseille UniversityDominique Hervy-Guillaume

47

IntroductionThis chapter presents the French case of the project»bricklayer«. In our research, we selected the occupation of»maçon«, as there is no equivalent of the »bricklayer« in theFrench building industry. At the beginning of the project, wefocused largely on the first grade of the qualification ofmaçon, the CAP, which is the main vocational education andtraining (VET) route for young people. As a further step, wealso included other qualifications, such as the coffreur-bancheur, which is used mainly by large firms and is an entryroute for adults in retraining and/or for unemployed people.The key question is the place of these qualifications in theEuropean Qualifications Framework (EQF), taking intoaccount on the one hand the rather broad role of the maçonand, on the other, the double currency of the qualifications,both within the VET system and on the labour market.

The French building industry In order to understand the rather particular nature of VET inthe French building industry, notably in terms of itsgovernance, this section starts with an overview of theeconomic and institutional features of the sector.Construction is usually defined as encompassing threesubsectors: civil engineering, building work and finishing.These three activities differ in terms of the size of the firm,types of technology and materials, and occupations involved.The whole sector has experienced fairly rapid growth,particularly in recent times, following a crisis between 1995and 1997. During that period, there were serious difficultieswith recruiting workers in the sector. However, since 2008,the trend has once again been reversed (an estimated 30,000jobs cut in 2008).

All companies in our sample have been affected by the

crisis, but to differing degrees. In response to the crisis,

many companies in the region lowered their prices below

cost price. In some cases, this strategy proved fatal and

resulted in bankruptcy. None of the companies in our

sample adopted this strategy and all survived the crisis.

Different employers' organisations exist for these threesubsectors (and for different size firms): civil engineering iscovered by the Civil Engineering Federation (Fédération desTravaux Publics); building work and the finishing subsectoris the province of the French Building Federation (FédérationFrançaise du Bâtiment); and self-employed workers withoutemployees as well as small firms are organised within theConfederation of Self-Employed Workers and SmallEnterprises in the Building Sector (CAPEB, Confédérationdes artisans et petites entreprises du Bâtiment). A similarinternal segmentation exists among the trade unions, but ingeneral, the construction workers' federations form a singlegroup representing the different segments. In building andcivil engineering, as in the rest of the country, the (lownumber of) union members are shared among the competingfive unions. These sub-units have different negotiating

48 France

The governance of VET – distinct from other sectors in France

In the building sector, the apprenticeship route is now moredeveloped than elsewhere with the percentage of apprenticesat around 4.5% of the workforce (compared with 1.5% forFrance as a whole). Of those doing the maçons certificate ofvocational aptitude (CAP maçon, certificat d'aptitudeprofessionnelle), 80% are apprentices, and the rest is school-based.

In the Languedoc-Roussillon region, as regards initial VET

for bricklayers (level V and level IV), apprenticeships are

more popular than the academic pathway. In the academic

year 2008-09, there were 1,007 apprentices (including 875

at level V) compared with 336 studying in the lycée

professionnel (including 256 at level V) (CERBTPLR, 2010,

2). This is close to the French average, and as in other

regions, both pathways have seen numbers increase over

the past three years.

The building and civil engineering sector is one of the mostactive sectors in terms of providing apprenticeships. Aparticular feature is the existence of a central committee forthe coordination of apprenticeships (CCCA comité centralde coordination de l'apprentissage), a joint industry body,both at national level and for the associated regionalapprenticeship training centres (CFAs, centres de formationd'apprentis). It is a body which promotes apprenticeships andtraining for the sector. Apprenticeship qualifications aredeveloped by the CPC (commissions professionnellesconsultatives) and by the Ministry of Education, so theCCCA follows the standards of these diplomas. But theCCCA has also developed its own teaching methodologyand for this purpose has acquired a corps of teachers.Originally financed by a special tax paid by firms in the sector(which still remains today, 0.3% of the total wage bill), it hasexpanded its resources through an apprenticeship tax (likethe CFAs), harnessing funding from the European SocialFund.

Another indication of the strength of the joint-industrycharacter and sectoral regulation is the existence of jointlymanaged structures in the sphere of continuing VET(OPCAs organisme paritaire collecteur agrée), which have asimilar role as the CCCA: collecting and managing thecontinuing training funds, giving advice to firms andworkers, adopting priority measures decided by the sector,funding training courses, etc.). It is therefore possible tospeak of a joint-industry approach to establishing guidelinesand taking initiatives on matters of VET, to a greater extentthan in most other sectors. In certain respects, there arestrong similarities with Germany and the Netherlands.

forums and collective agreements, but there are strong formsof coordination, particularly in the VET sphere. As maçonsare primarily involved in building work and sometimes in thefinishing sector, the report will focus more closely on thesetwo subsectors, and in particular on building work.

In order to put into context the various facets ofgovernance for VET, we will start by describing the moregeneral role of the sector in collective bargaining (see, inparticular, Jobert et al, 1993). In France, despite the lowunionisation rate, the social partners play a key role atdifferent levels in creating provisions which are more or lessgenerally applicable.

Owing to its structure and history, the building sector hasa number of special features. The small size of firms meansthat there is little bargaining at plant level, but also sometimesthat the agreements concluded at other levels are notnecessarily implemented. A certain craft tradition stillendures. Also, in their analysis of different sectoral models,Jobert et al. (1993) identified building as belonging to themodel of "industrial sectors derived from craft activities".They emphasised the extent to which issues concerningtechnological advances (and/or the products) coupled withlabour shortages and the difficulty in retaining workers,resulted in strong sectoral regulation, bringing trainingquestions in particular to the forefront. It could also be addedthat the sectoral regulation has contributed to limiting socialdumping practices. Furthermore, taking into account thepresence of firms throughout France, the sector has retained(and, as a result of the growing regionalisation of publicpolicies, has even increased) the regional organisation ofbargaining and agreements at this level (see, for example,Verdier, 2006).

The impact of the sectoral regulation is reflected in thespecific vocational training institutions.

The case study design:

The chosen methodology of our micro-level study is based

on interviews carried out within 5 companies (2 large GE1

and GE2, 1 medium-sized -ME- and 2 small -PE1 and PE2)

and training bodies in the Languedoc-Roussillon region.

The interviews were semi-structured and lasted between

one and two-and-a-half hours. Another body that we have

included in the ‘company’ category is the Groupement

d’employeurs pour l’insertion et la qualification (employers’

group for employment and training, GEIQ).

On the training side, we conducted interviews with five

training bodies: one vocational upper secondary school

(lycée professionnel, LP), two apprentice training centres

(centres de formation d’apprentis, CFA1 and CFA2) and two

adult training centres (AFPA1 and AFPA2). In the process,

we also met a number of young apprentices.

1 Some apprentices are also found within the public national education system. see Arrighi and Gasquet, 2008

2 The role of the coffreur bancheur is described as follows: On construction sites for residential, commercial or industrial buildings, you build the reinforcedconcrete frame construction. You put in place formwork and moulds and the associated supports; you position the frame constructions then pour in theconcrete. When the concrete has attained the required level of resistance, you remove the formwork. Depending on the nature of the structure, you put inplace prefabricated components such as beams and cornices made of reinforced or pre-stressed concrete. In accordance with the features of thestructure to be completed, you use standard shuttering tools or wooden shuttering. You very often work in coordination with the lifting plant driver.

3 The trainee must be aged between 18 and 25, or over 25 in the case of jobseekers.

49

As in all CAPs, part of the course must cover topics such as:• Mathematics and physics• French and foreign languages• Sports• History and geography• Civic and social sciences, including labour law

The French approach to VET qualifications is essentially»holistic«. The aim is, on the one hand, to prepare »theperson, the producer and the citizen« and, on the other toprovide preparation for the person's entire life and not onlyfor short-term participation in the labour market. Finally, thedual value of the qualifications in principle paves the way forfuture progression, for example towards achieving a BP(brevet professional). This holistic conception of VETcontrasts with the much narrower one in England, and themore informal one in Italy. The CAP maçon, as other CAPs,is a good example of this »French model«.

Our interviews revealed two categories of companies.

The first category, comprising the small and medium-sized

enterprises, uses the CAP maçon qualification. The second

category, comprising the two large enterprises, does not.

The large firms mainly used diplomas delivered by the

Ministry of Labour, for example coffreur bancheur2 and

maçon finisseur (bricklayer finisher), level 5 in the French

Grid. To obtain the title coffreur bancheur, the individual

undergoes training under a vocational qualification

contract3 (which can last between six and 24 months).

Different training bodies, for example l’AFPA trains

coffreurs bancheurs.

Companies using the CAP maçon:

The small company PE1 only employs bricklayers. Among

their eight employees, there are two workers (both aged

23), who hold the CAP maçon, and two team leaders (aged

30 and 45), one being the son who co-runs the company.

The company took on an apprentice in 2006-07 and

another in 2008-09. It also took a trainee from a

vocational upper secondary school (LP). Among the 10

employees of PE2, 3 hold the CAP, 1 the BP. This year, the

company employs one apprentice from CFA2.

Like the small companies, the medium-sized company (ME)

uses the CAP maçon qualification and is very committed to

vocational training. According to the boss, »there needs to

be a change in mindset. Bricklaying is a good trade from

which one can earn a very decent living.«

Structure and content of VET courses and qualificationsfor the maçon

For the maçon, two main qualifications coexist:• the CAP, a public diploma regulated by the Ministry ofEducation (and its CPC), which is the main first-levelqualification, aimed at young people (school leavers).

• The Ministry of Labour also provides a diploma, named»title«, for the occupation of maçon. This is mainly forunemployed people and/or further training. The title ismore focused on technical skills.

One of the peculiarities of VET in the building industry is theexistence of a BP (brevet professionnel), coming from the crafttradition, for a highly skilled maçon who could also be teamleader and/or self-employed entrepreneur. The BP is at thesame level as the vocational baccalaureate (baccalauréatprofessionnel) but does not automatically carry the right totertiary education. Employers are keen to keep the BP. It ispossible to link directly a CAP and a BP (apprenticeship) butmore often the BP is obtained through continuing VET.

The qualification level for a maçon is an upper secondaryvocational education (after compulsory general education),i.e. a level 5 in the French grid. As with most of the CAPqualifications, the duration is normally 2 years (full-time), butcan be decreased according to the educational level of theyoung person. Two main tracks are possible: anapprenticeship track (based on a labour contract with anemployer, and involving alternation between the firm and theapprenticeship training centre) and the vocational school-based track (including internships). The apprentice track isdominant (80%). In this case, the main training providers arethe apprenticeship training centres (CFAs), most of which aremanaged and depend on the employer and unionorganisations or on the Craft Chambers1; in both cases, thequalifications are the same. For the two-year school-basedtrack, one part is workshop-based, and 14 weeks must becarried out in a firm. Generally, for the apprentice track (455hours per year) apprentices spend three weeks to a monthwithin the firm, and one week to a month in the trainingcentre, also with a mix of general and technological coursesand workshop-based activities (75% - 25%). As emphasisedin the »Reference Framework for occupational Activities«(référentiel d’activités professionnelles, RAP), the maçon is askilled worker, able to contribute to the construction andrenovation of any type of building (houses, offices, flats).Both unions and employers agree that the maçon is a broadoccupation.

4 CERBTPLR is the: regional economic unit for construction and public works in Languedoc-Roussillon, (2010), Worker skills indicator as at 15 March 2010

5 UCF: the Union des Caisses de France (UCF) publishes annual statistics on the workforce structure in the construction and public works sector enabling abreakdown by age, job and skill level.

50 France

for achieving this. Others arrive with a definite purpose.

They have completed a placement and the company has

offered them an apprenticeship.

Interview with a BP maçon apprentice at CFA1

»I wasn’t good at school and they suggested I do a CAP

maçon. I did the apprenticeship CAP. My boss wasn’t great

but I liked the work and wanted to carry on and do the BP. I

switched companies and now things are going really well.

With the CAP, I came to the CPA out of necessity, but with

the BP I’ve realised the benefits and I come here to learn.«

Only a small number of apprentices choose the CAP

maçon. This is not true of the next level up – the BP brevet

professionnel. Apprentices who chose bricklaying for want

of anything better find that they enjoy the work and decide

to take it to the next level.

The French »maçon« seems to be distinct from the Englishbricklayer (there is no equivalent word in French; a personjust laying bricks would be regarded as an unskilled worker,who assists the maçons). On the one hand, this is due to thebroad variety of techniques used in the French buildingindustry. On the other hand, one must bear in mind thatmany maçons are self-employed or employees in small firms.The maçon, as observed by a union representative, »is able tobuild his own house, from the foundations to the roof«.

Masonry/building works form the majority of activitieson the construction site. In 2008, the building workforcenumbered 475,000 (360,000 employees and 110,000 self-employed craftsmen) out of a total of 1, 317700 workers inthe whole sector. The total turnover in construction runs toabout €124 billion, of which €62 billion is for building work.

According to the Observatory for Building and CivilEngineering, there are roughly 175,000 skilled employedmaçons in the sector, to which need to be added theapproximately 55,000 self-employed maçons (source LabourForce Survey, LSF). It must also be remembered that thereare maçons in other sectors and that around 150,000employees are recorded in the LSF as »unskilled manualworkers in building work«.

In 2008, in the region of Languedoc-Roussillon there were

40,000 skilled construction workers, including 13,560

maçons. The breakdown into low-skilled, skilled and high-

skilled bricklayers is as follows: 47.5% low-skilled, 30.2%

skilled and 22.3% high-skilled (CERBTPLR, 2010, 14). In

2007, 4,508 bricklayers (excluding apprentices) entered

the construction industry in the region, of which 1,428

were aged under 25 and 3,080 over 25 (UCF5, 2009).

The construction industry labour market in Languedoc-

Roussillon has been badly hit by the economic crisis

The second category, which comprises the two large

companies, does not employ bricklayers (maçons), but

rather coffreurs bancheurs (form-setters) and maçons

finisseurs (bricklayer-finishers).

Since 2002-03, company GE1 has required an increasingly

specialist workforce. Before then, workers were trained on

the job. According to its boss, »construction remains one

of the few sectors in which young people can succeed

without having a qualification. They can even become a

works supervisor or foreman by the time they reach 40

or 45«.

Example: twenty year old man, unemployed, unqualified, of

no fixed abode, married with children.

After consulting the local employment centre, he started a

vocational qualification contract at the GEIQ, training as a

bricklayer-finisher with GE1. The company was pleased with

his work and offered him a vocational qualification contract

as a form-setter. When he completes that, GE1 plans to take

him on on a permanent contract and prepare him for a

team leader post.

The French maçonin the labour market

In the VET system, the maçon qualification has nottraditionally been academically highly regarded as manyyoung people come from the specific tracks in colleges forthose who are drop-outs or quasi drop-outs, or not able orwilling to pursue general studies. However, nowadays, moreand more young people want to earn their living andundertake this VET path by choice. The VET centres do nothave enough places to meet demand. The employers andunions have agreed on numerous changes to improve thestatus of the apprentice in order to attract more pupils,including higher wages, social benefits, and better workingconditions. For all building workers the minimum wage ratehas since 1999 been increasing more quickly than in othersectors (Les Indicateurs sociaux du Bâtiment – Février 2009).At last, more women – sometimes coming from other sectorsand with good qualifications – undertake retraining and arejoining the 30 different trades in the sector, includingmasonry. Their participation is improving workingconditions and the image of the whole sector.

Our interviews showed that CAP maçon apprentices, in the

training centres that we investigated, can be divided into

two categories. Some arrive ‘by default’. They would have

preferred entering a general lyceum or learning a different

occupation but were directed towards a career in the

construction industry, with the CAP maçon being one path

51

Dealing with the EQF and SQF

In terms of the European Qualifications Framework (EQF),the qualifications examined here could be classed differentlyaccording to the three categories of competences used by theEQF. The CAP maçon (school-based pathway orapprenticeship) certifies and measures a certain mastery ofknowledge and know-how. Moreover, qualified maçons(bricklayers) appear to have considerable autonomy,particularly in small companies. Titles do not certify themastery of basic knowledge (or only do so implicitly). Also,the coffreur bancheur (form worker) has more limitedautonomy. It could therefore be concluded that there couldexist a heterogeneous system of classification based on thesevarious dimensions.

However, the referencing in the European frameworkcannot only be considered as a pure question of "technical"classification on the basis of levels of mastering of skills andknowledge. As we saw, the French diplomas, and mainly theCAP, have a double currency, on the labour market, but alsoin the VET system. As regards the value in the educationsystem, the CAP allows it holder to reach the BP, thepathway followed by number of young people, but alsoadults in continuing VET. This is why, in the French grid, thetwo qualifications are respectively at level V and IV. And, asthe BP is said to be at the level of the baccalaureat, any changein the hierarchy would imply taking into account not onlythe internal hierarchy of building qualifications but also theirrelationship with the entire hierarchy of the qualifications.This is naturally a sensitive subject, as this hierarchy is seen asa signal by young people and thus conditions theattractiveness of diplomas.

