"Breaking the Colonial Alliance" Curzon Memorial Prize (Oxford University)

BREAKING TIIE COLONIAI' AILIANCE

ModernhistoriansandpoliticalscientietEhavelittlegoodtoEayabout

colonialism,whichisoftendescribedasaparasiticrelationehiplwithone

strongerpowerexploltingtheresourceBofaweakerpower.TheimplicationiE

thatthecolonialpov,eri:nposeeanalien,arbitrarygovernmentuPonthe

oppressedandintheProceaE'etripsthesubjeetcountryofitEregourceE,

lmpoveristresitspeople,andreducegthemtoservingttreneedsofaforeign

aristocracY '

SurelythesefeatureswereapartoflsthandlgthcenturyEuropean

coloniallsm, and yet they do not begin to give a comprete or: coherent account

of the intricacies and subtretiee in the relationehlp between coroniar master

andsublect.Whilet}rerewaEalwaysEomeelementofparasitism,the

durability of this institution under unlikery circumstances suggests that

aspectsofqherelatlonshlpweremoreslrmbiotic,withbothpartieetothe

arrangementfindingenougtradvantagestoaEgureandexplainitslongevity.

There are several examples in the 19th century in which force alone was

insufficienttomaintainthedominaneotonegrouPwithouttheconsent,

implicitorotherwise,oftheEubmissiveelement.Itcanbearguedthateven

themostarbitrarygovernmentE'arebasedonEomeformofsocialcontract,in

whlch both the eJovernors and governed are bound by mutual obligations, and the

sameprincipleappliestothecolonialrelationshlp.lrtordertosurvive,it

must appeal to E'ome element of sel-f-interest in both parties'

}loreover,thebondsofcolonialismareordinarilybrokennotbymilitary

foxce, but wrren there is a mutuar rearization that thts shared serf-interest

nolongerexists.TheProcesE'bywhichthelndiansubcontinentbrokefreeof

Britishruleandestablisheditselfastwo,andeventuallythree,independent

countries,deservesourattentionfromthestandpointofthesocialdynamics

nAhu

that lead to thiE realization' Most hietorical accounte fave focueed on

personalitiesandconfrontations,marshalingmasseeofinforniationaE'towho

did what to whom, how the BritiEh prayed off warring native factions against

eachotherlandhowaEtengeoflndiannationaliemfinallywaEweldedintoa

PowerEoformidablethatresistancetoitwouldhavereguiredfaxmore

of a struggle than the British were willing to suEtain'

rn terms of this historical approachr the British finally found

themselvesconfrontedbyarealitytooimposingtofight.Alargenationof

overfourhundredmillionpeoplehadfinallythrownoffthebondgi:nposedbya

smalr isrand nation, harf a worrd away and exhausted by its second worrd war

inthreedecadea,andinhabitedbyapoputationofbarelyfortymillion.As

conventionalwisdomwouldhaveit,theislandnation,sensingthatitwas

overextended,finallyrecognizedtheinevitableandwithdrewwithoutafinal

confrontation'

Thiskindofgenerarizationrhoweverrdoesnotdefinewhathadbrought

aboutthefinalstateofirreconcilabledifferences,nordoesitexplainhow

thesituationinlg4Tdifferedfromthatofeighty-nineyearsbeforeinlS58,

whenthegreatlndianMutinyhadbeenPutdownbythiEEamesmalliEland

nation.WhatmosthlstoriansoftheseeventafailadeguatelytorecognLzeare

thesubtlebutsignificantchangegl.nattitudesthatledtoadifferent

resolutioninLg4TfromlEsS.TheeetwotlmeemaybegeeninProPer

perspectiveonlybyunderstandingtheover-rldingrealityoftheMutiny:that

itcouldnothavebeenPutdownwithoutnativelndianhelp.Manylndians

perceivedthattheBrl.tlshweremoreofanassetthanaliability.A

substantialpartotthetroopaarrayedagainstthemutineerswereother

Indians.

