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Fourth Cambridge Conference on Language Endangerment, 4 July 2014

Orthography development for language maintenance and revitalization

Breton orthographies: An increasingly awkward fit

Steve Hewitt,[email protected];[email protected]

Breton has a venerable, if increasingly skewed orthographical tradition, so there can be no question of developinga Breton orthography from scratch. Early Modern Breton begins in 1659, when Maunoir introduced the iconic against French and systematically indicated initial consonant mutations. For most of the 19th c., onetrack continues traditional Early Modern habits, the other innovating and systematizing, leading ultimately to the1908 KLT (Kerne-Leon-Treger) standardization, which in turn fed into the 1941 Peurunvan (ZH; fully unified[with the traditional Gwened, SE]) orthography. The 1955 Orthographe universitaire (OU) while removingcertain inconsistencies, introduces new ones (Jackson 1967). The 1975 Orthographe interdialectale(ID), aimedat including the best of both ZH and OU while ensuring better coverage of regular dialect correspondences, didnot go as far as possible in that direction. At each stage of modern spelling reforms, unfortunate choices havebeen made, often owing to insufficient comprehension of interdialectal correspondences. At the same time, theimplications of the massive shift in users from native speakers to learners have not been taken properly intoaccount. Finally, at no point has there been a real debate on the relative merits of a simple monodialectalstandard vsa more complex supradialectal standard.

Speaker demography

Type of speakers Number of speakers% of

activistsOrthography Political views

Traditionalspontaneous

native speakers

200,000, all local dialects,0.2-0.3% functional literacy inBreton (ability to write a simple

personal letter)

?? any, if literate,or more likelyspon-taneous

forms

95% same asFrench

mainstream

Popularizingactivists

Neologizingactivists

Optimistic estimate:10,000 20,00095% of whom arelearners

(i.e. no more than 500-1,000 Breton-literatenative speakers)

10-14%OU (Orthographeuniversitaire skolveurieg)

90% same asFrenchmainstream,support forBreton language

1-2%ID(Interdialectale

etrerannyezhel)

support forBreton, regional

autonomy

85-90%ZH (peurunvanfully unified)

support forBreton, regionalautonomy,independence

All traditional native speakers speak dialect; there is no generally agreed oral standard. Functional literacy(ability to write a personal letter) is well under 1%. Literate native speakers in formal situations speak their owndialect clearly, sometimes moving towards more literary morphology.

Learners for the most part pronounce what they see with more or less French phonetic habits. The have little

idea of Breton idiom or phraseology. Their syntax is either calqued on French or hypercorrectly different fromFrench (e.g. overuse of fronting with initial focus). Their lexicon is much more purist than spontaneous Breton,most of the neologisms being quite opaque to traditional speakers. While no single one of these factors (with thepossible exception of the lexicon) is sufficient to impede comprehension, the cumulative effect is to makecommunication between learners and native speakers laborious at best, and usually unfeasible in practice.

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Breton orthographies: An increasingly awkward fit 2Steve Hewitt [email protected]; [email protected]

Dialects of Breton

Traditionally divided into Leon/Lon (L), Treger/Trgor (T), Kerne/Cornouaille (K), Gwened/Vannes (G); somevalidity isoglosses naturally do not all follow boundaries of traditional bishoprics.

L and G peripheral, linguistically conservative; traditionally devout areas, both produced numerous priests whoused their native dialect with the faithful; thus arose separate L and G semi-standards; much less dialect writingin T or K. L and G not really mutually intelligible.

T-K, NE-SW innovating axis (aire de Carhaixmedieval centre of linguistic innovation) easy intercomprehensionalong this axis, but little literary tradition (partial tradition in T, but not K). L used by church in L, K and T, G in G.(Broudic 1995 L priests less well understood with increasing distance from L: not true that L accepted asliterary language by speakers from T and K).

From Old Breton (OB) to Middle Breton (MB) and the Modern Breton (ModB) dialects

Table 1. Old Breton approximants and fricatives Most common graphemes1 -m- -b- -d- -g-2 f s x h f th, dt s ch, h h3 (fh) (h) (sh) (xh) ? ? sh, ss ?