As regards value on the labour market, we saw thatcompanies value the diploma, and that this is also a possiblefactor of progress within the wage grid. It appears thereforethat the social partners (employers and unions) are alert tothe relationship between the level of classification of diplomasand the qualification on the labour market. So the question ofthe levels within the EQF is also linked to the question ofcollective agreements.

This question was raised by the National Committee ofCertification, which gathers the principal actors of the systemof certification and manages the French certificationframework. The committee suggested establishing atemporary correspondence between the French frameworkand the European framework, »starting from the top«, andthis for all the diplomas. The PhD would occupy the level 8,the license (Bachelor's degree) the level 6. BTS and DUT(two-year technical degrees) would then logically occupylevel 5. The vocational baccalaureat and the BP maçon wouldbe at level 4 and the CAP (including CAP maçon) at level 3of the EQF. However, the conclusions of the committeeunderline the difficulties and the uncertainties which remain.The French level IV (baccalaureat and BP), classified in a way»by default« at level 4 of the EQF because all the positionsabove are occupied by higher education diplomas, raises aproblem. Beside this, there are no French correspondingvocational degrees at levels 1 and 2 of the EQF.

(CERBTPLR, 2009). If we compare the rate of increase in

unemployment of the construction industry with that of

the regional economy as a whole, we find that the pace of

labour market decline is faster in the construction sector.

However, since the third quarter of 2009, there has been a

slowdown in the decline of the labour market compared

with previous quarters.

Conclusions

The strength of qualifications in the bricklaying industry

Although some have been forced to make cutbacks in thecurrent economic crisis, the first thing to stress is theimportance attached by companies to maçon VET, asmanifest in the use made of the schemes and qualifications onoffer, partly segmented according to the size and nature of themarkets in which companies operate. From a Europeanperspective, therefore, in order to properly understand theFrench system the multiplicity of VET and qualificationpathways available needs to be considered. This importanceis also reflected in the close relationships between thecompanies and the various VET providers. The system isbased on networking, with the network also encompassingthe intermediary structures established by the employer’sassociation to target the most vulnerable groups. However, ofthe range of VET bodies surveyed, it is the vocational uppersecondary school (lycée professionnel, LP) which appears themost ‘distant’, in terms of both its relationships with thecompanies and its lack of monitoring of students’ subsequentemployment.

Networking combined with efforts to promote theoccupation (including an industry-wide agreement onapprenticeships) is helping to make VET more appealing andto attract a more diverse range of students. As regards initialVET, all of the VET providers receive more applications thanthey have places available. However, for a proportion ofapplicants, this option is their ‘second choice’. In continuingVET, the students are more diverse, ranging from adultsretraining for a new career to young people (and some not soyoung) finding it difficult to enter the world of work.

The companies place a heavy emphasis on behaviouralaspects (compliance with health and safety regulation,teamwork) as well as on know-how. In line with Frenchtradition, this is tied in with a mastery of basic knowledgesuch as writing, speaking and the ability to read drawings.However, not all of these competences are certified in thesame way by all of the qualifications. The same is true of thecompetence evaluation process. The dominant trend istowards continuous assessment, with heavy involvement bythe company, based on a set of specifications discussed inadvance with the VET provider, and with a modular processwhich can sometimes result in students gaining individualmodules but not the final qualification. Last but not least, itshould be noted that the degree of individualisation of thetraining varies considerably.

References

Arrighi J.-J., Gasquet C., (2008), Les jeunes et le BTP, former ne suffit pas, in Beret Pierre et al (eds.), Transitions professionnelles et risques.Actes des XIIIièmes journées d’études sur les données longitudinales dans l’analyse du marché du travail, Céreq, collection Relief, n° 15.

Jobert A., Reynaud J.-D., Saglio J., Tallard M. (sld), (1993), Les conventions collectives de branche, déclin ou renouveau ? Céreq, Etude n° 65,Marseille

Verdier E., (2006), La gouvernance territoriale des risques d’emploi et de travail : vers l’émergence de nouvelles politiques du rapport salarial. Lescinquièmes journées de la proximité, Bordeaux : 28 – 30 juin 2006

CERBTPLR (2009), Le marché du travail dans le BTP en Languedoc-Roussillon au 3ième trimestre 2009 (The construction and public works labourmarket in Languedoc-Roussillon in the third quarter of 2009), quarterly paper.

CERBTPLR (2010), Indicator for total workforce in initial training, source: Education nationale (DEPP), CCCA-BTP, 31 December.

52 France

from those that will be taken at national level. If this isso, the CAP maçon would be (temporarily) classified atlevel 3 of the European framework even if, for example,the level of autonomy and responsibility of thebricklayer appears to correspond to level 4. Thisclassification would allow the logical articulationbetween CAP, BP and BTS/DUT to be maintained.

B) However this decision could raise problems, inparticular in terms of mutual trust at the European level,if it turned out that other countries follow a differentpractice. What has emerged, for example, from ourreport is the much wider range of skills and knowledgeof the »French-style« maçon than the English NVQ2 (cf the English report) which, according to theinformation in our possession, would also be classifiedat level 3 in the European framework.

It is planned that this committee pursues its reflections (uponwhich the correspondence between the whole French systemand the European framework rests), and, at a later stage,makes new proposals in line with a change in the nationalgrid of levels. These also need to take into account revisionsto the international statistical nomclature ISCED, which isused as a basis for the international education and the trainingstatistical system and also serves as the EuropeanCommission’s benchmarking indicator.

As regards bricklaying, the CAP maçon and the questionof a sectoral framework, we are only able at this stage toformulate two hypotheses:

A) In view of the important role played by the CAP and itsdouble value, it does not seem very probable that thedecisions taken by the French social partners (andeducationalists) for the construction sector will differ

The Germanbricklayingqualification

Volker Paul/Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung (BIBB)

53

IntroductionIn Germany vocational education and training (VET) isprovided through comprehensive programmes which arepart of the national education system. VET is organised asthe continuation of education based on a curricular structureaiming to develop not only occupational but also individualsocial competences, and to prepare apprentices for life ascitizens as well as professionals in their occupation. VETprogrammes also provide the basis for higher and continuingeducation. The German system of VET provision, the socalled ‘dual system’ can be termed – in contrast to (e.g.) the‘training’ model of the English NVQ system –an ‘education’model: VET prepares apprentices for a broadly-definedoccupation, providing a broad knowledge base for workinglife within that occupation.

A special feature of VET in the field of construction is thefund for Vocational Training. It was established throughoutthe construction trade sector in 1974 when the Step-by-StepTraining Regulation was first enacted. All companies pay a2.5% levy on their payroll (total gross pay) – regardless ofwhether they offer training or not. The Fund is administeredby the ‘SOKA Bau’ (Sozialkasse des Baugewerbes) andcovers:• Inter-company training costs• Travel expenses of the apprentices• Monthly apprentice salaries (10 months in the 1st year; 6 month in the 2nd year; 1 month in the 3rd year)

Context of the building industry for bricklaying

The construction industry is one of the most importantsectors of the German economy. Despite the difficultposition of the industry at present, well over half of allinvestments are still made in this sector and approximately 2million people are employed in the construction industryproper (preparatory building site work, structural and civilengineering) and finishing trades. The sector is importanteconomically and politically because it has close links with anumber of other sectors upstream and downstream.

Even though the German building sector has also beenaffected by the recent global economic downturn, its marketshare in Europe is expected to stay steady at 22%. Theconstruction industry is closely related to the buildingmaterial and machine manufacturer sectors. All threeindustries combined employ around 4.5 million people,making the construction and related sectors the largestemployer in Germany.

The focus of this report is the core of the constructionsector. The official notion is »construction proper«. Thisencompasses preparatory building site work as well asstructural and civil engineering, but not including finishingtrades.

Step Duration VET levels in the construction sector

Entry requirements: Compulsory education (no leaving certificate required)

I 2 years 1st year of basic training for all construction trades/ professions

2nd year of training is in one of three fields:• Building construction (Hochbau)• Finishing/completion work (Ausbau)• Underground (civil engineering) construction work (Tiefbau)

Vocational qualification as Skilled Building Construction Worker(Hochbaufacharbeiter) – if specialisation in building construction was selected

II 1 year 3rd year of training in one of 15 specialisations.

Vocational qualification as Specialized Skilled Building Craftsman (Spezialhochbaufacharbeiter) – if specialisation in bricklaying was selected

Table 1: VET levels in the construction sector

54 Germany

• the legal supervision and funding of the Federal Institutefor Vocational Education and Training (Bundesinstitut fürBerufsbildung, BIBB);

• the process of securing, developing, improving andimplementing vocational training;

The recognition of the individual occupations requiringformal training is the task of the federal ministries responsiblefor the respective occupational fields. In the vast majority ofcases, responsibility lies with the Federal Ministry ofEconomics and Technology (‘BMWi’). But approval by theBMBF is required in all cases. The BMBF thus fulfils acoordinating and steering function in terms of vocationaltraining policy for all training occupations whatever theministry responsible for the occupational field in question.

In Germany the institutional and legal framework thatgoverns the development and regulation of VET, qualificationsand skills follows the approach of a social partnership model.The head organisations of the employers – usually theKuratorium der Deutschen Wirtschaft für Berufsbildung (KWB)– and of the employees – generally the Deutsche Gewerk -schafts bund (DGB) – assign VET experts (educationalists) todevelop or modernise training regulations under the activemoderation and mediation of the BIBB.

The social partnership model is characterised by a strongstatutory framework setting minimum standards andconsensus-oriented co-operation between the social partners(Konsenzprinzip) in developing qualifications. The process fordeveloping, recognising and enacting training regulations isregulated by the Vocational Training Act (Berufsbildungs -gesetz, BBiG).

The training ordinance of an occupation (Ausbildungs -ordnung) sets out the following:• designation of the occupation;• duration of the vocational education and training;• the occupational profile (Ausbildungsberufsbild) which liststhe scope of activities and knowledge of the occupation;

• the framework curriculum (Ausbildungsrahmenplan,indicating in detail the necessary knowledge and skillsand the timeframe;

• assessment requirements.

The German construction sector consists of two generalcomponents:

Construction Craft Construction Industry (Handwerk) (Industrie)

Small and medium-sized Medium-sized andenterprises (few) large enterprises

The majority of companies have a workforce of fewer than 10employees:• 56,000 companies out of a total of 75,000 account for75% of the workforce!

• Only 23 companies out of a total of 75,000 companieshave more than 500 staff; this accounts for 0.03% of theworkforce!

Since the mid-1990s, employment trends in the constructionindustry have been characterized mainly by shrinkage.According to official statistics, employment fell by almost athird between 2000 and 2005 alone. The brief growth periodsince mid-2006 finally led to a reversal of the employmenttrend. Additional employees were taken on in particular bysmall businesses in the finishing sector. Overall, employmentin the finishing sector rose while a slight drop was againrecorded in the main construction industry. In the face offorecasts of declining growth, the positive employment trendduring recent years is expected to come to a halt.


Within the German Federal Government, the FederalMinistry of Education and Research (‘BMBF’) has overallresponsibility for general policy issues of vocationaleducation and training (VET). This includes:• the Vocational Training Act (Berufsbildungsgesetz, BBiG);• the Vocational Training Promotion Act(Berufsbildungsförderungsgesetz, BAföG);

• the drawing up of the annual VET- Report;

VET in the Construction Sector‘step-by-step training regulation’ with vocational qualification after two or three years training

Final vocational assessment for apprentices in the three year training programme

Vocational qualification as

• Specialized Skilled Building Craftsmen in one of 15 occupations

Intermediate vocational assessment for apprentices in the three-year VET programme or

Final vocational assessment for apprentices in the Two-year VET programme:

Vocational qualification as

• Skilled Building construction worker (Hochbaufacharbeiter) or

• Skilled Finishing/ completion worker (Ausbaufacharbeiter) or

• Skilled Underground (civil engineering) construction worker (Tiefbaufacharbeiter)

Building construction Finishing/ completion work Underground (civil engineering) construction work(Hochbau) (Ausbau) (‘Tiefbau’)

Basic or general training for all construction trades

Table 2: VET provision in the construction sector: the ‘step-by-step training regulation’

ST

EP

II

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d y

ear

Mas

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Car

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and

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uild

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Pla

ster

er

Tile

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Scr

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wo

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Ther

mal

and

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sula

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Dry

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Un

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g b

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Can

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Wel

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nst

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wo

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Rai

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wo

rker

ST

EP

I

1st

year

2

nd y

ear

Per

mea

bili

ty

Entry requirements: Full compulsory education (no leaving certificate required)

55

their specialisation in the third year – follow the sameprogramme in inter-company vocational training centres andvocational training schools. If – after this first year of basicVET and ‘orientation’ in the broad spectrum of construction– an apprentice wishes to move to another constructionoccupation within the ‘step-by-step training system’(‘horizontal permeability’), he or she ‘only’ needs to find acompany with a relevant training place.

During the second year, apprentices specialise in one of threemain construction domains:• Building construction (‘Hochbau’)• Finishing/ completion works (‘Ausbau’)• Civil engineering (underground) construction works(‘Tiefbau’)

After successful assessment, this second year leads to the firstvocational qualification as a skilled building worker in thechosen domain and opens up horizontal permeability withineach of the three domains. Only in the third year is finalspecialisation in one of the fifteen construction occupationsforeseen Table 2)

Although a first vocational qualification is already attainedafter two years, the vast majority of apprentices follow the

In summary, the division of responsibilities in the dualsystem is shared as follows:• The most important developments in the dual system arediscussed jointly by the Federal Government, the Länderand the industry;

• Results on which consensus can be reached are put intopractice by all stakeholders in their respective fields ofcompetence;

• Action by all stakeholders is governed by statutoryfederal framework legislation, in particular the VocationalTraining Act (‘BBiG’).


Education and training for the construction sector isgoverned by the ‘step-by-step’ training regulation (Stufenaus-bildung). This was initially introduced in 1974 andrestructured and updated in 1999. The steps of VET andqualifications followed are shown in Table 1.

During the first year the VET programme covers thewhole construction sector: All apprentices – regardless of

Duration 1991 1995 1999 2004 2005 2006 2007

2 years 2,265 3,943 4,986 3,048 2,917 3,115 3,235

3 years 32,788 51,885 31,024 12,540 12,022 11,737 11,176

three-year VET programme (Table 3). Apprentices are

overwhelmingly male; the percentage of females in

construction is less than 0.5%! The latest major reform ofconstruction VET (the ‘step-by-step’ VET Programme) tookplace in 1999. For the time being, the majority of stakeholders are not aiming at any revision of the current setting,as there are not many technical or organisational changesoccurring in the Handwerk part of the sector.

In line with CEDEFOP, in the German ‘occupationalmodel’ formal qualifications are based on the successfulcompletion of a regulated and comprehensive VETprogramme. A broad and deep spectrum of qualifications isreflected in the curriculum (Ausbildungsberufsbild). Theapproach of both ‘step-by-step’ VET Programmes, the 2-year and the 3year,is a holistic learning process (see Table 4).

If we consider the three closely related specialist areas withinthe domain ‘building construction’ (Hochbau):• Bricklaying• Concrete and reinforced concrete work• Furnace and chimney work,then the approach implies that skills and knowledge aredeepened and extended in the third year, as apparent fromTable 5.

Due to this educational, holistic approach of the GermanVET system, there is no formal distinction betweenknowledge, skills and competences. Activities are specified interms of skills and knowledge and imparted as competences,encompassing autonomous planning, organising andconducting of work including all measures of quality controland assurance.

The underpinning theoretical knowledge (generaleducation and occupational knowledge) is taught in vocationalschools. VET at the vocational schools is organised not bysubjects but by learning fields. These are shown in Table 6.

56 Germany

Table 3: VET statistics attendance in 2 and 3 years apprenticeship schemes

The scope of activities and knowledge for the 2-year VET programmeaccording to the occupational profile (Ausbildungsberufsbild):

1. VET, labour and collective bargaining law,

2. Structure and organisation of a training company,

3. Health and safety at work,

4. Environment protection,

5. Work assignment, performance record and planning,

6. Provision, protection and clearance of construction sites,

7. Testing, storage and selecting of construction

and auxiliary materials,

8. Reading and application of drawings, preparation of sketches,

9. Conduct measurements,

10. Woodworks and manufacture timber assembling,

11. Build concrete and reinforced concrete construction elements,

12. Build masonry structures,

13. Fitting-in of insulation material for heat-, cold-,

sound and fire protection,

14. Execute plastering works,

15. Execute floor screed works,

16. Execute tiling works,

17. Build elements as dry-construction system,

18. Execute excavation works for foundation pits & trenches

including sheeting and draining,

19. Build (minor) roads and pathways,

20. Assembling and connecting of service and disposal lines,

21. Quality ensuring measures and reporting.

Formal vocational qualification(after successfully passing a regulated, theoretical and practicalassessment) as Skilled Building Construction Worker (Hochbaufacharbeiter)

Source: BIBB: Verordnung über die Berufsausbildungin der Bauwirtschaft 1999

Table 4: Structure and content of the 2-year curriculum

The scope of activities and knowledge ffor the third year of the VET programme according to the occupational profile (Ausbildungsberufsbild):

11. VET, labour and collective bargaining law,

2. Structure and organisation of a training company,

3. Health and safety at work,

4. Environment protection,

5. Work assignment, performance record and planning,

6. Provision, protection and clearance of construction sites,

7. Build concrete and reinforced concrete construction elements,

8. Build masonry structures,

9. Fitting-in of insulation material for heat-, cold-, sound and fire

protection,

10. Execute plastering works,

11. Rehabilitate, restore and secure buildings,

12. Quality ensuring measures and reporting.

Formal vocational qualification(after successfully passing a regulated, theoretical and practicalassessment) as Specialised Skilled Building Construction Worker(Hochbaufacharbeiter)

Source: BIBB: Verordnung über die Berufsausbildungin der Bauwirtschaft 1999

Table 5: Structure and content of the 3rd year


In the context of the German ‘occupational model’ skilledbricklayers are expected to not only have a broadunderstanding and practical know-how of their specialised,labour process but also of the construction sector as a wholeand their professional role within it. They are qualified toplan their own work in collaboration with colleagues inrelated occupations based on a defined work assignment. Animportant asset is their capability to carry out their workunsupervised. They are expected to carry out work withsimultaneous consideration of health and safety regulationsas well as the protection of the environment. Skilledbricklayers are qualified to perform a wide range of tasks intheir occupation, covering the whole process of labour –from preparatory measures, co-ordination activities toquality assurance and delivery of the completed work.