If military efforts had been made in 1947 to put

self-government, the eame loyalty to the Emplre would

was understood by both gideE that' thia time' the

down Indian demand for

not have Prevaited' It

British could count on

.l.i1..i-.lesupportamongthelndianaristocracyorpopulace.Whatwasnotso

;;, ,L-"ornrr.d were rhe factors rhat had made rhe difference, the process

thathadbrokenthecolonialcontractthatninetyyearsbeforehadboundlndia

totheEmpire?onlyanexplorationoftheMutiny,focusingonwhymajor

elements within the rndian popuration remained loyal to the British' can

illustrate what had changed'

THE INDIAN MUTINY

Whether the Indian Mutiny represents the First Indian war for

IndependeoceoranoPPortunisticeffortbyambitiousnativeleaderstousurp

forthemselveswhatadvantagestheycould,itsorelytestedBritish

determination and could easiry have resulted in rndia's l-oss if that resolve

had wavered.l Th" Mutiny forrowed severar decades in which annexations of

IndianStates,includingthelargeareasofSindandthePunjab,hadoccurred

at a rapid rate. Thls was accompanied by a process that could be called both

modernization and westernization' including' lncreasingly' active Christian

proselytiz::lg.TheMutinywasprobab}ymoreaconservativerejectionofthis

changethanaconcertedefforttoexpeltheBritish,whowereperceivedas

bringingchangeandpossiblystandingonthebrinkofimposingchristianity

andtheEnglishlanguage.Atthesametime,BritainhadshownSomesurPrising

vulnerabilities,havingbeenroutedbytheAfghansintheFirstAfghanWarand

at times fought to a standstirl by the punjabi sikhs'

Thesparkthatignitedtheuprisinginvo]-vedreligion.Anewrifle,the

Enfield,hadbeenintroducedlntothelndianarmllandthecartridge,theend

ofwhichtheriflemanhadtobitebeforeloading,washeavilygreased.Word

waspassedbyanemp}oyeeattheDumDumarsenalinCalcuttathatthisgrease

contalned fat from both the cow and Pi9' thus potentially offendinq both

MoslemandHindusepoys,asthecowwassacredtoonereligionandthepiq

unclean to the other'2

AswordsPread,therewasgrowinguneaginesgraccompaniedbyisolated

protests,amongJmanytroops,Eomeofwhomreportedfearsthattheywouldlose

their caste by becoming polluted with forbidden anlmal fat' which' some

imagined,waspartofaplotbywhichtheywouldbeforcedtobegome

Chrigtians' Although there was an offlcial revision of the initial orders'

givingpermissionfotthesepoystousewlratevermaterialtheywishedto

gxeasethecartridges,rumorcontinuedtospreaddissension.Thefirstactual

violenceoccurredatBarrackporeon}tarch29,L857'among'menofthe34th

Natlvelnfantry,aodtherewereincidentsthroughoutBritishlndiainwhich

sepoyEdisobeyedtheirofficersandrefusedtohandlethenewcartridges.

The 34th regi:nent, as weII as the 19th, was, after an inguiry, disarmed,

disbanded,andsenthome.Agraverthreatdevelopedfromanuprieingat

Meerut, where harsh punishment' were impoeed upon sepoys who had refused to

usethecartridges.Thispromptedamassiveuprieing,inwhichthesePoyg

killedmanyoftheirofficers,andthemutineersmadeofftowardDelhi,where

theypersuadedotherregimentstomutiny.BytheendofMayll,theywere

mastersofthecityrandheretheycapturedthepalaceofBatradurshahrr'

IastoftheMoghulemperors.!{ithhispasaivecooperation,therewasnowa

focus to the uprising and a faint promise that perhaPg the British v,ere more

vulnerable than anyone had imagined'

Thegovernorgeneral,LordCharlegCannlngrfacedanawkr,rardsltuation.