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Table 2. Middle Breton fricatives and affricate Most common graphemes

1 v v () ff, fu v, u z ch, h2 v1 2 z 3 h f z, -tz s j, g ch, h h3 f s x ff zz, zh ss, sh ch ch4 t?/ cz, z, c,

Underlying lenis and fortis series of initial fricatives in modern dialects

Table 3. Modern Breton fricatives Etymological orthography

1 v v v v 2 v1 z 3 h f zh s j x4 h3 f s x ff zzh ss ch xx5

Table 4. Geographical reflexes in Modern Breton of the dental fricatives of Middle Breton

z,-h- - h s - z z h> s s - - - - zh z, - h zzh s h

Table 5. Simplified modern system of fricatives Peurunvan (ZH) orthography

1 v v z h v v z, zh2 f s (x) f zh z, -s j ch h

f sh s ch chKERGOAT 1974:22, Er memes lech eo diaes a-wecho diazeza ur reolenn eeun. E Plogoneg (Kernew Izel) daskwer e lrer : chupenn / ar chupennmed chiletenn / ar jiletennpe saro / ar saromed sach / ar zach. Faltaziuskena eo ar yezh war ar poent-se. Un doare-skriva nhell ket beza.

(In a single place it is sometimes difficult to establish a straightforward rule. In Plogoneg (Kerne Isel), forinstance, people say chupenn / ar chupenn jacket but chiletenn / ar jiletenn vest or saro / ar saro smock butsach / ar zachsack. The language is extremely capricious in that regard. An orthography cannot be.)

[Treger radical (unmutated) forms: ssaro /s-/, sach /z-/, chupenn /-/, jiletenn /-/ = Plogoneg lenites whereTreger has the voiced fricative as radical; does not lenite where Treger has the voiceless fricative as radical.

1 vhas more breath and friction than a normal v.2 has more breath and friction than a normal .3 is an abstract symbol representing a lenis fricative with various realizations: either with some velar friction [h x, , ], etc., or

a purely glottal voiceless [h], in which case it is not separate from /h/, if such a phoneme is present in the dialect in question.4 Or ch.5 Or ch.

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Breton orthographies: An increasingly awkward fit 4Steve Hewitt [email protected]; [email protected]

Table 6. Underlying L lenis and F fortis series of Modern Breton initial fricatives and realizationaccording to geographical area and mutation status 6: radical / lenition / provection

L f- s- j- chw-F ff- ss- ch-

Type 1: NW, far W, SW Type 2 : CW Type 3 : NE, C, (CS) Type 4 : SEradical radical radical radical

L f s xw7 f s xw v z w f s hF f s f s f s f s

lenition6 lenition6 (lenition) (lenition)L v z w v z w v z w f s hF v z f s f s f s

(provection) (provection) provection6 provection6L f s xw f s xw f s xw f s hF f s f s f s f s

Linguistic issues

Sandhi rules

final b, -d, -g / -p, -t, -kand Breton sandhi rules

Final obstruent devoicing in pause or before voiceless consonants:

b d v z hp t c k f s x

Final obstruent voicing before vowels and voiced consonants:

p t c k f s b d v z

Final obstruent voicing is a less natural rule than devoicing more difficult for learners; with an increasingproportion of learners among the users of written Breton, it is important to have as many lenis/voiced finals aspossible:

(E) madgood /mad/ [mat]; mad eoit is good, its OK /'mad 'e/

(ZH) matgood /mad/ [mat]; mat eoit is good, its OK /'mad 'e/; learners: [mat e-o]

(E)gweled meus[seen I.have] I have seen /gwld mz/[gwld ms]

(ZH)gwelet em eus[seen I.have] I have seen learners [gwelt ms]

6 Effective mutation within a given type highlighted and in bold + italics.7 Also, variously, x, , h, and, notoriously, in the far SW, f. The important thing is that both xwand xundergo lenition.

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Es / / zh(and fortisss / / zzh)

s/z/ everywhere (s/z- -z- -z/s)

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L /z/, elsewhere not pronounced /-/

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zh KLT /z/; G /h/

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Breton orthographies: An increasingly awkward fit 8Steve Hewitt [email protected]; [email protected]

initial fricativess-, f-, j-/ss-, ff-, ch-and neo-lenition and neo-provection

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Table 7. Voicing of initial fricatives in loanwords in Treger

/v-/foenn hayfoss bottomfonta meltforest forestforssi forcefourniss furnish, providear Frass France

frisa curl; whizz along

/f-/ffamilhfamilyffblweakffblessiteweakness; blindness(ffifaith)

ffelloud want, needffri iron [clothes]ffin end; sly, crafty, cleverffleur flowersffota want, needffoura put, bungffoutr [give] a damnffria crush

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/z-/sachsack, bagsantoud feelseblant semblance, sign, ghostserri close, gather

sigaretenn cigarettesina sign (document)siniffoud mean, signifysimant cementsoup soupsoubenn brothsourssenn source, springsur sure

/s-/ssamparrecovered, back in good

healthssarosmockssauti explode

(sseizh 7 da seizh...)(sseiteg 17 da seiteg...)sstier worksitesseulamant only, howeverssekl centuryssidr (S) cidressort sort, kindssukr sugarssystem system, way of doing sth.