A first vocational qualification is already attained aftertwo years, but the vast majority of apprentices follow thethree year VET programme1 – reflecting the high quality ofwork employers are demanding. Bricklayers work on newconstructions and on refurbishment, modernization andrestoration projects at various sites, for example on housingdevelopments, public-sector construction projects, and

industrial building sites. They mainly build structures, butnot exclusively using blocks and elements made of concreteand reinforced concrete. The work of the bricklayer has notundergoing many changes in technology or workorganisation. However, in the field of construction,utilization of pre-fabricated components is fast gaining inimportance. This means there will be a shift to producingstationary pods or modules and transporting them to theconstruction site for on site assembly. Site-assembledconstruction is of increasing importance for new buildings,finishing and the refurbishment of existing buildings. Thisdevelopment has a strong impact on building skills: Anincreasingly industrial, off-site production ofpods/modules/pre-fabricated elements and their use inindividually designed buildings has implications forqualification requirements (increasingly in terms of a highlyskilled »assemblyperson«). However, the main impact of thisdevelopment will be on occupations in the finishing fieldrather than on the profile of bricklayers.

Although the number of bricklayers employed hasdecreased dramatically since 1991, in relation to the totallabour force in the construction sector the proportion hasremained stable at around 15%, reflecting the relativeimportance of bricklaying at company and sectoral levels. Inthe German ‘occupational model’ a qualification – the resultof a regulated and nationally recognised VET programme –is of great importance for successful labour market entry. Thebroad occupationally based qualifications have been definedthrough intensive discussions between the social partners andreflect labour market demands. This is evident from the wagestructure and collective agreements where diversequalification levels are linked to respective wage grades. As afully qualified mason, monthly wages (not includingadditional payments such as leave pay) according to thecollective agreement 2009 are shown in Table 7.

Conclusions

A comprehensive national qualifications framework forlifelong learning based on learning outcomes (DeutscherQualifikationsrahmen – DQR) is currently being developedin Germany. It will include qualifications obtained in generaleducation, higher education and VET. In the first phase onlyfull formal qualifications will be referenced to the DQR; in alater phase informally and non-formally acquiredcompetences will also be included. The work on the DQRresponds to the EQF initiative. An important objective is toallow for a transparent referencing of qualifications acquired

57

Learning fields (Lernfelder) at vocational schools

year No. Designation

1st year Basic or general training for all construction trades

1 Establishing / commencement of works at a construction site

2 Foundation works for a building

3 Build a single-leaf masonry element

4 Build a wooden construction

5 Build a reinforced concrete construction element

6 Coating and sheeting of a construction element

2nd year Specialised VET in Building construction – focus bricklaying

7 Build a single-leaf wall

8 Build a double-leaf wall

9 Build a solid/ massive ceiling

10 Wall plastering

11 Build a wall in dry system technique

12 Floor screed works

3rd year Specialised VET in bricklaying

13 Build a straight staircase

14 Cover an opening with an arch

15 Build a natural stone wall

16 Build special masonry elements

17 Restore and rehabilitate construction elements

Source: KMK – Kultusministerkonferenz. 1999

Table 6: Overview of learning fields at vocational schools for bricklayers

Experienced bricklayer c. 2.740,00 Euro

Petty foreman c. 2.880,00 Euro

Trade/ certified foreman c. 3.990,00 Euro

Table 7: Monthly collectively agreed wages 2009

Level Occupation

recommendation of SQF-CON project current official discussion in Germany

6 Master Mason

5 Certified Foreman Certified ForemanMaster Mason

4 Trade Foreman Bricklayer/3 years VET programme »Mason«

3a Petty Foreman

3 Bricklayer/3 years VET programme Bricklayer/2 years VET programme (Hochbaufacharbeiter)»Mason«

2 Bricklayer/2 years VET programme (Hochbaufacharbeiter) Bricklayer Helper

1 Bricklayer Helper Bricklayer entrance level (basic competence)

Table 8. The Sectoral Qualifications Framework: SQF-CON and FRG approaches

1 93,5% in 1991 and still 77,6% in 20072 SQF-CON 137865-LLP-2007-DE-KA1EQF

58 Germany

current recommendations of the responsible committee at thelevel of the Federal Government of Germany (see Table 8).

Various proposals for the development of modules arecurrently being discussed. However, the core of the GermanVET system is Beruflichkeit, a notion based oncomprehensive VET, aimed at developing individuals for abroadly defined occupational field and as responsible citizens.Critics argue that ECVET will undermine this successfulapproach by cutting the holistic setting into pieces. Modulesare seen as precursors to a stripped-down version of VETwithout the educational and competence elements; hence therejection of modularisation.

in Germany to the EQF and to use it as tool for enhancingopportunities for German citizens in the European labourmarket. Another important objective is to map all obtainablequalifications, present them in relation to each other andmake them easily understood and comparable.

The project SQF-CON2 is aimed at developing a SectoralQualifications Framework (SQF) for the constructionindustry in Europe. It was developed by European SocialPartners in construction together with organizationsrepresenting VET systems in participating countries. Thoughdecisions have not been taken yet, the levels recommendedby the SQF-CON project are not compatible with the

The Italianbricklayingqualification

Daniele Verdesca/Formedil

59

Introduction

In Italy there are no regulatory requirements to work as abricklayer. Nor are there any training requirements, either forentry into to the labour market or for the minimum levelbricklaying qualification. The occupational profile of thebricklayer is not regulated nationally. In Italy there is nosystem as such for the recognition of vocational qualificationsand related certifications. At a contractual level alone, fourdifferent levels are recognised: 1) ordinary worker; 2)qualified worker; 3) specialised worker; 4) Level 4 worker.These levels are based on the duties performed on theconstruction site and are linked to relevant wage levels in theCCNL (national collective labour agreements) of thebuilding industry. The contractual promotion to the nextprofessional level is not linked to qualifications and/or to theacquisition of new skills. The areas of expertise, competenceand skill necessary to define the occupational profile are notuniformly identified, either at an institutional (State andRegions) or a contractual level (CCNL). The trainingrequirement is linked to the size of the firm. Small andmedium sized firms tend to request ‘versatile’ occupationalprofiles, with competences which may come in useful indifferent contexts. Large companies (not very widespread inItaly) require more qualified and specialised occupationalprofiles (such as for site managers or capocantieres).

With the development of new technologies (such as lowcarbon construction and green housing), there is a greaterneed for a higher level of training. However, the occupationalprofile of the bricklayer is perceived as not very attractive;There is a low retention rate amongst young people (under35) who enter the industry for short periods, and then moveon as soon as possible to other sectors. This leads to a highlabour turnover, which in turn discourages firms fromadopting a more permanent training policy. Bricklayers aremostly recruited at the lowest wage levels (1st and 2nd levelof the CCNL), regardless of qualification or experience. Theindustry is characterised by a high proportion of foreignworkers, the key reasons being: 1) low labour cost; 2) thefact that qualifications are not required; 3) and the lowattraction of the construction industry for Italian workers.

The labour market context in the building industry

In 2009, the workforce in the construction industry totalled1,944,000 members, representing 28.9% of the number ofworkers employed overall in industry and 8.4% of the totalworkforce in the national economy. The sector is animportant employer, particularly in the south of the country,where the percentage of the construction workforcecompared with the total industrial workforce and with thenumber of workers employed in all sectors has grown to42.8% and 9.6%, respectively. In the centre of the country,the respective shares are equal to 31.9% and 8.3% respectively,closer to the national average. In the north, the workforce

60 Italy

foreign workers employed in the industry registered anoverall growth of more than 70%; on the other hand, in thesame period, the number of Italian workers dropped by5.7%. The number of foreign workers as a proportion of thetotal workforce has also become increasingly important overtime: in 2005, foreign workers in the construction sectorrepresented 9.6% of the total; this percentage graduallyincreased in the following years, to 16.1% in 2009, higherthan in any other economic sector.

The governance system of VET In Italy there is no national system of VET for the constructionindustry or for bricklaying; the structure of qualifications andof VET provision vary by region and there is no mechanismfor mutual recognition.

The Italian system works at two different levels: 1. the institutional level, which refers to the central State as

regards the national level and the Regions as regards thelocal level.

2. the private level, which involves the Social Partners andis defined by the acquisition of a general guideline forthe national collective labour agreement of the industry(CCNL) and specific decisions as regards the provincialcollective labour agreements (CCPL).

To-date, this system has not achieved a real link between thequalifications acquired and the labour market (both at anational and regional level). From a purely legal perspective,the Italian Constitution establishes the responsibility of theState for ‘the training and professional development ofworkers’ and assigns to the Region the exclusiveresponsibility for VET. The Regions exercise their duties alsoby delegating and transferring functions and tasks to theProvinces (Local Authorities). The State remains responsiblefor setting minimum standards for training programmes. Thecompulsory education age (previously set at 15 years of age)has been redefined in terms of »rights and responsibilities« inrelation to the attainment of an educational or vocationalqualification by the age of 18. After the end of secondaryschool (terza media) (the second instruction cycle or juniorsecondary school), it is possible to select t from the three-yeareducational and professional VET paths. The State, theRegions and the local authorities guarantee educationalprogrammes structured within the territory. VETprogrammes must provide (at least from a legal perspective)customised, certified paths, with recognised training creditsat a national and European level. Whether employed or not,Italian workers have the right to continue their professionaldevelopment throughout their entire life, so as to increasetheir professional knowledge and competence. Employees,who have been employed by with the same organisation forat least five years, may request ‘training leave’.

There are two different contexts as regards adulteducation: one under the responsibility of the Ministry ofEducation (Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione or MPI); theother, related to the Continuing VET (Formazione

employed in construction represents 23.2%, just over one infive of all industrial workers and 7.9% of the workforceemployed in the entire Italian economy. In 2009, theworkforce employed in the construction industry(representing 62.4% of total employment in the industry) wascomposed largely of blue collar workers (81.3%) as opposedto white collar workers (13.6%). Apprentices, middlemanagement and senior management represented 3.2%, 1.3%and 0.6% respectively.

The decline in the number of workers in employment in2009 (-3.0%) included all categories, with the exception ofmiddle managers (+24.0% from 2008). The number of bluecollar workers decreased by 1.7% from 2008, after years ofcontinuous growth whilst, in the same period, the number ofwhite collar workers fell by 7.0%. There was also a decreasein the number of senior managers (-12.6%) and apprentices (-20.6%). The increase in self-employed workers in 2009(+1.6% compared with 2008) reflects certain opposingtrends: there was an increase in the number of ‘freelancers’(+14.0%), self-employed (+2.5%) and members ofcooperative societies (+43.6%); conversely, a decrease wasrecorded in the number of contractors (-4.4%), familyworkers (-11.1%), freelance workers coordinated by anemployer (-8.5%) and casual workers (-10.0% compared with2008). The majority of independent workers working in theconstruction industry in 2009 comprised self-employedworkers (84.0%); followed by contractors (6.6%), and family(4.5%) and freelance workers (3.1%). The percentage offreelancers and members of cooperative societies is lesssignificant (1.0% and 0.5% respectively). Also in 2009, despitethe pressure characteristic of the Italian labour market, thecontribution of foreign workers to the employment rates wasconsiderable, although their rate of growth was lower than inthe past. According to an Istat workforce survey in 2009,there were 1,898,000 foreign workers resident in Italy, up by8.4% from the previous year, following annual growth ratesof 15.3% in 2006, 11.4% in 2007 and 16.5% in 2008 – aremarkable result considering that the total number ofworkers dropped in 2009 by 1.6% from the previous year.

In the construction sector, the number of foreign workersin 2009 was approximately 313,000, up by 9.3% from 2008and reflecting a slowdown in the growth rate compared withthe previous years (+26.4% in 2006, +10.5% in 2007; +11.4%in 2008, on an annual basis), against an annual drop of 1.3%in the total number of workers in the construction sector.The growth in foreign employment within the industry in2009 included both workers under an employment contract(+8.2%) and self employed foreign workers (+12.4%). Yearafter year, the proportion of independent foreign workers hasgradually increased, from 20% in 2005 to 27.6% in 2009.Conversely, the proportion of foreign workers undercontract dropped from 80% in 2005 to 72.4% in 2009.Presumably, part of the foreign workforce preferred after aninitial period to move from an employment relationship to aform of self-employment. While the number and proportionof foreign workers in the total construction workforce hasgradually increased, there has been a drop in the number ofItalian workers. From 2005 to 2009, the number of resident

Areas of competence

Preliminary

Reading oftechnical drawings

Metric geometry

Materials andMachines

Production techniques

Regulations on safetyand waste disposal

Communication

Skills

• to safely use tools and other equipment as required;• to organise one's own workstation;• to read and interpret a scale graphic drawing;• calculation of surfaces and volumes

• to identify the construction system and the form,dimensions, measures and materials of thetechnical element to be realised;

• to identify types and characteristics of the technicalsystems to be installed;

• to use the technical drawing to communicateconstruction procedures

• to use a range of production technologies, including mechanical production;

• safe use of hand and powered tools and equipment

• planning of the operations and preparation ofequipment and working tools;

• drawing of a technical element

• reporting in writing to the construction sitemanager on the work performed and preparation of ordered lists of equipment and material;

• reading, understanding and communicatingtechnical instructions on: works, material,equipment and machinery

Knowledge

• spatial and technical elements comprised in abuilding work, and the technical solutions adopted in its realisation;

• elements for the layout of plant, foundations,internal partitions, height measurements, roofing of a building work and the proceduresrequired for alignment

• characteristics and behaviour of materials;• process and product innovation

• phases of the building process, actors involved and their role;

• innovations in production technologies and their application

• applicable regulations on hygiene, prevention and safety in the construction site, waste selection and disposal, and its application

• filing of information

Table 1: The competences of the Addetto alle Strutture according to ISFOL

61

no general principle is set which such associations mustcomply with). In the absence of any specific regional law,apprenticeship is governed by the National Collective LabourAgreement of the industry (CCNL). The Regions whichhave introduced laws on this subject, and have signed aMemorandum of Understanding with the Ministry of Labourare: Veneto, Lombardy, Piedmont, Emilia Romagna, Tuscany,the autonomous province of Bolzano, Abruzzi and Umbria.

The regulations which deal with VET still represent areference for the system and form the basis for implementingthe regulations issued by the regions. The guiding regulationsat a national level assign an important role to the SocialPartners, identifying them as necessary counterparties of theRegions, to be consulted with in the planning of trainingactivities and invited to take part in the social control of VETinitiatives. Training activities may be chosen by the worker(or arranged by the enterprise), through the corporatetraining plans agreed with the Social Partners. The collectivelabour negotiations for the industry, both national and local,define the number of hours to be used for training leave, thecriteria for the identification of the workers and the rules ontime and remuneration related to participation in the trainingpaths. Through the CCNL the Social Partners identify VETas the privileged form of access to the industry and an

Professionale Continua or FPC) of adult workers, comesunder the responsibility of the regional authorities. Under theItalian system, there are no Technical High Schoolsspecialised in the building and construction industry.

In line with constitutional decentralisation of powers andfunctions, the Regions are responsible for VET. There is noguidance, however, regarding implementing regulation fornew sets of competences. Pending the aforementionedregulation, the VET system continues to be strictly subject tothe old regulations, which assign to the Regions a primaryand non exclusive responsibility, within the scope of centrallydefined guidelines. The Regions (after consultation with theSocial Partners) have the following responsibilities:1. the regulation of training profiles for apprenticeship for

the purposes of the right and duty to education andtraining (i.e. up to age 18);

2. the local regulations governing VET, continuing VETand access to the trade;

3. disbursal of relevant loans to those being trained (subjectto prior accreditation).