BritishtrooPswereoutnumberedaboutfivetoonebynativetroops,whowere

divided into about eighty-five regiments. Not only were the British forces

poorlydlstributed,butmeansoftransportwerelimited.TherewasseriouE

guestionaetowhattodoaboutthenativeregiments,asitwasstillassumed

thatmanywouldremainloyal.Indeed,disarminganddisbandingthemcouldbe

counterproductiveinthatitmightactuallyprecipitaterevoltamongsePoys

whowouldotherwisehaveremainedloyal.Anunsuccessfuleffortwasmadeto

recaptureDelhiinearlyJune,butbythentherewereuprisingsinAzamgahr,

Benares, Jaunpur' Gwalior' Indore' Jhansi' and Alahabad'

AtthispointthewholeBritishpositionhadbecomeprecarious.Ifthe

nativelndianprlnceshadthrownintheirlotwiththerebels,oriftherehad

beenanuprisingthatincludedsuchfiercefightersasthePunjabisikhsor

theRajputs,therecanbenoguestionthattherelativelysmallnumberof

Britishsoldlerscouldhavebeenoverwhelmed,astherebelshadoftenseized

artilleryandsubstantialguantitiesofammunitionw}rentheyarose.What

workedintheBritishfavorwasthelackofanyfeelingofnationhoodwithin

India- Native regiments in mutlny seldom moved elsewhere' nor was there

anythingapproachingunitedleadershiporasenseofstrategyEunongthe

rebels -

Nevertheless,therewasnoshortageoffiercefighting.Anuprisingat

cawnporeresu}tedinsurrenderofaBritishgarrison,whichleftunderan

agreementofsafeconductthatwaEbroken,resultinginmanyBritish

casualtiesthatincludedwomenandchildren.oncebeg:un,therebellionin

oudhspreadguickly,resultinginnumerousBritishdeaths.Lucknow,Bareilly,

andFatehgurfelltorebels,whoseranksnowincludedamixtureofovertaxed

peasants,recent}ydispossessedland}ords,andopportunistsseekingpersona}

advantage'

TheSikhstatesofthePunjab,however,remainedfirmlyunderBritish

control,andthenativeprincipalitiesremaineda}oof.Thereconstructed

British armed forces which again moved on Derhi in August stirr included one

guartertoonehalfnativelndiantroops,manyofthemsikhsandPathans.

AlongthewayanumberofNativelnfantryregimentsweredisarmedand

dj-sbanded' rinally' after days of bloody street-to-street fighting' Delhi was

recaPturedonsePtember2o.ThegarrisonatLucknowwasinotrelieveduntil

November '

TheMarathaPrince,sindhiaandHolkar,remainedloyal,buttheirtroops

mutinied,andnowtherewerelndianleadersinthefieldwithnoshortageof

trainedgePoyEl,whohadfledBritishservieeforavarietyofreasons,some

because of a feering that they had come under suspicion and wourd never again

be abre to prove thelr royarty. As 1g58 opened, a number of cities stilr

remarned in reber hands, and there were substantiar armies prepared to resist

a British return'

The task of uprooti g ttrem proved time-consuming and burdensome' but

eventually,aslE5Scametoaclose,thelastoftherebelswereeitherdriven

j-nto exile or captured' At times during the conflict' the British had reacted

harshlytowardthoseofsuspectloyalty,hangingorshootingmutinoussePoys

whentheywerecaptured.Thissurelyencouragedmanytocontinuefighting

rather than surrender' Toward the end' terms of surrender became more

lenient '