/-/jardin garden

ervij serve, serviceikour helpjiletenn vestistr (N) cidreojal, Tjosalthinkjournal newspaper

/-/chass luck

chapel chapelcheich changechik handsome, nicechoas choose, choicechom stay, remain, livechupenn jacket

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a/oa gaseverywhere /gwaz/, L /goaz/

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/w diallbe careful everywhere /-w-/; butpewarfour, bwalive, like w.

w KL - -v- -wT w- -w- -wG - -- -

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Distribution of Egoa-

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Distribution of E oa

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aw/ao brawKLT /braw/, G /bra/paotrL /paot/, KT /pot/ G /put/

Distribution of E ao

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h-L, WK /-/ elsewhere /h-/

Initial h-(never omitted from L texts even though not pronounced there)

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L oN > uN

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Reflexes of Old Breton -m

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Most common plural ending -o

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Palatalization in plural of words in -d

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Palatalization in plural of words in -t

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Infinitive ending (E) i(similar distribution for a)

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3PLending of prepositions gante / ganto

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Conditional infix: -f-, -f-, -eh-

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Object pronoun construction: KLT a-marking (post-verbal); G proclitic pronoun

Other morphological problems

you have 2SG lit. ach eus, az peus, peus, teus, ffeus

we have lit. hon eus, hon deus, hor beus, hom meus > meump, neusomp

they have lit. o deus, deus, neus, > neusont, deuint, neuint

we ni, nei, nign, nimp, mimp, mump

they i, int-i, int, hint, h, i

my va, ma

our hon, hon/hor/hol, hom, ho X domp

future plural and conditional, KLT -ff-, G -eh-

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Orthographic principles

Basic possibilities:

mononomic (monodialectal)parallel systems: problem of choice of dialect base Breton-speakerswill not accept imposition of single dialectOUparallel systems for L and G (G standard little used);

binomic (bidialectal)ZHsingle system based on L, some conventions meant to include G twoconservative peripheral dialects no account taken of majority innovating central dialects;

polynomic (supradialectal) umbrella system: problem of amount of variation allowedIDfirst attempt at real supradialectal system; Egoes considerably further in this direction.

Orthographies of Breton

Old Breton(800-1250) continues Brythonic tradition (see Table 1)

Middle Breton((1350) 1450-1659) now French-based + extra conventions: -iff, -aff, -off/-v,-av,-ov/; ch/~ x,

h/; /z/cz/(t?)/;z/, /, -tz/-/.(see table 2)(E)/zhconfusion neuez, brezonecx/xxconfusion sechaffto dry; sechaffdriesta/oaconfusion goashusband;goad, goedbloodaw/aoconfusion glau, glaorain;pautr, paotrboy

Early Modern Traditional(begins 1659 with Maunoir >1800~1900+) mainly Leon (L, NW)-based; also Gwened(Vannetais G, SE); initial consonant mutations written for first time; MB -iff, -aff, -offreplaced by in, -an, -on;and chnow unambiguous for // and, most iconically, ch/x, h/.(E)/zhconfusion;x/xxconfusion; a/oaconfusion; aw/aoconfusion(as above)

Le Pelletier 1753introducesgwa, gwe, gwiinstead of trad.goa,butgue, gui, but not systematic: dioallinstead

of diwall; divezainstead of diweza()(ga-/gwe-confusion >gwa-/gwe-for trad.goa-/gue-)(E)/zhconfusion;x/xxconfusion; a/oaconfusion; aw/aoconfusion(as above)/w confusion; oldgoaska, da (v)oaska(to) press andguelet, da velet(to) see become

gwaska, da waska, gwelet, da welet

Pre-Modern Reforming(Le Gonidec et al. 1807-1900+) mainly L-basedadopts hardg, kinstead ofgu-, qu-before front vowels;usesgwa, gwe, gwiinstead ofgoa-, gue-, gui, like Le Pelletier.uses s-for intervocalic ss-and z-for both s-(< OB s) and z-(< OB , ; MB , ) so impossible to tellwhich is not pronounced outside Leon (E), which is pronounced /h/ in Gwened (Ezh), and which ispronounced /z/ everywhere (E s).