Employers' associations are required to comply with regionalstandards and regulate to the extent provided for by collectivenegotiation, including setting the relevant duration (however,

Level

1st level

2nd level

3rd level

4th level

Description

Worker at his/her first experience (no specific function or skill)

This category is divided into:• Bricklayer• Carpenter although covering the role of the multi-skilled worker. He/she has very littlerecognition as regards functions and specific skills.

This category is divided into:• Bricklayers (construction of pillars, columns, arches, bricks,

special plasterwork, parapets, barrel, cross, dome and gothic vaults, stairs and mounting of front stones, marbles, tiles);

• Carpenter (wood, iron, reinforced concrete)

Identified with the Construction site manager, with wide knowledge and experience in the industry, working autonomouslyand with continuity in the different phases of the work, including the coordination of workers who assist him/her.

Classification

Ordinary/Common worker

Qualified worker/Multi-skilled worker Qualified worker/Polyvalent worker

Specialised worker

4th level worker/Specialised worker + Skilled

Table 2: Contractual levels of the national collective agreement of the building industry

62 Italy

Structure and content of VET for the bricklayer

There is no mechanism at national level for the recognition ofcompetences. Certification in the VET system aims to:• ensure the transparency of training programmes;• facilitate the matching of labour demand and supply;• identify the demand and supply of knowledge and skillsand on the labour market.

Therefore, the certification of competences in compliancewith certain quality standards and criteria has as its primaryobjective to facilitate potential employment. Cometencesrepresent the subject matter of the certification (as anorganised set of knowledge and abilities) related to specificoccupational profiles, and may be acquired through trainingprogrammes, work experience, self training. Thecompetences certified represent a training credit (creditoformativo); the recognition of which is made by the trainingprovider in cooperation with the worker’s employer. Oncecompleted, the training, the higher level professional coursesand the competences acquired will be certified in the Trainingbooklet (Libretto formativo) of the worker.

As regards the content of bricklaying VET, the ItalianState, through the national institution for professionaldevelopment (ISFOL), gives some guidelines at a nationallevel as regards the scope of activities through a definition ofcompetences in the Addetto alle strutture (Table 1summarises the competences identified by ISFOL (asregards Apprenticeship) in terms of knowledge and skills).

However, the major influence on the content of ItalianVET comes from the national collective labour negotiations.The four national collective agreements applicable to theconstruction industry identify the professional/contractuallevels and, consequently, the wages, without specifying thequalifications linked to the different levels. That is to say thatin the Italian labour market there is no relation betweenqualifications and the contractual level. The latter is identified

opportunity for all workers in the building industry toenhance the quality of their work and the technical-productive capacities of the enterprise. The LocalOrganisation members of national associations areresponsible for implementing the regulations.

VET is provided by private entities, paritarian funds orentities established directly by the individual Social Partners.There is no difference in the functions exercised by thesedifferent entities. Training organisations are accredited by theRegions, if considered to be acceptable, based on mainlyadministrative and logistic requirements. This makes aspectsdirectly related to the standards of professional competenceof training practitioners irrelevant (the minimum requirementfor trainers under the contract currently in force is asecondary school diploma, also for training tutors). There isno assessment of the training content or of the resulting levelof learning, including the effectiveness of such content andthe subsequent opportunities which might be available on thelabour market. Therefore, the gradual diversification ofregional provision creates a variegated picture, especially interms of the effectiveness of the training providers. Theparitarian funds for VET provided for by the CCNLs of theindustry are the Building Schools (with the regional bodiesnamed Formedil regionali and with the national liaison,coordination and guidance body named FORMEDIL).Paritarian funds were legally granted the possibility todevelop their own apprenticeship programmes,independently from the Regions. The actual opportunitiesfor the two organisations to provide the service are, however,very different: the paritarian funds do not have the sameresources as the Regions (the funding of bilateral institutionsis private and stems directly from the provisions of theCCNL).

As regards the European reference scenarios, and EQF inparticular, they are not applicable except for some genericacquisition of documents or voluntary guidelines.

Basiclevel

Intermediary level

Advanced level

Source Formedil

Transversal

• Possession and use of instruments for an active searchfor work

• Analysis of the situation and of the task assigned• Assessment of the characteristics of the environment,

of the task and of one's own role• Expressive abilities• Effective communication• Safety

• Organisation of work in an autonomous manner• Problem management• Working in groups• Negotiating• Safety

• Problem solving• Safety (first aid)

Basic/Technical

• Interpretation of architectural drawings• Interpretation of drawings related to iron-work

and carpentry• Interpretation of infrastructure-related drawings• Metric measurement of buildings• Internal lay-out • Construction of buildings and masonry• Use of basic Information Technology• Correct use of the Italian language• Understanding and awareness of the concept

of risk at entry

• Interpretation of drawings related to restoration and recovery

• Metric measurement of architectural environments• External layout – simple elements at ground level• Excavation• Realisation of concrete fixtures• Realisation of construction and road works• Realisation of infrastructure-related works• Assembly of prefabricated buildings• Painting• Transportation of materials, aggregate and concrete• Realisation of electrification work• Realisation of lifting systems

• Measurement and drawing quantities from drawings

Key-Skills

Table 3: Key skills of the Bricklayer

63

Public Works and to major infrastructure projects abroad.The environment of production is fragmented and segmentedby the increasingly more frequent use of subcontracts, theservices of self-employed craftsmen, and lack of contractualhomogeneity of the different workers. The constructionindustry is characterised by the high geographical mobility ofthe labour force, attributable not to professional developmentbut to the economic-territorial characteristics of the countrywhich force workers to undertake long-distance transfers,especially in the case of the public infrastructure system(small, fragmented local markets).

As described above, Immigrants from other countrieswithin as well as outside the EU play an increasinglyimportant role in the construction sector (in the last fewyears, their numbers have increased exponentially, especiallyin the north of the country, where their share of theworkforce has exceeded 50-60%). Reasons include: 1. An unattractive perception of the construction sector

(an industry considered as a »refuge« for morevulnerable social groups);

2. Access to the labour market which is not subject to thepossession of any specific qualification, knowledge orprofessional skills, especially as regards the basicfunctions of the construction process;

3. Low labour costs (entrance at the lower levels).

The construction sector still represents one of the majorindustries as regards access to the labour market for theimmigrant population in Italy, due to its high capacity toabsorb labour. According to the most recent data available,

based on the functions/tasks performed and is achieved bymeans of negotiation/contracting between the worker andthe employer. Table 2 summarises the content of the nationalcontract as regards:• professional level;• classification of professional levels;• description of professional levels.

In conclusion, if the guidelines from the State at national levelhad to be matched with the operational tasks provided for inthe national collective agreements, the content of VET inItaly would be that summarised in Table 3 below, based ontwo variables: 1. Key competences, divided into:

a. basic or technical skillsb. transversal skills (relational, strategic, managerial andorganisational);

2. The level of professionalism of the worker, subdividedinto elementary, intermediary and advanced levels


193 local markets have been identified in Italy, each one withits own features. Small and medium firms and singlecraftsmen are widespread (small firms very rarely have highqualification levels); large enterprises are not. The industrialdimension of this sector is mainly linked to the market for

64 Italy

service which ties a worker to a specific construction site (forthe first hiring, the enterprise may avail itself of so-called»cessazione d'opera« or »work termination« ). Part of thewage (holiday pay, Christmas bonus, payment in case ofsickness and accidents; social security benefits provided forby the local supplementary agreements such as allowancesand scholarships, work clothing, summer camps, health careservices, etc.), is paid to workers through the payment of aportion of the labour cost by the enterprises to the CasseEdili (special construction workers' funds). In addition, theCasse Edili, through the APE (annual bonus for professionalseniority in the building industry), allow for pensionsupplements for workers who have difficulty reaching asufficient level of contributions with the national pensionsystem due to the mobility (territorial/corporate) whichcharacterises this industry. Workers are entitled to severancepay when the Cassa has registered in their favour at least2,100 hours in a two year period (including worked hours,sickness and accidents). To this effect, the hours registered atthe Casse Edili of the Provinces in the entire national territorywill be taken into account.

The majority of workers in this industry are recruited atthe lowest wage levels: 1. approximately 10% are 4th level Workers and

Specialised Workers;2. 15% are Qualified Workers;3. approximately 20% are Apprentices;4. approximately 45 % are labourers.

This is not the case for those working with site machinery,technological or plant engineering equipment, historic andarchitectural heritage. More recently the industry, driven by»energy saving« and »green housing« considerations, hasshown a greater demand for highly professional profiles.

approximately 17% of foreigners regularly working in Italyare in the construction industry (generally, the break downby macro-sector of foreign workers employed in Italy is asfollows: industrial sector 22%; construction 17%; services56%; agriculture 5%). Labourers and Bricklayers (1st and 2ndlevel respectively) are the most sought after occupations forforeign workers by firms with fewer than 20 employees, 60%of which tend to recruit people with no specific workexperience.

Contractual and salary aspects

The remuneration system for the bricklayer occupation is notlinked to skills or qualifications but to the functionsperformed. Once the provision of services for one specificconstruction site has been completed, a 3rd level worker maybe hired as a 1st or 2nd level worker at his/her next job witha new enterprise. Minimum wage levels are identified in thecollective agreements for the industry and remain in force fora two year period. The wage elements at a national level,updated as of January 2009 (hourly rates in Euros) are asfollows: • 4th level production worker: € 8,77;• 4th level specialised worker: € 8,38;• qualified worker: € 7,75;• ordinary worker: € 7,12.

Generally, the bricklayer is recruited on an open-endedcontract, although there has been a considerable increase inthe last few years in the number of those recruited on atemporary contract. In other words, the employmentrelationship ties the worker to the firm without any pre-settermination date, but assumes the features of a fixed term

The Dutch bricklayingqualification

Anneke Westerhuis/ecbo

65

IntroductionFor young school leavers at the beginning of their career,vocational education and training (VET) is by far the mostcommon, if not the only, route to enter skilled occupations inthe Netherlands. Social partners in the Building Industryhave agreed a ‘skilled worker policy’, aiming at employing(VET) skilled workers only. Consequently the sector’semployment policy heavily depends on the number of youngpeople enrolling in building courses in VET. As enrolmentfigures for VET courses preparing for occupations in theBuilding Sector are dropping, in particular for Bricklaying,the sector is facing a serious recruitment problem. The socialpartners’ answer to this problem has been to strengthen VETpolicy by investing in the quality and innovation of coursesand through salary rises for newly qualified bricklayers. Thissummary of the National Report will illustrate both pointsand evaluate the success of the industry’s VET policy. Theboxes in the report contain illustrations taken from themicro-level case studies conducted.

Unique for the Netherlands is that companies in the

construction industry pool their VET in so-called collective

Samenwerkingsverbanden. Samenwerkingsverbanden are –

mostly local – legally independent joint ventures founded

by construction firms for dealing with their collective

education, and training matters. Apprenticeships are

based on a contract between the apprentice and

Samenwerkingsverbanden. On completion of the

apprenticeship, apprentices are usually taken on by one of

the firms.

The BGA group is the employer in our first case study and

Bouw-opleiding Rijnland in the second. However, formally

speaking only Bouwopleiding Rijnland is a local

Samenwerkingsverband. The BGA group is a 100%

subsidiary of the Dutch Federation of Contractors

(Aannemersfederatie Nederland) which represents the

interests of SMEs in the construction industry, civic

engineering and specialised contractors. Besides hiring out

construction workers in a variety of occupations, the BGA

Group organises VET courses and (LLL) training courses in

construction for its members; all apprentices have a

contract with one of the associated firms, once having

finished their course. The BGA group runs five training

facilities in the Netherlands. Because of the formal

cooperation with an ROC (ROC West Brabant), the BGA

groups is allowed to offer VET courses; its apprentices are

registered with this school and its tutors are trained and

supervised by the school.

Bouwopleiding Rijnland is one of the 70 local

Samenwerkingsverbanden operating in the Netherlands.

Samenwerkingsverbanden vary with respect to the number

of construction firms joining (up to 125 building firms) and

the variety of firms (construction only, or also decoration,

etc.). Samenwerkingsverbanden and VET schools do not

form unique combinations. Most cooperate with more than

Number of employees

Subsector 1 - 5 5 - 10 10 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 < 100 Total

Construction and infrastructure

General construction firms 4,365 1,180 1,050 700 185 130 7,615

Structural work (bridges, underpasses, etc.) 10 5 5 15 0 5 40

Cabling and piping 125 50 45 40 10 20 285

Roofing and roof constructions 560 120 115 70 5 5 875

Construction of roads, railways, airports & sport facilities 185 90 115 90 30 30 540

Road work (pavements) 715 150 90 35 5 0 990

Hydraulic engineering 45 15 10 5 10 5 85

Driving piles and other foundation work 55 10 20 15 5 0 110

Bending steel bars/concrete work 90 25 25 15 5 0 160

Bricklaying and joining 600 115 90 60 5 5 880

Other specialist construction firms 705 180 125 90 15 5 1,145

Finishing buildings

Plastering 665 125 60 30 5 5 890

Carpentry 1,590 235 100 30 5 0 1,960

Finishing floors and walls 1,060 165 100 40 0 0 1,365

Decorating and glazing 2,290 475 345 200 35 10 3,360

Other finishing work 295 65 25 10 0 0 395

Source: http://www.bouwendnederland.nl/artikelen/Pages/Bedrijven_bouwnijverheid_naar_grootteklasse_826.aspx?source=%252fweb%252fmarkt%252fdemografie%252fPages%252fdefault.aspx

Table 1: Employment in the Dutch construction sector

66 Netherlands

the Dutch economy appears to have found its way up againwith a 2.2% rise in GDP in the first half of 2010. The impactis most visible in the order books of the housing andcommercial sectors, which, after declining for some time,have now stabilized with work in hand for six months. Thefigures for the infrastructure sector (civil engineering) appearto lag behind as, after a slow but steady rise in the stock ofwork, decline has set in. In July 2010 this sector had a stockof work for 6.3 months ahead (Bouwendnederland 2010).

The impact of the crisis on training places for apprenticesis severe; the number of training places is dropping, due tothe fact that firms do not have vacancies (and training places).This also affects trainees; they are made redundant or arefaced with a salary drop as they have to share a training placewith another trainee. The crisis also affects the number ofapprentices: young people avoid the construction industry asit is seen as sensitive to economic fluctuations.

The use of migrant workers in bricklaying is low.However, no recent data are available. Research in 2005showed that hardly anybody from outside the Netherlandswas employed as bricklayers. However, 9% of companiesanticipated employing bricklayers from abroad in the nearfuture because of the low numbers of school leavers expectedto enter the occupation (Beereboom 2005).

The average age of bricklayers is forty and rising.Compared to other occupations in the building industry, thisis high. The reason is that the number of people enteringbricklaying is declining as young people prefer otheroccupations, for instance in the service sector. The length oftheir employment is affected by the type of work: bricklayersin maintenance and renovation are on average moreexperienced (26 years) than bricklayers in new build (21 years

one school, and most schools cooperate with a number of

Samenwerkingsverbanden Also, not all construction firms

join a Samenwerkingsverband; large construction firms in

particular usually employ apprentices directly.

Context of the building industryfor bricklaying

Traditionally, the Dutch Building Industry has beensubdivided into two main subsectors: construction andinfrastructure. The construction sector covers housing,commercial, restoration, etc. The infrastructure sectorincludes road and rail building, civil engineering, etc. A moredetailed subdivision is given in the table below, showing thesize of firms in the most relevant subsectors in 2006 (thelatest available figures). When groundwork to preparebuilding sites, installation work (plumbing, electricity, centralheating, etc.) and leasing firms (building machines and staff)are included, 28,000 firms can be counted as buildingcompanies (January 2006). Over three quarters of theseemploy fewer than 10 employees.

In February 2010 orders in hand in the Dutch housingand commercial sectors covered six months’ work; a 16%decline within a year. The figures for the infrastructure sector(civil engineering) were slightly better with a 10% decline inthe same period. In 2009 almost 1,000 firms went intoliquidation, a 60% rise compared to 2008; 30% of the firms inliquidation were self-employed construction workers (self-employed are registered as a firm). Within a year, the numberof self-employed going into bankruptcy rose by 40%. In 2010

enrolment number of which of which of which successqualification year of students a diploma dropped out In education rate (%)

Bricklayer (2) 2000 588 417 171 (29%) 71% -

Bricklayer (2) 2005 429 307 107 (25%) 15 (3%) 75%

Bricklayer (2) 2009 407 1 30 (7%) 376 (92%) 93%

Carpenter( 2) 2003 2,275 1,648 608 19 72%

Carpenter (2) 2005 2,040 1,375 480 185 67%

Carpenter (2) 2007 2,614 32 234 2,348 1%

All-round Bricklayer (3) 2000 221 189 32 (14%) - 86%

All-round Bricklayer (3) 2005 187 159 25 (13%) 3 (2%) 87%

All-round Bricklayer (3) 2009 194 1 7 (4%) 186 (96%) 96%

Source: Fundeon

Table 2: Educational history by enrolment year for bricklayer apprentices at VET levels 2 and 3 (April 2010)

BBL/dual track VET level 2006-2007 2007-2008 2008-2009 2009-2010*

Assistant on site (carpeting) 1 1 1 - 1

Assistant civil engineering 1 - - 2 -

Carpenter 2 7 36 43 16

Restoration carpenter 3 - - 1 -

All-round carpenter 3 3 12 5 8

All-round bricklayer 3 - - - 2

Total - 11 49 51 27

* December 1, 2009

Table 3: Annual influx in the courses organised by ‘Bouwopleiding Rijnland’ and ROCLeyden

In both case studies, only a few (bricklaying) apprentices were to be found, as the majority of apprentices train to become

carpenters. The table gives an overview of the influx of apprentices in the Samenwerkingsverband Leyden from 2006 till 2009:

67

programmes in terms of competences. New templates,procedures and innovation programmes were launched forthis purpose. Qualifications now cover a range ofoccupations rather than a single one. Sector-based socialpartners are under pressure to broaden qualifications and toreduce their number.