ADJUSTMENTS AFTER THE UUTINY

Asthe}asttracesofarmedrebe}lionwereeradlcated,theBritishwere

reft with the task of restructuring their rndian presence so as to minimize

tbe risk of such a near-caramity in the future. There was wide recognition of

justhowimportantlndiawastotheEmpire,exemplifiedbycurzon,slater

cornment,,,ASlongaswerulelndiawearethegreatestPowerintheworld.If

we lose it' we shall drop straight away to a thlrd rate power"'3

Nowtheproblemwastomakepreservationofthispricelessjewel}ess

tenuous'Clearlythematterwastooimportanttoleavetoaprivatecompany'

andaproc}amationreadNovemberl,IESS,declaredthattheEastlndiaCompany

was abolished' Henceforth India was to be ruled directly by the British

government,whichwouldhonoragreementsbetweenthecompanyandthenative

princes.Thosemutineerswhohadnotdirect}ytakenpart!nkillingEuropeans

wouldbepardoned,andbothancientcustomsandreligiouspracticeswouldbe

respected.Thelatterwasofparticularimportance,astherebellionhad

begunoverareligiousmisunderstanding,andsuchmatterswouldremaina

source of potential conflict with the Christian British'

TheBritishwouldtakestepstopreventarecurrence,butwouldthese

befar-sightedenoughtoaddresstherootcausesoftheMutinYlorwouldthey

be in the rine of ,,security" measures? At this point there were perceptive

BritishadministratorswhorecognizedthattheMutinyhad,atleastinpart,

beenadesperatebidforsurvivalbythemosttraditional,reactionaryforces

within Indi-a' It had also been fed by genuine grievances arrionq many who had

been treated with callous uncollcern by British administrators'

Therewasalsosubstantialsupportamongthosewhoidentifj.edtheir

interestsassynon}rmouswithBritishinterests.Indeed,theprincelystates

had taken virtually no part in the rebelrion, and their rurers had almost

entirelysidedwithBritishinterests.Inrecognitionofthis,annexations

werestoPped'andthestatesexistingatthetimeoftheMutinywereleft

intact,a}though,underthenewsystemofrulebythecrown,theyweremore

than ever reguired to take direction from Britain'

WhiletherehadbeenstirrlngsinHyderabad,theNizamremained}oyalto

the British, as did the Rajputs, Sikhs, and southern Marathas. By the time

theMutinywasovet,eventhesurvivingMoghulEmPerorwashappytohavethe

British back in power, and probabry the great burk of landrorde were relived

to see British stability re-established' The revolution' if it could be

cal}edthat,didnotcarrywithitasocialprogranoranalternativetothe

genuineadvantagesofBritishrule,andsurelymanylndiansrealizedthat

their Iot would be worse if the British were expelled'

Indeed,thatrealizationisprobablyjustwhytheBritishwerenot

defeated, BSr if there had been less royalty toward British rure' along with

Iessassistancefromnativetroops,themilitarypicturecouldhavebeen

dramaticarry different. rf some of trre major princes had joined their forces

withtherebels,oxifperhapstherecentlyannexedSikhshadtakenthe

opportunltytorevolt,thenBritishlndiacouldhavebeenbroughttoanend.

TheBritishwereinsightfulenoughtorecognlzethiswithouthavingthe

depthofunderstandingnecessarytobringabouttheattitudinalchanges

necessarytoassuregreatersocialstability.Theirsenseofdistrustofthe

Indiandeepened,andtheirisolationandarroganceincreased.Thisisnotto

saythattherewerenotmanyfar-sightedandcompassionateBritonsworking

within India' official government policy' however' encouraged a widening of

thegapbetweenthetwopeoples,evenassuchfeaturesastheincreasinguse

ofEnglishbythenativessuggestedthatitwasnarrowing.Indeed,some

Britishadministratorscametobe}ievethattheonlylong-rangesolutlonwas

the Christianization and modernization of India'

THE APPROACH OF WORLD WAR I

AstheGreatWarapproached,largenumbersoflndiansacceptedBritish

ruleascontributingacertainregu}arityandpredictabiritytotheirlives.

ThelndianlournalistDurgaDas(1970'p'27\describesitasastabilizing

factor. "The basic tenet of the British Raj was not to interfere with the

customsandtraditionsofthepeople,andthepeoplefortheirpartregarded

thealiengovernmentasthesourceofsecurityandtheguarantoroffreedom

for each to pursue his individual vocation.''