(E);x/xxconfusion; /w confusion; a/oaconfusion; aw/aoconfusions//zhconfusion (zfor Es, , zh) braz, nevez, brezonek(E bras, newe, brezhoneg)

Gwened (Vannetais)finally stabilized 1902, Guillevic & Le Goff.Excellent fit for Upper Gwened

KLT (Kerne-Leon-Treger)1908> mainly L-based (without L oN > ouNbrezouneg, choumfor brezoneg, chom),continues Le Gonidec s/zconfusion; adoptsgwa-/gwe-confusion (to please T); imposes final p, -t, -kfor allcategories except nouns, so mat, everywhere /ma:d/ goes against native speaker intuitions and distortslearners pronunciation. (not a major factor at the time)(E)s//zh confusion;x/xxconfusion; /w confusion; a/oaconfusion; aw/aoconfusionmat/madconfusion old madwritten matbecause not a noun (possible in L, because all monosyllables

lengthened:peskfish /pesk/; lakput /lak/, but not outside L)s/ss confusion old lousdirty /luz/ (Gonidec louz) and dousssoft /dus/ (Gonidec dous) fall together as lous,douseven though everywhere distinguished by length and lenis/fortis consonant; because is now /-s-/internally, often interpreted as such by learners finally (becomes increasingly pernicious as proportion oflearners among users increases).f/ff confusion olddifenndefend /-v-/, but differasdifference /-f-/ becomedifenn, diferas

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generalization of voiceless finals except for nouns so brezonekBreton, adj., but brezonegBreton, noun, nameof language (no possible difference in pronunciation anywhere. No problem for native speakers, who applyfinal obstruent devoicing/voicing automatically, even carrying them over into French (du vin rouche;nimporde o); for learners, important to use the voiced final as often as possible because final obstruent

devoicingis a much more natural and easily acquired rule than final obstruent voicing, especially for Frenchspeakers:grand oncle/t kl/, Bourg-en-Bresse /burk brs/.Failure to apply final obstruent voicing is rampant among learners today.

ZHPeurunvan (fully unified)1941 mechanical merging of KLT and Gwened, L-based;zhfor Lzand G h anumber of common words in Ehavezhbecause of hiatus consonant in G: anezhaof him, kouezhafall,etc., suggesting /-z-/ pronunciation in K, T.;confusing final vfor KLT o/-ouwhere T has wand G : e.g. Emarwdead, merweldie > marv, mervel; continues undifferentiatedgwa-/gwe-of KLT and imposes final p, -t,-kfor all categories except nouns, so mat, everywhere /ma:d/ - goes against native speaker intuitions anddistorts learners pronunciation.(E)s/ confusion;x/xxconfusion; /w confusion; a/oaconfusion; aw/aoconfusion; mat/madconfusion;s/ssconfusion;f/ffconfusionerroneous/zhdistributionconfusing final vfor E w.

OU Orthographe universitaire / Skolveurieg1955 turns back onzhand vof ZH, introduces parallelstandards for KLT and G (G version very little used; most G writers continue to prefer traditional G)generalizes voiced b, -d, -g, -zfinals in many cases good for learners pronunciationeliminates mat/madconfusion. mad / da vateliminatess/ss confusion: louz / douseliminatesx/xxconfusion:sehato dry, an hini sechathe driest the first orthography to do soeliminatesf/ff confusion. divenndefend; diferasdifference (at the price off/vconfusion)introduces h/xconfusion: had/h/ not pronounced in W,gadhare, da hadyour hare /h/ pronounced

everywhere.imposes, grammaticalizes neo-lenition:f-, s-, ch-, chw- > f-, z-, j-, hw-(for both underlying lenis andfortis series, e.g., da zukr, which it seems no one says (for fortis series very minority usage)

ID Interdialectale / Etrerannyezhel 1975adopts 3-way s-z-zh / ss-zz-shdistinction, generalizes wfor T w, G, adopts b, -d, -g finals of OU.(E)eliminatess//zh confusioneliminates mat/madconfusion (like OU)eliminatess/ss confusion (withs/ssrather thanz/sof OU)generalizes wfor T w, G ,but maintains /wconfusion realization rules complex

E tymologique ~ 1999 personal elaboration of ID, with addition of regular distinctions ao/aw, a/oa,