Dutch VET is offered at four levels, of which level 4 is thehighest, and in two equivalent tracks: a dual track (originallythe apprenticeship system, but now part of thecomprehensive VET system) and a school–based track. Theformal difference between the two tracks is in the number ofhours dedicated to learning at school and the number ofhours dedicated to learning in the workplace. VET coursesfor bricklaying are situated at level 2 and 3 and mostly offeredin the dual track. This is why the bricklayer VET students arereferred to as apprentices in this report.

As Dutch VET is the most important source of newbricklayers, recruitment figures for bricklaying dependheavily on enrolment figures for VET, in particular onbricklaying courses. A general trend in Dutch education isthat young people stay in education longer. In 1995/96 asixteen year old would stay in education for another sixyears, in 2007/08 this had risen to seven years. The numberof twenty year olds in education has risen from 46% to 65%in the same period. This is because more young people entercourses at higher education levels, where courses usually take

experience). In 2003 no less than 49% of bricklayers wereemployed for 25 years or more.

Absence due to sickness is relatively high for bricklayers,but dropped from 8.1% of working time in 2002 to 5.4% in2005 (Bouwend Nederland 2007).Working conditions aredemanding. Relatively many bricklayers leave this occupationbecause of the working conditions (Beereboom 2005). Themost serious health risks for bricklayers are physical (backproblems, muscular inflammation, high noise levels, fallingfrom scaffolding, and lung problems due to working withhazardous raw materials (Arbouw website).


In terms of content, social partners are responsible for theidentification and content (learning aims) of nationalqualifications. It is the role of the state to validatequalifications, a process which is necessary for theaccreditation of qualifications within a national VETqualification framework. VET schools are only subsidised bythe state for courses preparing for the qualifications withinthis framework. In 1999, the government and national socialpartners agreed to define qualifications and VET

68 Netherlands

Additionally, all qualification documents include standardizedsets of civic and learning competences. By 2010 all VETqualifications have to be defined in competence terms.


The role of VET in the Dutch educational system isthreefold: preparing for an occupation/occupational career inthe first place, but also preparing for further education,lifelong learning and citizenship. In terms of competences,occupational competences are defined by the Industry’ssocial partners. The division of VET qualifications for thebuilding industry reflects the traditional division of labour,leading to rather narrow vocational qualifications.

Bricklayers operate in all-round as well as specialisedconstruction firms. Section A of the bricklayer qualificationfile explains that the qualification is based on four occupationalprofiles, validated by the social partners:• Bricklaying new built• Bricklaying all round• Bricklaying restoration- Gluing (Beereboom and Ploeger 2002).

The qualification is a compromise between the interests of alltypes of firms, founded on the division of the qualification fileinto five diplomas or specialisations – two at VET level 2 andthree at VET level 3:• At Level 2:- 2.1 Bricklaying including gluing interior walls and floors- 2.2 Bricklaying including light partitioning walls• At Level 3:- 3.1 All round bricklaying including new bricklayingtechniques

- 3.2 All round bricklaying renovation and restoration- 3.3 All round bricklaying rebuilding.

Specialisations do not differ a great deal in terms of coretasks. The qualification file explains that the major differencesbetween the levels can be found in the complexity of theactivities and the role and responsibilities of a bricklayer.

The C section has all work processes subdivided intocompetence elements, completed with performanceindicators and the relevant knowledge and skills. However,details of the skills and knowledge aspects are not given atactivity level. In most cases the information is limited toformulas like: ‘(relevant) knowledge and skills in usingmaterials, tools and utensils in order to execute [name of theactivity]’. To give an impression of the level of detail, theinformation referring to the first work process element of thefirst core task ‘bricklaying activities’, preparation of theworkplace, is given below:

longer, or, instead of entering the labour market, moveupwards in education from lower to higher levels. As aconsequence, enrolment in lower level VET courses hasdropped significantly. For reasons of comparison, figures forcarpenters at level 2 have been added. Carpentry coursesattract far more apprentices, bricklaying being a minor tradein the Dutch building industry.

Qualifications are produced by social partners first andforemost for educational purposes. Occupational VETqualifications are developed in two steps. In the first, nationaloccupational competence profiles are defined by the socialpartners, often on the basis of (empirical) occupationalanalyses commissioned by the social partners and executedby the sector based Knowledge Centres. The KnowledgeCentre for the building industry is called Fundeon. In thesecond step, one or more occupational competence profilesare clustered and translated into (one or more) VETqualifications, defining the competences a person has tomaster to obtain a qualification. This second step is executedjointly by representatives from the social partners and theVET colleges.

In 2002 it was decided that all VET qualifications shouldbe defined in terms of competences. But, when no detailswere given as to how to define competences and how to usethe concept in defining the content of the competence-basedqualifications, the process of redefining was by trial and error(ACOA 2005; Cras 2006; COLO 2006). Every KnowledgeCentre and every committee in charge of producing newqualifications gave their own interpretation to thecompetence concept. The first generation of competence-based qualifications was in fact defined in traditional activity-based learning aims, now presented as competences(Onstenk 2005).

Since 2004 the process has become more organised interms of process managers, validation committees, newformats and manuals. All VET qualifications are identical interms of lay-out and information categories and divided infour sections:• Section A., with a short general description of theoccupation or set of occupations, covered by thequalification file;

• Section B. An overview of the core tasks andcorresponding work processes of a particularqualification. In this section, all work processes belongingto a core task are characterised with the aid of 25standardised process elements (key words: management& decision making; support & cooperation; networking& presenting; analysing & interpretation; creation &learning; organisation & execution; dealing with stress &adaption to conditions; entrepreneurship &performance).

• Section C, where all work processes are subdivided intocompetence elements, performance indicators andknowledge and skills.

• Section D, which accounts for the development processand the points for discussion in this.

Diploma

2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3

Core task 1: bricklaying activities x x x x x

Core task 2: gluing activities x x x

Core task 3: renovation, restoration, rebuilding x

Core task 4: concrete work x

Core task 5: work organisation for gangs x x x

Tabelle 4: The Dutch qualification file

Diploma

2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3

Core tasks 1: bricklaying activities

1.1 preparation of the workplace x x x x x

1.2 adjusting and calibration x x x x x

1.3 putting up temporary structures x x x x x

1.4 bricklaying x x x x x

1.5 putting up construction aids x x x x x

1.5 joining x x x x x

1.6 covering brick work x x x x x

1.8 tidying up the workplace x x x x x

Core tasks 2: gluing activities 2.1 preparation of the workplace x x x

2.2 adjusting the horizon x

2.3 adjusting and calibration x x x

2.4 putting up temporary structures x x

2.5 putting up provisional constructions x x x

2.6 gluing by hand/manual x x x

2.7 gluing with machines x x

2.8 finishing glue work x x

2.9 buttress glue work x x x

2.10 tidying up the workplace x x x

Core tasks 3: Renovation, restoration, rebuilding3.1 drawing up a plan of action x

3.2 preparation of the workplace x

3.3 removing construction elements x

3.4 putting up temporary structures x

3.5 repairing construction elements x

3.6 covering the new construction elements x

3.7 tidying up the workplace x

Core tasks 4: concrete work 4.1 preparation of the workplace x

4.2 putting up temporary structures x

4.3 pouring concrete x

4.4 finishing concrete constructions after pouring x

4.5 removing formwork x

4.6 works with prefab concrete elements x

4.7 tidying up the workplace x

Core tasks 5: work organisation for gangs 5.1 instructing gang members,dividing tasks

among gang members x x x

5.2 quality control, checks on regulations and instructions x x x

5.3 consulting with third parties x x x

5.4 checking on progress x x x

5.5 reporting to firm management x x x

Section B of the qualification file

69

competence

Carry out instructionsand procedures

Materials andequipment

Cooperation and consultation

Application ofexpertise

elements

Operating according to safetyregulationsOperating according to law-basedregulations

Selection of appropriate materialsand equipmentTaking care of materials andequipment

Liaising with others

Show insight into space anddirectionShow trade-specific physicalqualities

performance indicator

A bricklayer works according to safetyregulations when preparing a workplace and applies law-basedregulations so that work is carried outaccording to regulations

A bricklayer takes account of thecharacteristics of materials and takescare of materials and equipment toprevent damage

A bricklayer liaises with colleagueswhen preparing a workplace so thatthe workplace is designed in anefficient way

A bricklayer uses his sense ofdirection, works fast and preciselywhen preparing the work place andeverything is ready for bricklaying

skills & knowledge

(relevant) knowledge and skillsfor handling tools and aids,needed for working up materialsfor bricklaying

Table 5. Core task 1, 1.1.: Preparation of the workplace:

listening reading conversation speakingwriting

C1 - - - - -

B2 3 3 - - -

B1 2,3 2,3 2,3 2,3 2,3

A2 2,3 2,3 2,3 2,3 2,3

A1 2,3 2,3 2,3 2,3 2,3

Table 6: Levels for mastering Dutch language in the bricklaying qualification at level 2 and 3

Apart from Dutch language and mathematics, no generaleducational elements are included in courses for Bricklaying.Preparation for further education, lifelong learning and

70 Netherlands

citizenship are defined in general competences and not insubjects derived from general (liberal) education:• Learning to learn:- Defining personal learning , including the means and tools needed to meet these aims

• Career:- Reflection on one’s own qualities and motives, career planning

• Citizenship, political domain:- Participation in the political domain, policy making and decision making

• Citizenship, economic domain: - Operating as member of a labour (work) organisation - Acting as a critical consumer• Citizenship, social-cultural domain: - Participation in various social contexts and contributesto the quality of social life

- Takes care of one’s health

In the first case study (Brabant), the bricklaying course is

organised in 4-week blocks: 3 weeks working & learning in

their firm and one week (four days) practical and

‘theoretical’ learning at the Samenwerkingsverband

premises in Boxtel:

• A ‘school day’ has a morning and an afternoon

routine: learning is organised around tasks. In the

morning the nature of the task is explained and

information is given concerning materials, tools, etc:

‘the how’s and why’s’. The afternoon is dedicated to

practising the task.

• After two blocks the apprentices have to undergo a task-

based assessment. Apprentices are only allowed to do

the test when BGA staff allows them to; they have to

pass this test before progressing to a new 4-week block.

Additional training is offered when it is assumed by the

BGA staff that an apprentice needs additional training in

order to pass a test.

Core task 1: 1.1 preparation of the workplaceDescription: A bricklayer operates on the basis of anassignment and/or construction drawing when preparing thework place. He (!) studies the situation and draws a plan ofaction, possibly after consulting his colleagues. An all-roundbricklayer in cooperation with his colleagues appliesprovisions needed to work safely. He takes care that allmaterials and bricks are in place, cleans surfaces whenneeded, checks tools, materials and equipment according tonumbers, type, quality and regulations.

Result: An efficient and safe work place with materialchecked for quality and quantity. The workplace is in order.Someone’s work place is not an obstacle for others to carryout their work.

Apart from occupational competences, all Dutch VETqualification files contain a standardised set of competencespreparing for further education, lifelong learning andcitizenship, including Dutch language. New in Dutch VET isthat Dutch and mathematics are assessed separately, and areno longer included in the assessment of occupationalcompetences.

Nevertheless production volumes are rising (in milliards,Euros, price level 2005):

The production standard for newly trained bricklayers is 500bricks a day (no ornamental moulding) and for experiencedbricklayers 800-1000 bricks a day.

Data from 2005 show us that most (80-90%) bricklayershave a permanent contract with a firm. Between 2006 and2009 the number of self employed building workers grewsignificantly; from 44,500 to 76,000 workers. In 2009, one infour construction workers was self-employed; in 1995 theproportion was one in seven (Fundeon 2009). Unfortunatelyno specific data for bricklayers are available (BouwendNederland website).

All construction workers on site are subject to the‘collective agreement for the construction industry’, legallybinding for all companies and workers, signed by theemployers’ association and three trade unions, coveringabout 180,000 employees both in construction and civil

2002 2003 2004 2005

Carpenters 76,558 72,617 69,806 66,956Bricklayers 34,416 30,848 29,219 27,805Total of people working on site 185,698 172,796 163,842 155,275

Source: Bouwend Nederland, 2007

2003 2004 2005 2006Building volumes 46,010 45,830 46,680 49,460

Source: Bouwend Nederland, 2007

71

specialisation. In terms of activities, it is foreseen that newbuilding regulations might have some impact on the drawingsbricklayers have to use and that more equipment will beavailable for carrying and replacing bricks on site.

Furthermore, environmental and sustainability issues andHealth and Safety regulations have a significant impact onconstruction activities in terms of work procedures, tools,machinery and other adaptations to prevent health risks.Although a specific Health and Safety certificate is notobligatory by law, possession of this certificate is a necessarycondition for working on a great many building sites and it isadvisable to obtain it.

Once employed, bricklayers tend to stay in theoccupation. No less than 47% of the bricklayers areemployed for 25 years or longer. Little change is foreseen inthe near future; bricklaying is faced with declining numbersof new workers and an aging population. This is a drawbackwhen, after some years of growing popularity of readymadeexterior walls produced off site, the popularity of ornamentalwork and the building of exterior and interior walls on site isagain on the rise.

Bricklaying is a minor occupation in the buildingindustry. The numbers of bricklayers has been declining overa long period; from 38,000 in 1976 to around 12,000 in 2008.Although the numbers of people working on building sitesare declining in general, the decline in the numbers ofbricklayers is faster, even if we account for the bricklayers re-entering the industry with self-employed status:

In the second case study, courses are ‘individualised’,

meaning that they are founded on ‘individual development

plans’ for all apprentices; a kind of agreement between

the apprentices and the school/ Samenwerkingsverband

combination. After an orientation period, apprentices have

to make a choice regarding their leaning aims, the amount

of time they would like to learn in practice and at the

premises of the Samenwerkingsverband, etc in this

agreement. The limited number of apprentices, the

personal relations and the individual trajectories keep the

drop-out rates low and facilitate the changing of courses

when apprentices are disappointed with for instance

bricklaying. This is quite unique as in general course

structures are quite rigid. Apprentices have to follow a

more or less set course, preparing for a VET qualification

in, in this case, Bricklaying. Generally speaking, only by

exception and if a person really wants to master

competences outside the Bricklayer qualification, this

possibility might be created by a college. Another obstacle

is the fact that ECVET system has not yet been introduced

in Dutch VET, and so ‘foreign’ competences are not

credited.


For young school leavers at the beginning of their career VETis by far the most common, if not the only, route to enterskilled occupations in the Netherlands. For bricklaying aVET qualification is not strictly obligatory. However, mostbricklayers do have a VET qualification; 64% of allbricklayers have this qualification, for bricklayers under 30the figure is even 79% (Beerebohm 2005). The rise in thenumber of bricklayers with a VET qualification is theoutcome of changes in recruitment policies. In the 1970s and1980s many bricklayers were recruited from themanufacturing industry and the agriculture sector, whereemployment dropped significantly in this period. Theseresources have recently dried up, leaving the buildingindustry with only one source for recruitment: through VET.Another reason is that the number of building contractorspreferring to employ qualified workers only is rising.

A general trend in the Dutch building industry is thetransfer of building processes into the assembly of (industrial)semi-finished products. As a consequence more attention isgiven to overall process management. Bricklayers have tooperate in strict and well defined timeframes. The buildingsector is also characterised by ongoing specialisation and thisis also true for bricklaying. Although many firms are active ina wide range of building and bricklaying activities (smoothstonework, rough stonework, gluing supporting/nonsupporting partitioning walls, gluing blocks, pointing), agrowing number specialise in, for instance, smoothstonework, gluing non-supporting partitioning walls, gluingsand-lime elements into complete sets of interior walls andfloors); the major change is the increasing degree of firm

72 Netherlands

uniformity of regulations and provisions limit the variety ofthe courses to a great extent. For instance, the VET-wideimplementation of competence-based learning has clearly leftits marks in both cases.