Therewere,ofcourse,actsofterrorism,assassination,andsabotage,

butthemili.tantnationalistsobviouslydidnotcommandtheloyaltiesofthe

burk of rndia's aristo ct6c!t peasantry' or merchant classes' The main thrust

ofagitatj.onagainstBritishrulefocuseduponimprovingthestatusoflndians

withintheexistingsystem.ThiscenteredtosomeextentuPonmaking

availablequalityeducationalopportunitiestolndiansandallowinglndiansto

move upward in the bureaucr.clr competing in terms of their abilities and not

being held back bY ethnic origin'

The ultimate goal of this movement was

wealth increasingly from British to Indian

a transfer of Positions' Power' and

hands, with the end Point being a

stateofself-ruleornominalindependencewithinthestructureoftheEmpire.

Bytheearly2othcentury,thismovementdidnotadvocatedrivlngtheBritish

intotheseasomuchagreadjustingthebalanceofpowerbetweencolonial

administratorsandcolonia}peopletoallowmoreeguality.Indeed,the

Britishhadtakenthepos!tionthattheywereenlighteningtheirnative

charges,guidingthemtowardatimewhentheywouldbeabletooperatea

civilizedcountryontheirown.Manylndlansalsoacceptedthisnotion.

Thedetailsofthistimetocome,however,wereneverclarified,which

probablymadetheconcepteasiertoacceptasanarticleoffaith.Gandhi,s

autobiographyclear}yspellsouthisfeelingsasthewaraPProached,andhis

initialresponsetothewar,whichbrokeoutwhilehewasatseaboundfor

London,was',patriotlc,,.withasolidloyaltytotheEmpire.Heconsidered

thatitwasthedutyoflndianstowinthehelpandcooperationoftheBritish

through"standingbythemintheirhourofneed(Gandhi'1-957'p'3471'"

while he had no wish to take part in the fighting' he organized a Field

AmbulanceTrainingcorpsofeightylndianvolunteers,mostlyfrom

amonglndiansstudyingatBritishuniversities.Ilewasheavilycriticizedby

other rndians for his actions, but he maintained that so long as he accepted

the beneflts of protection by the British Empire, he was obligated to do his

Part to Protect it'

Gandhireturnedtolndiainearlylgl5,andhebegan,ontheadviceof

his old mentor, Gokhale , by refraining from speaking on public matters for a

yeafItravelingaboutthecountrysidesothathecouldagainacguireaSense

of what was happening. when the year was up. he became active around a number

ofsocialissues,buthereturnedtorecruitingforthearmy,particul-arlyin

Bihar and Gujurat' He resisted the approach by some Indians that

contributionstothewareffortmustberewardedbytheBritisholaquidpro

q'uo basj's in terms of increased potitical- power'

Throughoutthewar,Indiacontributedsignificantlybothinmaterial

resourcesandmanpowertoaconflictthatwas,afterall,EuroPeaninfocus.

Duringthewar,l,3o2,ooolndiansservedontheAlliedside,with]-06,S944 Th" largest number of these came from the

casualties and 35'596 deatns'

Punjab,andasubstantialpercentagewereMoslem.India,sfinancial

contributionwaseguallyimpressive.Inadditiontosupportingitsforces

usedoverseas,Indiacontributedl00,ooo,000poundstothewareffort,andin

lglTandlgls,T3,ooo,00Opoundswasraisedasawarloan.Thevastresources

ofthelndiansubcontinentmadeitanimportantsupplierofrawmaterials

throughout the war'