/w; 3-way distinctions h/x/xx; v/f/ff; lenisf, , zh, s, j, xvs fortisff, , zzh, ss, ch, xx, etc.(E) eliminatess//zhconfusioneliminates mat/madconfusion (like OU)eliminatess/ssconfusion (withs/ssrather thanz/sof OU)eliminatesx/xxconfusion (withx/xxor ch/chrather than h/chof OU)eliminatesf/ffconfusioneliminates /wconfusioneliminates a/oaconfusioneliminates aw/aoconfusion

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Radio Kerne, An Divskouarn o nijal: Picasso hag ar maouezed 2

http://www.radiobreizh.net/bzh/episode.php?epid=11899

ZH IPA should be IPA E

ur vaouez vaws vws ur vaoues

e vez anavazet ur vaouez e ve na'vezt'vaws e ve n've:d'vws e ve anveed ur vaoueschoazh xwas hwas xwazh

emaomp dirak un dra emm diakn da mom diagn da emomp dirag un dra

mil nav chant mil nao xnt mil 'nao hn mil naw xant

gant ar blakenn g:t a'blakn gn 'blakn gant ar blakenn

Kemper(Quimper) k:p: kemp, kep Kemper

a chell beza dishevel a xl bea dis:vl hel bea dis:vl a xell bea dishevel

pouezus e oa 'pwe:zyse 'wa 'pw:zyz'wa pouesus e oa

chomet e gwenn 'mte 'gwn 'mde 'gwen: chomed e gwenn

ha dedennus eo ivez a de'dnyse i:e a de'den:yze 'i:e ha dedennus eo ive

lakat al liv 'lakat al 'li:u 'lakd 'liu lakad ar liw

labourat e unan la'burate y:nn la'bu:rdi h:n labourad e hn

den ebet ober an dra-se 'den e'bto'bn da-ze

'de:n bed'obr n dra:-he

den ebed ober an dra-se

e j h hev

neo oa ket ur vignonez ne wa 'ktvi'ns n'wa kdv'ones ne oa ked ur vignones

den ne oar dn ne wa 'd:n n'wa:r den ne oar

mont a rae mn a rae 'mn: 'r: mond a raeevit ul levr evit l l vid ler ewid ur levr

http://www.ina.fr/video/RN00001367127 Ur valss a garantez

http://www.wat.tv/audio/maria-prat-ar-melexour-13qu2_2g74z_.html Maria Prat Ar Meleour

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zQY44BhTTJY Maria Prat ha Roje Laouenan

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lm9JeAEk2RU Maria Prat ha Roje Laouenan 2

Abbreviations

ALBB tlas linguistique de la Basse-Bretagne(LE ROUX 1924-1953)

C centre, centralE EastF fortisG Gwened VannetaisK Kerne CornouailleKI Kerne Isel Basse-CornouailleKU Kerne Uhel Haute-CornouailleL lenis

L Leon LonMB Middle BretonModB Modern BretonNALBB Nouvel atlas linguistique de la Basse-

Bretagne(LE DU 2001)N NorthOB Old BretonS SouthT Treger TrgorW West

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References

BROUDIG Fach. 1995. La Pratique du breton de lAncien Rgime nos jours, Presses Universitaires de Rennes.CHLONS (DE) Pierre. 1723. Dictionnaire breton-franois du diocse de Vannes, F. Bertho, Vannes.

D (LE) Jean. 2001. Nouvel atlas linguistique de la Basse-Bretagne. 2 vols. Centre de Recherche Bretonne etCeltique (CRBC), Universit de Bretagne Occidentale (UBO), Brest.FALCHUNFranois. 1953. Autour de lorthographe bretonne,Annales de Bretagne, 60/1:48-77.

http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/abpo_0003-391x_1953_num_60_1_1905 FALCHUNFranois. 1981. Perspectives nouvelles sur lhistoire de la langue bretonne, Union gnrale dditions,

Paris. (revised and expanded version of his doctoral thesis, Rennes, 1951, first published as Histoire de lalangue bretonne daprs la gographie linguistique. Presses universitaires de France (PUF), Paris, 1963.)

FLEURIOTLon. 1964, 1985. Dictionnaire des gloses en vieux-breton.Klincksieck, Paris; English edition: ClaudeEVANS& Lon FLEURIOT. 1985.A Dictionary of Old Breton/Dictionnaire du vieux-breton: Historical andComparative. 2 vols. Prepcorp, Toronto.

FLEURIOTLon. 1964. Le vieux-breton: Elments dune grammaire. Klincksieck, Paris.GONIDEC(LE) Jean-Franois & Thodore HERSANT DE LA VILLEMARQU.1847. Dictionnaire franais-breton,

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