Referring to expected severe labour shortages, it isparticularly interesting to see that the larger and ambitiousSamenwerkingsverbanden have evolved from operating as ashared training facility for young apprentices, owned and runby local companies, to becoming market-led organisations –widening their policy to include recruiting, training andretraining construction workers. Besides investment incourses dedicated to attracting more young people toemployment in the construction industry, the recruitmentpolicy of the Samenwerkingsverbanden covers wider sets oftarget groups. In short, they appear to have transformed intoa human resources facility for the construction industry. As aconsequence, relations between Samenwerkingsverbandenand individual employers have weakened, particularly inrelation to training apprentices. For Samenwerkingsverbandenapprenticeship is one of the means for providing the industrywith skilled workers. Instead of the qualification agenda, theselection and allocation agenda tends to have becomedominant in the activities of Samenwerkingsverbanden.

As stated in a recent Cedefop Report (May 2010), theDutch NQF (National Qualification Framework) is not yetready, and even at ‘an early stage’(Cedefop 2010: 125).Initially, national stakeholders from the education field didnot give high priority to the development of an EuropeanQualifications Framework (EQF). Stakeholders from VETwere reluctant because: all their attention was needed for amassive, and slightly controversial, innovation projectinvolving the introduction of competence-basedqualifications and VET-programmes no later than 2010; andstakeholders from Higher education were happy with theBologna agreement and Dublin descriptors and saw no needto engage in a new project.

Nevertheless, the initiators of the NQF initiative, theMinistry of Education and its advisors, considered it wise notto start work unless all stakeholders were on board as thismight slow down the process in its early stages; under thecircumstances, it was thought much wiser to have a slowstart instead of being faced with heavy stakeholderopposition to proposals prepared only by experts. Accordingto the Cedefop report, reluctance to engage in this Europeaninitiative is still strong and success is not guaranteed: ‘thesuccess of the Dutch process in the coming year(s) willlargely depend on whether the last perspective [theperspective of the supporters of the NQF/EQF initiative,AW] comes to dominate the debate’ (2010: 125). The factthat the NQF/EQF initiative is still at an early stage and noserious decisions have been taken yet is clear given that:• he number of levels and their descriptors still have to bedecided upon;

• the NQF is not yet finished and agreed upon;• the referencing process is still outstanding.

engineering. All employees are ranked according to their age,experience and education. The agreement identifies functionlevels. A newly qualified bricklayer, having finished a two-year VET programme (VET level 2) is classified in functionalgroup B. A ‘first class’ worker is classified in function level D;the highest level for skilled work. For this level one has tohave a qualification at VET level 3 and two to three yearswork experience. In the area of bricklaying the collectivelabour agreement identifies three types of occupations, twoin group B and one in group D:In functional group B:• Bricklayer II: laying bricks for exterior walls undersupervision, more simple work without supervision

• Assistant/scaffolding: building regular scaffolds, preparingmortar and providing materials for bricklayers

In functional group D:• Bricklayer I: without supervision laying bricks, repairingdifferent types of brickwork, joining, sewer-work,repairing and renovating tiled floors, walls and tiled roofs.

Weekly wages in functional group B vary from €507.20 to€564.40, and in functional group D from €564.40 to€633.20 (wage level 2010). In most cases 4-week wages aretopped up by additional allowances for, for instance, travelcosts, clothing, being on call. As hand tools and equipmentare privately owned, bricklayers will have added to theirsalary compensation for the use of their tools and equipment.The best skilled workers are paid according to scale D butreceive in addition a permanent bonus from 10% to – inexceptional cases – 25% of the rate. Forepersons, instructorsand tutors are also paid an additional fee. For instance,instructors responsible for the organisation of the workplacetraining on VET courses are paid an additional fee up to€56.40 per week (June 2009) and are exempt from theirwork tasks for 5% of their working hours (for 1 trainee-employee) and up to 20% of their work tasks for 4-7 pupil-employees. Shift work may be compensated with a 10% (twoshifts) or 15% plus (three shifts) payment.

Fundeon, the national social partner-led Knowledge Centre

for the building sector, has developed APL (accreditation of

prior learning) procedures for all qualifications in building

and construction. Costs (for both employer and employee)

are covered by the Collective Labour Agreement for the

Building Industry. Fundeon employs APL advisors, guiding

employers and employees through the procedures. The

assessment procedure is carried out by the advisor,

together with somebody from a VET school, and finishes

with guidance as to how much additional learning is

needed, where additional learning can take place and how

much time it will take to obtain a diploma.

ConclusionsThe case studies confirmed the influence of the nationalqualification framework in terms of qualifications andtraining regulations on the organisation of VET courses. The

References

ACOA (2005). Alle hout is geen timmerhout; halverwege naar een competentiegerichte kwalificatiestructuur. ’s-Hertogenbosch: ACOA

Beereboom, H.J.A., A. Ploeger (2002). Beroepsprofielen van metselaars en voegers. Amsterdam: EIB

Beereboom, H.J.A., (2005). De Metselaar. Amsterdam: EIB

Beereboom, H.J.A.,.I.W. Corten (2009). De zelfstandige zonder personeel in de bestratings-branche, Amsterdam: EIB

Bouwend Nederland (2007). De Bouw in cijfers. Zoetermeer: Bouwend Nederland

Cedefop (2010). The Development of National Qualifications Frameworks in Europe. Draft. Thessaloniki: Cedefop

COLO (2006). Kwalificaties voor competentiegericht beroepsonderwijs. Zoetermeer: COLO

Cras, P.(2006). Winstpunten van het ‘verbeterd format’ Kenniscentra Beroepsonderwijs Bedrijfs-leven. Zoetermeer: Herontwerp kwalificatiestructuur Competentiegericht Beroepsonderwijs

Fundeon (2009). Rapportage Arbeidsmarkt- en onderwijsinformatie Fundeon 2009. Harderwijk: Fundeon

Fundeon (2009). Landelijke Kwalificaties MBO. Metselaar. Harderwijk: Fundeon

Onstenk, J. (2005). Versterk de schakels, op weg naar inspirerende kwalificaties. s-Hertogenbosch: CINOP

Websites

http://www.fnvbouw.nl/SiteCollectionDocuments/2010_Cijferspecial_januari_Totaal.pdf

http://www.fnvbouw.nl/bouweninfra/Documents/bter-cao-bouw-20010.pdf

http://www.arbouw.nl/werkgever/beroepen-en-risicos/metselaar-renovatie-onderhoud/)

http://www.bouwendnederland.nl/artikelen/Pages/Bedrijven_bouwnijverheid_827.aspx?source=%252fweb%252fmarkt%252f demografie%252fPages%252fdefault.aspx

http://www.bouwendnederland.nl/web/markt/conjunctuur/Pages/default.aspx).

http://www.bouwendnederland.nl/web/markt/Pages/default.aspx.)

73

• all economic sectors, including the construction industry,have developed a well established VET policy over time.The focus point of this policy is the recruitment of youngworkers. The industry has made itself largely dependenton the influx of young people in industry-related VETcourses, although the construction industry seeks towiden their recruitment area via the Samenwerkings -verbanden. Nevertheless, stakeholders are reluctant toaccept new policy initiatives that might jeopardizecarefully reached compromises as long as the newNQF/EQF initiative is not seen as being conducive.

• In other words, the drawback of intense relationsbetween VET and the industry is that stakeholders findthemselves locked in a process of pigeon holing, wherenew initiatives are easily put aside with the epitaph‘relatively limited value to existing structures andpractises’ (ibid., 123).

Given the state of affairs in the development of the DutchNQF, several characteristics of the processes described in thisreport come together:• all education sectors are highly regulated within theirown networks of stakeholders and policy-makingplatforms at national level. The very horizontal orientationleaves little room for defining collective interests.

• Within the framework of new competence-basedqualifications and related VET courses, the industry andschools have to cooperate closely at local level to attractnew trainees, to provide courses in terms of alternationbetween learning at school and in the workplace, and tobalance the interests of education and industry. The newimpulses on cooperation and the subsequent need tocompromise between several interests leave little space forthe acceptance of another new initiative with unforeseenconsequences.

IntroductionBricklaying is the key occupation in the Polish constructionsector. The nature of the bricklayer’s occupational profile inPoland has been shaped by a number of factors relating tohistory, geography and economic structure. The bricklayingvocational and training (VET) process has also beensignificantly affected by the structure of the Polisheducational system and the changes this is undergoing at themoment.

The Polish bricklayer historically and today

Traditionally, as in other European countries, bricklaying

was a seasonal trade, one which formed the basis for the

emergence of other occupations in the construction sector.

Poland’s complex nineteenth century history and

significant regional variation in terms of economic

development, stemming from administration by occupying

countries, both complicated and delayed this process of

development.

Today, the occupational profile of Polish bricklayers still

includes many competences that also have practical

application in other related occupations in the construction

sector. Bricklaying remains a ‘broad-based’ occupation and

a key one in the industry. Even in the 1970s, during the

period of accelerated industrialisation and migration from

the countryside to towns and cities, bricklaying was still

combined with farming in many cases. A special category

of farm-worker (chłoporobotnik), describing peasant

farmers working in industrial occupations, was included in

official statistics. In this category, there was a large group

of bricklayers working on a seasonal basis in the

construction sector, who, at the same time, were holders of

small agricultural farmholdings. Today, a bricklayer is above

all a highly skilled construction worker, whilst in the

countryside, bricklaying work is regarded as a

supplementary seasonal job.

Bricklaying is the most common specialisation inconstruction VET and the most sought after by employersdue to its comprehensive nature. Due to limited access tostatistical data and the high mobility of Polish constructionworkers, it is difficult to present data on the number ofbricklayers in the labour market. In 2009, certified vocationalqualifications, issued within both educational systems (schooland craft) and allowing candidates to obtain formalqualifications in masonry, were awarded to approximately1,950 people.

The currency of the Polish bricklaying qualification

In Poland, there is no formal obligation to hold vocational

qualifications (denoted by a state certificate as a

bricklayer) in order to enter the labour market. However,

given that employers are fully responsible for the quality of

service provided and safety at work, medium and large

The Polish BricklayingQualification

Zbigniew Janowski and Jakub A. Kus/Budowlani

companies employ certified bricklayers. In small and fairly

small companies, workers without certified qualifications

are employed alongside qualified bricklayers; however, they

usually perform ancillary services. In the case of public

contracts, general contractors and main subcontractors

usually do not employ workers who are not holders of

certified qualifications. In the case of refurbishment work,

with individual orders and at lower levels of subcontracting,

workers with no certified qualifications are employed.

Firms are recruiting growing numbers of migrant workers

from non-European Union (EU) countries and there is a

growing extent of illegal employment of national citizens.

The following factors have mainly affected supply anddemand for bricklayers’ work and their employmentstructure in Poland over the last 20 years: the change in theeconomic system after 1989; changes in the corporatestructure (decline of large industrial construction groups); therise of self-employment since 1993/1995, which acceleratedas a result of the Polish construction crisis in the period from1999 to 2003; an abrupt increase in the economic migrationof bricklayers following the accession of Poland to theEuropean Union in 2004; an influx of (skilled and unskilled)workers from third countries (mainly from Ukraine andBelarus); and also, between 1999 and 2009, a VET systemthat has become increasingly out of touch with labourmarket requirements.

Bricklaying within the context ofthe Polish construction sector

No precise definition of the construction sector in Polandexists but generally its scope of activity corresponds to thatdefined in Eurostat’s NACE section F1. The industryembraces infrastructure construction (industrial building,road construction, hydro-engineering) and residential,including refurbishment and maintenance. The constructionsector is traditionally linked to the construction materialsindustry (twenty years ago it was common for constructioncompanies to maintain material manufacturing andconstruction divisions – a rare phenomenon today).

In 2008 – during a big construction boom – 200,000business entities operated in Poland. Just 6%-7% of theseemployed more than nine workers. The remaining weresmall companies, working as subcontractors or carrying outconstruction and refurbishment work for individuals, andself-employed workers, registered as independentcompanies, but not employing any other workers. Manyself-employed workers are de-facto employees, i.e. bogusself-employed workers. The number of such entitiesincreased from 1999 to 2003 during the recession in theconstruction sector, which led to staff reductions and thepractice of self-employment under coercion and seriously

and irreversibly affected its structure. Following the crisis,large companies never returned to the same level ofpermanent employment of skilled workers. In 2008, thesector numbered some 170,000 ‘self-employed’ workers,many claiming to work as masons/bricklayers. Theconstruction sector in Poland employed in total 839,000persons in 2008, including 644,000 employed within theprivate sector and only just over 22,000 in the public sector.

In 2007-2008, only 100-120 construction companiesregistered in Poland had an income of more than PLN 10million (roughly €2.5 million). The large-scale constructioninvestment market consists of no more than 8-12 companies(almost all of them international ), acting as generalcontractors (a majority of large infrastructure investments iscarried out by corporate syndicates). Large constructioncompanies are less and less likely to employ skilled workers(such as bricklayers) on open-ended contracts or even onlong-term contracts. Bricklayers are mostly employed bySMEs; many skilled bricklayers are self-employed. Amongskilled workers, bricklaying is the largest, with bricklayersworking as masons, plasterers and foremen.

Bricklayers’ pay varies, depending on experience,company size and region. A novice bricklayer may earn PLN12-16 (€3 to €4) per hour. At PLN 3,400 (€850), themonthly pay of an experienced bricklayer is similar, onaverage, to the average national wage (in large and medium-sized companies); it may reach PLN 4,400 (€1,100).

The accession of Poland to the European Union in 2004had a radical effect on the construction labour market sectorin Poland. The weakness of the construction market in thatperiod resulted in increased economic migration. At the time,construction workers (bricklayers in particular) were one ofthe largest groups of Polish migrants, with an estimated180,000 to 220,000 – many of them bricklayers – workingabroad from 2004 to 2008. In the period when demand forconstruction was high in Poland, from 2006 to 2008, thenational labour market suffered considerably from a lack ofskilled workers.

The exit of the Polish bricklayer

Employers estimate that during the period 2006-8, the

construction sector needed 130,000-150,000 more skilled

workers (mainly bricklayers). The VET system in Poland

was not and is still not able to fill this gap, especially

because among economic migrants were many young

people who left the country immediately after completing

their VET courses. After 2008, when the sector was weak

(the recession in construction in Poland was limited and

affected mainly the house building industry), this

phenomenon was on a smaller scale, but has remained

significant. According to employers in the construction

sector, the Polish market could absorb another few tens of

thousands specialist workers, mainly bricklayers.

75

1 According to Eurostat, NACE Section F covers: demolition and site preparation (NACE Group 45.1); general construction activities (NACE Group 45.2);installation work (NACE Group 45.3); completion work (NACE Group 45.4); renting of construction equipment (NACE Group 45.5).

The main reason for the economic migration of bricklayersand other specialist construction workers is the discrepancyin pay (abroad workers earn between three and four timesthe wages available in Poland) and also better labourconditions. The gap in the Polish construction labour marketis being filled by migrants from third countries, mainlyUkraine and Belarus (but also increasingly from Armenia,Chechnya, Kazakhstan, other Transcaucasian countries andalso Pakistan and the Far East countries). Most of thesemigrants, even if they have permission to stay in Polandlegally, have no work permit, and so they work in Polandillegally. Recently, the number of outsourced constructionworkers (bricklayers) from third countries has increased,linked with a large number of infrastructure orders beingcarried out by syndicates with the participation of foreigncompanies.

Migration into Poland

Employers estimate that during the period of high demand,

about 120,000 construction workers from third countries

stayed in Poland, 66% working as bricklayers. So far, there

is no vocational qualification recognition system in Poland

for bricklayers trained in other countries.

The recession in the European construction sector has, untilnow, affected the Polish construction sector only to a limitedextent. In 2009, construction and assembly productionincreased by 3.1%, mainly as a result of large (industrial andtransport) infrastructure projects, financed partially throughEU structural funds, and investments related to theorganisation of the Euro 2012 football championships. Thereis declining interest of young people in taking up VET inconstruction occupations such as bricklaying. The recessionthat affected the European construction sector has not causedPolish construction specialists to return en masse to the Polishlabour market. Polish bricklayers are still working in otherEuropean labour markets, usually involving recurrent short-term migration.

Bricklaying in the VET systemIn the Polish VET system there are two educational pathsleading to formal vocational qualifications for a bricklayer, thefirst related to formal education in a three-year vocationalschool and the second to training within the framework of»apprenticeship« – mainly based on craft structure (PolishCraft Association) and the so-called Voluntary Labour Corpscombining work and education and targeted mainly at so-called vulnerable young people. School-based VET isgoverned by the Educational System Act, and the craftsystem by the Craft Act. Basic vocational schools acceptstudents who have completed six years of primary schooland three years of lower secondary school (»gymnasium«)education. Following the completion of education in a basicvocational school, the graduates can sit an externalexamination certifying vocational qualifications. They can

also continue their education in a supplementary technicalschool, qualify as a construction technician (having also sat anexternal examination) and then follow third-level studies.The ‘craft’ training, combining work and education, alsousually takes about three years and culminates in anapprentice examination (similar to an external examination).Having completed the relevant vocational work experienceand a period in which they hone their skills, the apprenticescan sit the master craftsman examination. This division doesnot apply to formal education.

Nearly all schools for bricklayers are public schools(currently there are about 50); 70% of their funding comesfrom the State and 30% from the municipality, the schooladministrative body. The number of graduates awardedcertified vocational qualifications has fallen over the last fewyears: in 2009, 1,600 students obtained a bricklayer's diplomain the school system and about 180 (apprentices) in the craftsystem.