As an incentive for this royar patriotism toward the Empire' many public

utterancesfromtheBritishgovernmentsuggestedthatmajorchangeswouldbe

madeinlndia,sstatusafterthewar.Therewasewentalkthatlndlawould

achievedomlnionstatus,and,attheveryleast,therewouldbesomereward

forloyalty.InAugustoflglTEdwinMontagu,secretaryofstateforlndia,

toldthehouseofcommonsthatsubstantialstepswouldbetakenassoonas

possibletobringabout,,thegradua}developmentofself-governing

institutions with a view to the progressive realization of responsible

government in India as an integral part of the British Empire.',s He further

describedt}regovernmentoflndiaasinthepasthavingbeen,',toowooden,too

iron,tooinelastic,tooantediluvian,tobeofanyusefor...modern

purposes ' "

Despitethelackofspecifics,thespeechwaswidelyhailedbylndian

nationalists.Itwouldappearthattheintentionwastoallowparliamentary

governmentfoxlndia.andlndlanhopesweresurelyraisedbysuchremarks.

Buthowc}osewouldtherealitycometorealself-determinationotself-

qovernment?V0ouldthatmeanthattheViceroywouldbeanlndian?

PERCEPTUAI CHANGES AFTER THE WAR

Throughout the war' acts against the British

10

were governed bY a set of

,,defense of India Rules'o which' under certain circumstanceE' suspended

individuallibertiesandfacilitatedcontrolofEedition.InlateLSLT,Lord

ChelmgfordhadappointedaSedittonCommittee,headedbyJusticeRowlatt,to

makerecommendationgtothegovernmentastohowitshoulddealwith..cri:ninal

conspiractesconnectedwiththerevolutionarymovementinlndia.'.The

recommendattons,calllngforthesuspensJ-onofbagicrlghts,wereintendedto

extendintopeacetime,andthefinalBillwasnotintroducedinthelmperial

Legislative Council and paeeed until early 1919'

Insteadofrewardinglndia,sloyalty,theAnarctricalandRevolutionary

CrimesAct(oftenca].IedtheRowlattAct)seemedabitterpunishment.Those

accueedofseditiousactscouldbegivenaspeedytrialincamerabeforea

threemantribunalratherthanajury,withnorighteofappea)..Asuspect

couldbegaoledonmeresuspicion,andhisfreedomofmovementcouldbe

limited.Arrestsandsearchescouldoccurwithoutawarrant,whileasuepect

cou].dbebroughtbeforeaninveetigatingcommitteewithouttherighttoa

IawYer r r! --^-+There wourd be nothing approxi-urating serf rure in rndia' and disEent

wouldbemethodicallYandharehlyputdown.TheBritishblunderediatoa

repressivemeaE'urethatwoulddofarmoretoencouragegeditionthanl.tcould

possiblydotoas'surethepeace.Thelndiannationalistmovement,aEitthen

exlsted,coaleecedaroundoppositiontothisact,andGandhi,aEamajor

readeroftheprotestsrestabrishedhisreputationthroughoutthecountry'

Moreimportantthanwhathedid,howeverrtstheshifttheaetbroughtinhis

intentions.RatherthancontinuingtoseekequalitywithintheEmpire,orhis

rightsaSaBritishsubject,whichseemedaE'farawayaSever,Gandhinow

embarkedupontheroadthatwouldleadtowardadvocacyofcompletehomerule

for rndia' AE 5o often happened in the history of colonialiem' the acts

intended to suPPresE sedition and tighten the colonial bonds proved to be

11

major factors in promoting a movement toward freedom'

DuringthelJovernmentdeliberationsleadingtopassageoftheRowlatt

Act|Gandhi.thenrecoveringfromamajorillness-metwithhisfollowersto

planaresponse.Theproposalwasacampaignofsatyagraha,aformofpassive

resistance he had previously emproyed in south Africa' For the onry time in

his rife, Gandhi actualry attended proceedings of the legisrature as the Act

wasdebated,atthesametimecontinuingtobroadenhisorganization'

Finally,April5'tg!9'wassetasthefirstdayofhattaT'acomplete

cessation of work analogous to the general- strike'