The curriculum for bricklayer VET must be approved bythe Minister for National Education and, on this basis,educational programmes are created in schools (and withinthe craft system); however, only 20% of the programme maybe developed by vocational teachers.

Assessment is through external examination comprisingtheoretical and practical components. The duration of thetheoretical examination is 120 minutes, while practicalexaminations can last between 180 and 240 minutes. TheCentral Examination Board and eight Regional ExaminationBoards appointed by the Minister for National Education arein charge of defining examination tasks and supervise theprocess of conducting examination by external examiners.

Training to develop skills needed to practise bricklayingmay also take place outside the school system throughinformal and non-formal learning. There is a learning systemtargeted at the labour market and supervised by the labourdepartment (financed by the budget allocated for the trainingof unemployed people and those at risk of being laid off),which, though based on courses and training programmes,does not allow those involved to have their vocationalqualifications (including bricklayer qualifications) formallyvalidated. It is also virtually impossible to validate formallyany qualifications acquired during the work itself.

Older people may also obtain the qualifications needed topractise bricklaying in state schools for adults, thoughindividuals over forty rarely decide to pursue a career inmasonry due to the physical burden involved in work on aconstruction site and the stringent requirements governingbricklayers’ health. »School« professions, including masonry,are supervised by the Minister for Infrastructure, whoexpresses an opinion on the curriculum content.

The involvement of the social partners (employers andtrade unions) in the VET process is limited. They expresstheir views on curricula, are sometimes involved indeveloping them, take part in the development of vocationalqualification standards and comment on the introduction ofnew occupations. Only twenty years ago, industry-basedvestibule schools existed in Poland and were run by largeconstruction companies. The change of regime resulted in the

76 Poland

liquidation of nearly all of them with the result that,nowadays, employers’ involvement in the organisation ofpractical training is based on agreements entered into withschools. However, this participation is limited, unsystematicand regarded as inadequate.

Few large companies conduct their own supplementaryVET programmes to develop bricklayers’ qualifications.Poland does not have any kind of company tax or levydeduction for educational purposes. However, companieshave the chance to create training funds though thispossibility is rarely exercised and does not really affect theVET system in the case of bricklayers.

In Poland, there are vocational qualification standards fornearly all construction occupations. However, these are notcompulsory and merely reflect the needs of the market. Inthe case of bricklaying, the qualification standard is notentirely consistent with the curriculum, which has an adverseeffect on the consistency of education with market needs.

The only commonly recognised document providingcertification of the vocational qualifications of a bricklayer isthe document issued following a successful state examination(equivalent to the craft examination). Other documentsissued following the completion of various in-service orrefresher courses may verify the acquisition of certain skills,but they do not allow the individual in question to pursueeducation at a higher level.

Structure and content of VETThe content of VET in the school and craft systems is similar.The curriculum forms the basis for the development of thelearning programme for the bricklaying occupation. Thestandards set for the state examination, which are formulatedon the basis of research into what is required of employees inconstruction firms, also refer to the curriculum. Forbricklayers, these include a larger set of skills than in thecurriculum. The scope of activities is presented in thetransnational synthesis tables of this report.

A school graduate, as a result of vocational training, shouldknow how to: 1) organise, use and execute masonry work in accordance

with technological requirements, health and safetyregulations and fire protection and environmentprotection regulations;

2) use technical documentation, standards and instructionsas part of his or her tasks;

3) select materials relevant to specific bricklaying work; 4) use and maintain tools, devices and equipment; 5) store and transport construction materials; 6) erect, use and take down scaffolding; 7) execute masonry and plastering work in accordance

with the current standards and terms and conditions ofthe construction brief and site acceptance;

8) execute ancillary construction works and repair,refurbishment and demolition tasks;

9) assess the quality of work carried out;

10) execute a bill of quantities and quantity surveying and as-built quantity surveying;

11) account for materials, equipment work and labour; 12) use devices, equipment and technical/social facilities on

site; 13) comply with health and safety regulations and fire

protection and environment protection regulations; 14) organise his or her workstation in accordance with

ergonomic requirements; 15) communicate with other participants in the work

process; 16) comply with the Labour Code regulations related to

rights and obligations of the employee and employer; 17) use various information sources; 18) administer first aid to work accident victims;19) conduct business activities

Psychical and physical requirements include:1) focus of attention;2) emotional balance;3) responsibility;4) resistance to variable work conditions;5) good state of health;6) physical resistance;7) fitness and dexterity;8) balance;9) perceptiveness;10) spatial imagination.

The requirements governing social competences are definedin the programme block entitled »Fundamentals of VocationalActivity«.

Graduates should be prepared to execute the followingvocational tasks:• prepare masonry and plaster mortars;• execute brickwork of partition walls;• execute flooring systems, lintels and vaults;• set construction wood and metal joinery;• execute external and internal plastering; face walls with various materials;

• execute wall repairs, maintenance and demolition work.

In the description of specific educational programme blocks,basic tasks are complemented by ancillary tasks involvinglarge areas pertaining to occupations related to bricklaying.The practical vocational training may take place in schoolworkshops, practical learning centres, continuous learningcentres, craft workshops and construction/refurbishmentcompanies.

The programmes comprise the following blocks: • Construction Fundamentals – 20%, • Technology of Masonry and Plastering Work – 50%, • Fundamentals of Vocational Activity – 10%.

The remaining 20% of the programme time is allocated foruse by those devising learning programmes in accordance

77

with the requirements of the labour market. Programmeblocks are divided into learning objectives, defining desirableskills, and learning content, defining the knowledge required.As shown above, the curriculum for the bricklayerdistinguishes between skills and knowledge. Manual andintellectual skills are recorded in the same block. Thecurriculum contains the description of practical learningconditions and equipment necessary to conduct practicallearning sessions.

Changes in the bricklaying qualification

As part of the VET reform of 2009/2010, a new

classification of VET qualifications and description of the

bricklayer occupation was initiated for the purpose of

formal education and the development of a new curriculum.

The educational content and the learning objectives

involved have not been modified. However, the curriculum

structure has been changed. The learning objectives and

the learning outcomes have been divided into two blocks,

the first describing common outcomes for bricklaying and

related occupations and the second the outcomes relevant

for the occupation of bricklayer only. In this description,

the learning outcome units are not used in the curriculum.

No distinction is made between knowledge and skills in the

curriculum. Necessary knowledge is listed in terms of skills

or ‘knowing how to’. Personal and social competences are

listed in one block. The description of psychological and

physical predispositions was removed from the curriculum

but retained in the new description (map) of the occupation.

An important innovation is the attempt to categorise the

occupation in terms of outcomes-based qualifications for

the purposes of accreditation of prior learning in the

future. At the time of writing, it is difficult to predict the

outcome of current discussions concerning this issue. The

ability to accredit partial qualifications would give the

formal education pattern considerable flexibility and tailor

it to the requirements of the labour market. Should such a

solution be adopted, it would probably be possible to

certify qualifications for execution of masonry and

plastering works separately. Qualifications (partial

qualifications) in job descriptions are categorised on the

basis of learning outcome units.

The following key concepts are used in the development ofnew curricula, in accordance with the decision issued by theMinister for National Education:

Personal and social competences refer to the willingness ofthe employee to be constant in the convictions andbehaviours that are required of a specific occupation andsituations arising during the work process. They may includethe ability to performtasks allocated independently and in aresponsible manner, the willingness to pursue life-longlearning, communication skills and the ability to cooperatewith others both as a team member and team leader. Expertise – the body of interlinked facts, principles, theories

and practices, related to a work or knowledge domain andacquired by the learner.

Knowledge – the body of information needed to acquire(shape) specific skills.

Skills – the capacity to use the expertise and acquired skillsto perform tasks and solve problems.

Qualification – a distinct set of assumed learning outcomesfor a given occupation, the acquisition of which is verified bya diploma or a certificate issued by an authorised body afterpassing an examination.

Bricklayers in the labour marketBricklayers erect a range of walls from components such asbricks, stones, concrete, plaster and ceramics. They may alsoexecute stairs, pillars, vaults, chimneys, and so on, berequired to carry out facade works, (i.e. executing wallfacades) and to cut holes in existing walls, supervise, andexecute demolition work.

Bricklayers often set up their workstations bythemselves, e.g. by erecting scaffolding, installing materialtransport devices, preparing suitable mortars, etc. Theyshould have extensive expertise of bricklaying, as there aremany ways of performing bricklaying operations. Theconstruction of a wall or vault is often complex and caninclude, for example, ventilation ducts. The execution ofcomplex vaults and arches requires extensive skills. Whileerecting a wall, a bricklayer must continuously keep an eyeon its geometry, define its lines and angles by himself/herselfand carry out all measurements.

Bricklayers' tasks depend on the construction project,and bricklayers must know how to read technical drawings.They should also have expertise regarding the physicalproperties of construction materials used. As forspecialisations, the following can be distinguished:bricklayer-plasterer, industrial construction bricklayer, ductbricklayer, mining bricklayer, bricklayer-stove fitter, etc.

Bricklayers work on construction sites or in refurbishedbuildings, which means they are at an increased risk ofaccidents in such locations and falls from a height, oftenunder changeable weather conditions. They usually work inteams, always supervised by a bricklayer holding higherqualifications, with each of them performing assigned tasks;often it is only possible to perform a given task bycooperating with others. Bricklayers usually work during theday and are seldom required by employers to work in shifts.Once the construction work is completed, contractors moveonto the site of a new project and bricklayers are required totransfer to the new place of work. Traditionally, they havebeen stigmatised, in the same way as any other constructionsector occupation where the work is hard and dangerous.Nowadays, there has been a significant improvement in theimage of the occupation and of the construction sector, a resultalso of the tremendous and unmet demand for specialists.

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Changes in the bricklaying occupation

Over the last twenty years there has been no significant

technological progress affecting the scope of activities

performed by bricklayers. According to employers, the

occupation has become more universal thought the labour

market lacks experienced bricklayers able to organise and

supervise teamwork. Over the last few years, new skills and

new needs have arisen which may affect the nature of

bricklayers’ work. This is related, above all, to adhesive

technologies and the use of nanotechnological construction

materials which is likely to affect and change bricklaying

VET. There is no tendency in the Polish labour market for

bricklayers to specialise as part of their job. Moreover,

versatility is considered the most important aspect.

Collective labour agreements affect bricklayers’ workingconditions to a limited extent. Poland has neither aconstruction sector-related collective labour agreement noragreements for specific occupational groups within thesector. Some, but not many, larger companies have enteredinto company collective labour agreements. The terms andconditions of work applicable to bricklayers are governed bythe Labour Code, the Construction Law Act and a numberof detailed legal regulations concerning work safety inconstruction. In companies where no collective labouragreement is in place, working procedures apply.

Conclusions Bricklaying in Poland comprises a relatively wide range ofskills and competences compared with other Europeancountries, a significant number corresponding with thoserequired in other construction occupations. As part of theongoing development of new curricula, efforts have beenmade to pinpoint common qualifications and commonvocational tasks (or learning outcome units) for specificoccupations within the construction sector as a whole. In thecase of the bricklayer occupation, the number of taskscorresponding to tasks in other occupations is particularlyhigh. When it comes to basic work in the construction sector,

bricklayers play a similar role to a finishing-work technicianin the final stage of a construction project. They are versatileworkers. A hallmark of the Polish VET system forbricklayers is the high level of general education andexpertise, sometimes even disproportionately high for level 2or level 3. Put in simplistic terms, Polish bricklayers aretheoretically »overqualified«. However, the educationalsystem lacks work experience and practice which has to becompensated for by the graduate in the course of his or herfirst job.

The development of the National QualificationFramework (NQF) (on the basis of EQF) is underway inPoland though not very advanced. Therefore, the structure ofthe bricklaying occupation cannot be related to this and thereis also no proper development or adaptation of the SectoralQualification Framework (SQF). However, some workgeared to the classification of common qualifications within agroup of occupations has taken this path.

Efforts have been made to make the VET system moreflexible and establish links with non-formal/informal learningpaths. These steps, undertaken by public institutions (e.g. aproject focused on the creation of new curricula and theclassification of qualifications for various professions) andsocial partners (e.g. the »APL-Bud« project focused on thedevelopment of tools for the recognition and certification ofvocational experience), may lead to the construction, on thesame basis (of internal examination), of a systemencompassing all educational paths. This and the consistencyof all the measures with the EQF should allow the openingup of the Polish VET structure to steps that will culminate inpaths to recognise European qualification. One characteristicfeature is that the construction of this open system in Polandhas started at grassroots level. Bricklaying is one of the areasof work involved. Will this really affect the labour market?The answer is yes, it will when – as part of the accreditationof qualifications – there is a possibility of accrediting classified(partial) qualifications, when the formal possibility ofaccrediting vocational experience is created and when theseactions remain compatible with the external examinationstructure targeted at the accreditation of qualifications.However, it is difficult today to predict what shape the newsystem may take. In this area, we are still »in statu nascendi«.

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Proposal forestablishing mutual recognition ofEuropean bricklayingqualifications


These recommendations for the development of a commonframework for the mutual recognition of bricklayingqualifications within Europe are based on our comparativeanalysis of bricklaying qualifications in eight European Union(EU) countries (Belgium, Denmark, England, France,Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Poland) and summarisethe proposals incorporated in the earlier section: ‘Trans-national synthesis of bricklaying qualifications’. In outliningthese, our approach is to enumerate and classify theknowledge, abilities and competence currently required andlikely to be required by bricklayers over the next ten years,derived from bricklaying curricula and consultation withinthe industry. If, as suggested by the DTI (2008) and otherresearch, there is likely to be increasing need for: planningand management skills the recommendations here are ofpotentially great significance.

As evident in this report, bricklaying qualifications in theeight countries studied show considerable variation. TheEQF classification of qualifications in terms of Knowledge,Skills (or, more broadly, know-how) and Autonomy/Responsibility needs to be adapted to the sectoral andoccupational levels in order to make sense of these and toprovide a way of comparing them across countries. Inparticular, it is necessary to take account of possibilities forthe accreditation, not only of qualifications, but of experienceacquired in a relevant field (EU 2010).

Our consideration of the shortcomings of the EQFclassification and of some ambiguities in the SQF-Con reportsuggest that mutual recognition be organised within theframework outlined in Table 11 of the synthesis chapter (page21), supplemented by a detailed enumeration of theknowledge, skills and competences that may reasonably beexpected to be covered in the range of European bricklayingqualifications. Though transversal abilities and personalcompetences are not covered, Table 6 of the synthesis (page16/17) provides a starting point for this in detailing core andminor attributes. The intention of this proposed frameworkis to:1. capture the distinction between systematic and non-

systematic knowledge (Knowledge column);2. distinguish between know-how manifested in

a. the achievement of identifiable types of task (skills) andb. a variety of different activities (polymorphous ortransversal abilities);

3. capture those elements of intentional ability involvingcharacter and disposition (personal competence).

These are not watertight categories, but do justice to whatmay increasingly be expected of bricklayers, including theability to:• control their own labour process• work in a co-ordinated way with others• learn from experience.

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social partnership arrangements for the governance ofbricklaying VET contributes to a lack of labour marketcredibility in the nature of the curriculum and thequalification structure and to a bewildering succession ofchanges to meet the needs of the moment. The developmentof a ZMT with Group One countries is therefore problematicdue to this constant change in the case of England and, in thecase of Italy to strong regional variation and differences intechnical scope.

As the initial VET systems and qualifications forbricklaying in Group Two and Three countries generallyserve them well, the alternatives suggested are:• Group One countries, and in particular England, reformtheir bricklaying VET by, for example:- introducing greater social partnership arrangements forthe recognition of qualifications;

- revising the curriculum to accommodate greatertechnical scope, more general education and thedevelopment of project management ability.

• Group One remains outside the initial process of forminga ZMT for bricklaying or for the construction industrywithin the EU.

These differences between Groups do not however preventthe application of a system of mutual recognition betweencountries based on Table 11, though the outcome is likely tobe differential classifications of qualifications in each Group.Hence the importance of an independent and rigorousreferencing process at the occupational level in which thesocial partners within the sector make a strong contribution.

Two conclusions follow:1. An SQF adapted as an Occupational QualificationFramework (OQF) along the lines suggested in Table 11 would be suitable as an instrument fordeveloping a ZMT for bricklaying. In effect it wouldserve as a sectoral and occupational instrument of mutualrecognition, having the additional benefit of ‘futureproofing’ a bricklaying framework because of itsflexibility and the relative ease of adjustment according to need.

2. The relationship between an OQF/SQF and ECVETremains unclear, largely because of ECVET itself and inparticular whether or not it will be possible to base aworkable system for awarding purely on output basedlearning outcomes. The issue is important in allowing foraccumulated experience to be accredited in a bricklayer’squalification portfolio. However, this will depend notonly on credible assessment of learning outcomes butalso on ensuring that the skills (know-how),competences and knowledge not directly embodied inthe learning outcomes are nevertheless properly takeninto account.

We suggest, therefore, that mutual recognition of bricklayingqualifications can be achieved through the construction of theOccupational Qualification Framework (OQF) suggested inTable 11 for each country, enabling rapid reference to the

Towards a common framework

A common comparative framework for bricklaying wouldneed to meet the following requirements:• work within EQF/SQF structures;• make certain modifications to the EQF;• give consideration to a level 3a as recommended by theSQF report;

• interpret learning outcomes flexibly and in a broadersense than purely outcomes-based;

• include a scope dimension to take account of the range ofbricklaying and related activities and to ensure that thedescriptors in each national qualification genuinely matcheach other. At its simplest, this can be accommodated byadding activities to the proposed framework (Table 11),whilst, for a more prescriptive framework, core andminor activities would need to be specified – as indicatedin Table 6;

• clarification of ‘competence’ to emphasise self and projectmanagement, through modifying the ‘autonomy andresponsibility’ column;

• independent referencing for bricklaying to avoid thepossibly highly unsatisfactory outcomes of the currentEQF process;

• be acceptable to a majority of the participating countries.

Prospects for creating a common framework for comparison of qualifications within EQF and ECVET

Group Two (Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, and theNetherlands) and Group Three (Poland) bricklayingqualifications show good potential for the development of aZone of Mutual Trust (ZMT) based on the similarities of theirrespective VET systems, including technical breadth, generaleducation and project management abilities, though, in thecase of the Netherlands, there would need to be considerablechanges to the technical curriculum. The common emphasison project management and personal responsibility helps togenerate a justified set of common expectations concerningthe ability of bricklayers from these two groups to workindependently, co-operatively and responsibly, with relativelylow levels of supervision. There remains too an issueconcerning the relative labour market value of school-based(e.g. Polish) as opposed to apprenticeship- or Dual-basedqualifications but this is one that could be characterised as atrust issue at the national level. Our conclusion for GroupTwo and Group Three countries is therefore that theelements for a ZMT exist, given certain nationalmodifications, due to broad similarities in the aims andcontent of the respective systems.

Group One countries (England and Italy), however,highlight the difficulties in integrating all eight countries in acommon ZMT, being based on narrow and specialised taskdescriptions with relatively insignificant general educationand project management components within initial VETprogrammes. In the case of England, too, the weakness of

content and level of qualifications. Table 6 of the synthesisshould be used to fill in the content of the framework. Thisis a sufficient outcome for the specification of this project. If,however, it is thought necessary to move towards a desiredbricklayer VET qualification, the structure could be furtherused to develop a template specifying core and minorsections, against which each national table could bereferenced.

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References

CEDEFOP (2010) Skills Supply and Demand in Europe: Medium Term Forecast up to 2020. Luxembourg, EU.

Danish Technological Institute (DTI) (2008), Future Qualifications and Skills Needs in the Construction Sector Danish Technological Institute.

EU (2010) The European Credit system for Vocational Education and Training (ECVET) http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning-policy/doc50_en.htm. Accessed: 31/08/2010.

The construction industry is a sector in which there is aparticularly urgent need for a sectoral qualificationsframework (SQF) in the light of current developmentstowards a European market for construction and a Europeanlabour market. Construction contracts are being awardedacross borders. Workers are being posted to other countriesor seeking work across borders. There is a need fortransparency of qualifications and diplomas regardless of thecountry or vocational training and educational (VET) systemin which they were acquired. A SQF in construction wouldassist workers when presenting their certificates and firms inevaluating them. It would assist personnel departments infirms and promote lifelong learning as well as the continuouscareer development of the workers.

In order to create a SQF that can serve as a referenceframework for the entire European construction industry, itis therefore necessary to opt for a functional approach. Forthis purpose, one can adopt the logic, principles and structureof the European Qualifications Framework (EQF), whichdescribes knowledge, skills and competences as learningoutcomes. Like the EQF, the SQF is broken down by levelsand descriptors. At the same time, there must be a specificreference to learning outcomes in construction. In this way, itcan take account of the different VET systems in the EUmember states as well as the range of sub-sectors, methodsand areas of activity in construction: structural and civilengineering, new building and renovation works, industrialand craft building methods as well as the broad palette ofoccupations and activities that are such a feature of the sector.

A qualifications framework by the sector for the sector

The SQF for the European Construction Industry (SQF-Con) was developed from 2007 to 2009 by a working partyin the project "Developing and introducing a SectoralQualifications Framework for the European ConstructionIndustry", funded under the LEONARDO DA VINCIprogramme.i The development of the SQF was limited tolevels 1 to 5 of the EQF based on the project specifications.

The project was organised by the Berufsförderungswerkder Bauindustrie Nordrhein-Westfalen e.V. (Centre forVocational Education and Training in the ConstructionIndustry of North-Rhine Westphalia), Düsseldorf, Germany.The working party was directed by BAQ (Forschungsinstitutfür Beschäftigung Arbeit Qualifikation, Research Institute forEmployment, Labour and Qualifications), Bremen,Germany. The partner organisations were: the VET centresfor the construction industry of Hesse-Thuringia and Krefeldin Germany; FORMEDIL, the national VET organisation inthe Italian construction industry, Rome; GOA InfraFoundation in Groningen, the Netherlands; and Casa deMeserii a Constructorilor of Bucharest, Romania. Anotherpartner was the European Construction Industry Federation(FIEC), which is based in Brussels and represents

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A qualificationsframework for the Europeanconstruction industry

Gerhard Syben/BAQ Bremen

i Project number 137865-LLP-2007-DE-KA1EQF.

construction employers at European level. The final resultswere presented and adopted in October 2009 at a conferenceheld as part of the social dialogue between the social partnersin the European construction industry.

Creating the sectoral qualifications framework for the construction industry

The creation of the SQF for the construction industry wasachieved in three stages.

(1) The construction phase model

In order to capture the requirements related to the differentareas of activity, the qualifications framework was brokendown into the typical phases of a construction project:• Planning and preparation• Surveying• Setting out• Production of buildings or building elements• Inspection, final acceptance and settlement.

(2) Construction-specific levels

Here, the levels for each phase were described according totheir position on the construction site. Levels 6 to 8 of theEQF were excluded and therefore not taken into accounthere.

Level 5The main task at level 5 is to bring the planning and executiontogether. Workers at this level do not have to carry out theplanning themselves, but must be able to understand andtranslate it into detailed, short-term work plans and apractical organisation of work on the construction site. Inaddition, they must direct and supervise the workers,organise the personnel, tools and materials as part of overallplanning and take responsibility for ensuring that the resultsof the work correspond to the specifications of the tender andquality requirements, as well as meeting the deadlines.

Level 4Level 4 corresponds to Level 5 in terms of content, but interms of requirements relates to the smaller, less complexconstruction sites or sites where only parts of the completelist of tasks are to be carried out and/or when someoneassists and works under the supervision of a member of thesite management.

Level 3aConstruction work is often carried out by small groups ofworkers, known as gangs or teams. Workers at Level 3a areexpected to be able to demonstrate that they have all theknowledge, skills and competences of Level 3 but that, inaddition, they are able to lead small groups.

Level 3Workers involved in production should be in a position tocarry out one or more of the types of production work (e.g.bricklaying, concreting, roof tiling, floor tiling, plastering orroadbuilding, etc.) without limitations. Workers at Level 3must be able to carry out their work autonomously andwithout any detailed instructions so that only the results andnot the execution of the work must be checked.

Level 2When the work described in Level 3 comprises a narrowrange of tasks, is only carried out in a limited area and undercloser supervision, the knowledge, skills and competences ofLevel 2 are required.

Level 1This level concerns all construction site work that involves asmall range of tasks carried out at a lower level on the basisof brief instructions and close supervision during execution.Basic knowledge and competences concerning health andsafety are required.

(3) Descriptors specifically geared to construction

In the third phase the EQF descriptors are subdivided bysectoral factors:

Knowledge Knowledge in the construction industry must cover thematerials, tools and equipment needed for building, the workprocesses and the framework of action. Work processesconcern the execution of work (including knowledge abouthow productivity is achieved). The framework of actionconcerns official provisions (e.g. laws, standards, regulationsconcerning working time, etc.), professional principles (e.g.producing work to an appropriate and professional standard)or institutional requirements (e.g. by other actors involvedand the interfaces to be managed).

SkillsSkills in the construction industry consist of four elements:practical skills, logical skills and skills relating to planning andorganising one's work. The cooperative nature ofconstruction work requires the ability to communicate withothers (colleagues, subordinates and superiors as well aspeople from outside the construction site).

Competences On a construction site everyone must be able to organisetheir own work or, in the case of hierarchical superiors, todirect and supervise the work of others. Furthermore, it is theworkers who must ensure that the results are achieved, thatthey correspond to the specifications and that the work plansand timescales are met. Thirdly, on a construction sitedecisions often need to be taken (e.g. when drawings areincomplete or not sufficiently detailed). Consequently,everyone must take responsibility in their area of work forsuch eventualities and for the results of the action taken.

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Finally, the levels were assigned to the different phases of theconstruction process to which they apply and then thedescriptors for each level were worked out for each phaseaccording to the sectoral requirements.

Applying the Sectoral Qualifications Framework

In order to achieve the maximum benefit, the SQF needs tobe aligned with the respective VET systems in theconstruction industry of each country. Such a process callsfor the involvement of and approval by the institutions andorganisations responsible for VET in the constructionindustry of these countries. Depending on a country’snational VET system, these may be authorities, socialpartners or Chambers.

Construction firms as well as training organisations canexamine diplomas (existing or future) to ensure that they

correspond to the descriptions of learning outcomes in theSQF. Where this is the case, they can formulate equivalencerules.

Proof of equivalence with the descriptions of learningoutcomes can also be provided in documents relating to theresults of previous learning processes. These should alsoinclude informal learning such as learning on-the-job. Rulesand processes should be developed for aligning knowledge,skills and competences acquired on-the-job with thedescriptions in the SQF. The same could be done in the caseof certificates and other diplomas issued by employers as wellas candidates’ self-assessments. Last but not least, it shouldalso be possible to evaluate by means of tests any knowledge,skills and competences acquired as a result of extra-curricularand informal learning. Training centres and constructionfirms could develop such tests in cooperation with eachother. Descriptions of learning outcomes according to theSQF can help to determine the level of such tests so as to linkthe results to the respective national VET systems and in thisway enhance the transparency of qualifications and diplomas.

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EFBWW and FIEC, the European sectoral Social Partnersfor the construction industry, initiated the »Bricklayer«project against a background of considerable socio-economicand technological change and of increasing European Union(EU) activity in relation to all aspects of vocational educationand training (VET), in particular as regards the mutualrecognition of qualifications across its member states. Whilsteducation is outside the direct jurisdiction of EU policy, theperceived need for better coordination and transparency ofnational VET systems and qualifications have led toincreasing EU activity in the area. In general, the issue isbecoming more and more important, also in relation to theEU’s overall economic and social situation, as well as in thelabour market.

Today, EU VET policy focuses on three areas: labourmarket policy; the development of common tools(EUROPASS, EQF, ECVET and others), based on theOpen Method of Coordination (OMC); and individualrights as laid down, for example, in the European Charter ofFundamental Rights.

Considering Europe as the common living space of all itscitizens and a common economic area/system, there is a needfor stronger coordination and integration (not harmonization)of education policies. Europe’s economic and technologicaldevelopment and its social progress are dependent on havinga well educated and highly skilled workforce. Education andtraining therefore play an essential role in giving citizens theknowledge, skills and competences they need for activecitizenship and to fully participate in the economy.

Global competition, technological and demographicchanges, as well as shifts in patterns of employment are havinga dramatic impact on labour markets and highlight the needfor new or adapted knowledge, skills and competences. If theEU is to meet these challenges, it will need to create moreand better jobs, and workers will need to improve theircompetences and match them to changes in the labour market.

Current EU initiativesIn order to meet the goals of its 2020 Strategy, the EU hasformulated seven flagship initiatives, two directly related toeducation and training and the labour market, namely »Anagenda for new skills and jobs« and »Youth on the move«. Atthe same time, it is also developing the new Lifelong Learningprogramme, covering the period 2014 to 2020. With regardto VET, this programme will have its focus on theimplementation of the tools referred to above. Every year theEU will provide some 1 billion Euros for projects and activitiesthat are in line with the programme objectives, having in thisway considerable influence on national VET systems.

Another EU initiative worth mentioning in this context isthe development of Sector Skills Councils, aiming at viableforecasts of future skills needs in the respective sectors. Thisis of key importance, especially in connection withtechnological and political changes, such as the low carboneconomy, new materials (e.g. nano-materials) or energyefficiency, to name but a few examples with relevance to theconstruction industry.

Considerations by the European sectoral social partnersof the constructionindustry

Domenico Campogrande, FIECRolf Gehring, EFBWW

Against this background, EFBWW and FIEC consider ahighly qualified workforce and – as a precondition – excellentand sustainable VET systems as essential for managing thechanges ahead. Reliability and comparability of these systemsand of qualifications are yet further aspects that need to betaken into account if socially embedded and economicallysuccessful mobility is to be achieved.

The gapThe point of departure for the »Bricklayer« project was thediscrepancy between the EU’s objectives and the diversity ofVET systems and qualifications at the national level. In orderto go some way towards addressing this issue, the projecttook the case of one specific occupation, that of thebricklayer. This was analysed in depth, in relation to thenational VET systems of eight EU countries, includingcurricula, employment and working practices, and changesanticipated in these and in future demands for bricklaying.Based on the results of the research, the aim of this study wasto provide more precise answers as to the similarities anddifferences between the national systems; the strengths andweaknesses of the EQF- and ECVET-tools when applied inpractice; how these might be adjusted; and how we canproceed at the European level as well as in the Europeansectoral Social Dialogue.

Outcome

The research findings provide excellent and substantialmaterial, comparisons, conclusions and suggestions foranswering the questions raised above. We do not want toaddress these outcomes here, as they are explained in detail inthe main article of this publication. However, some possibleconclusions and their potential impact will be discussed.

The research identified three distinct groups of VETsystems and, in doing so, suggests that ‘equivalence’ cannoteasily be established, either in terms of a core »bricklaying«qualification or individual pathways and curricula. Theselatter differ, for example, in terms of their position on acontinuum, with »Beruflichkeit« (autonomy) at one end ofthe pole and output-orientation (hierarchical work-organisation) at the other. Regarding the qualification too, itis also important to consider how bricklayers who have notcarried out part of their initial VET in operational conditionscan be compared with those who have had similar school orworkshop-based input but have work-based experience aswell through following an apprenticeship-type qualification.

We have in addition to recognize that some systemsattach importance to general knowledge (such as socialstudies and labour law) as an essential requirement for activecitizenship, including within the company. A simplifiedoutput-orientation approach is likely to neglect these aspects.

In a rapidly and constantly changing environment,strongly influenced by global competition, EFBWW andFIEC consider the outcome of EU-studies on futurequalification and skills needs in different sectors as of theutmost importance. According to these studies, a critical

indicator of the nature of future demand is an increased needfor: planning and management skills and self-managementinvolving self-governing teams of workers with greaterautonomy in the implementation of tasks and co-operationwith others to achieve goals. If this is right, the data andrecommendations within this proposal are of potentiallygreat significance.

Some conclusions and questionsThe project findings will facilitate discussion both at theEuropean and national levels. However, the results achievedso far apply to the eight countries directly involved in theproject. This raises the question of whether it is possible toadapt the project’s conceptual framework in such a way thatit can be applied in other countries and in relation to othersectors and occupations.

In the context of the European sectoral Social Dialoguesome additional aspects need to be addressed, including thepreparation of a glossary explaining the conceptualisation ofterms, such as Zones of Mutual Trust (ZMTs), skills, andcompetence, in order to facilitate an informed debate.Furthermore, it is necessary to find a common understandingof the proposed adaptation of the EQF.

Even though participants in the corresponding workinggroup of the European sectoral Social Dialogue are VETexperts, opening up the debate by involving otherstakeholders could be of added value both for discussion atthe European level and as regarding acceptance at the nationallevel. Therefore, in this respect EFBWW and FIEC willfurther consider the possibility of setting up a Sector SkillsCouncil; this requires, however, logistical and financialsupport from the European Commission.

One option envisaged by this study, which is below thethreshold of mutual recognition, is the development of Zonesof Mutual Trust between the countries covered in groupthree. This proposal, however, immediately raises thequestion of how to take into account other countries with aVET structure and practice similar to those in group 3, whichare not covered by this study.

Another issue that will have to be addressed within theEuropean sectoral Social Dialogue, in collaboration with theacademics involved, concerns the conclusions that can bedrawn from this »Bricklayer« project with respect to theSQF-project (discussed in a separate article in thispublication) – an issue that will certainly inform furtherdiscussions at national level as well as between countries.

In order to make practical and efficient use of all theinspiring potential of this »Bricklayer« project, we believethat co-ordinated discussions between the European andnational social partner organisations, together with otherstakeholders, would be extremely useful.

EFBWW and FIEC would like to thank all those persons

and organisations that have contributed to the project and

hope to be able to continue to benefit from their expertise

for further initiatives in this area within the framework

of the European sectoral Social Dialogue.

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