TbesaxyagrahacampaignbeganinDelhiandAmritsaron}'tarctr30,andthe

fol}owingweek,shartaTatleastattractedBritishattention.Theultimate

successofthesetacticshasprobablybeengreatlyexaggerated,however,as

eventuallytheBritishgovernmentcametorecognizethelimltsofanythreat

they might Pose' As Edwardes (1963' p' 4't\ so trenchantly notes:

TheBritishfeltthattheyhadlittletofearfromGandhihimselflfor

theysoonrecognizedhimforwhathewas.ananti-westernreformer.As

long as Gandhi was in contror of congress, they knew they had an arly'

Aslongacivildisobedienceremainednon-violent,itdidnotgreatly

worrythegovernment.Whowashurtbynon-cooperatlonanlrway?onlythe

lndians" " So the government obliged Gandhi by treating him with

considerablerespect-gaolinghimoccasionallytokeepupaPPearances-

whlle they took much more positive action against terrorists and those

western-style revolutionaries whom they really feared'

AmuchlesspalatablekindofresistanceoccurredinAmritsar,wherethe

Britishresponsewassoviolentastocauseoutragealnongawidearrayof

Indians' The protest started with only civil di-sorder and lootinq'

progressingontothekillingofEnglishmen.TheLleutenantGovernorof

Amritsar,SirMichaelo,Dwyer,thenembarkeduPonacoursehedescribedas

L2

,.fistforce,,tocombatthe,.soulforce,.ofthedemonstrators.5eyAprill0

therewereriotsinwhlchanumberofEuroPeanswerekllled,andaBritlsh

doctor,MarciaSherwood,wasassaultedandnearlykilledbyamob.

Reinforcementswereca]-}edinlandtheyarrivedalongwithBrigadier-General

ReginaldDyer,whoassumedtheAmritsarl.lilitaryCommand.Hisfirstactwas

tobanfurtherpublicmeetlngs,andwhenheheardthatalargenumberof

people were gatherlng on Sunday' April 13' he over-reacted'

Thedaywasanimportantsikhholiday,whichbroughtthousandsofpeople

fromthesurroundingcountrysidetoagatheringplace,theJallianwa}aBagh,

whichwassurroundedbyhighwallsandcouldbeenteredonlythroughanarrow

alley. of the thousands who crowded that open space, many were pilgrims from

theneighboringvillagesandprobablyknewnothingaboutDyer,sproclamation.

Dyerpersona}lyledadetachmentoftrooPs,alllndianexcePtforanother

BritishofficerandaNco,takingfiftyriflemenandfortyGurkhasinside,

}eavinghistwoarmoredcarstoblocktheenc}osure,sonlyexit.Without

warning,hecommandedhismentoopenfireuPonthedenselypackedcrowd,and,

after1650roundshadbeenfired,heorderedthemtoceaseanddepart.

EstimatesvaryaStothenumberkilledthatd"y,withsomerunningas

highas50oanduptol,ooowounded.Intheireffortstoleavetheenclosure,

manyhadpanicked,andthereweremanyinjuriesinflictedbythisstampede.

Then,sixdaysaftertheshockofthisevent,DyervisitedMissStrerwoodin

thehospitalandsubsequentlyorderedthateverylndlantravelingdownthe

streetonwhichshewasattacked'eventhosewhomustusethatstreettoget

to their houses, must do so crawling on arr fours' He arso ordered the

floggingofsixyoungmenthoughttohavebeeninvolvedinthedoctor,s

beating, although they were given no trial'

The irony of this harsh response in the Punlab

being the major supplier of men who fought on the

resided in this region's

Allied side in a war that

13

hadnotyetbeenfivemonthsover.obviouslyamanill-suitedtomake

political decisions had randed in the wrong prace at the wrong time' Dyer's

intemperateactionsweredefendedinsomequarters,buthewasremovedfrom

his command, forced to take earry retirement, and returned to Engrand' where

hewasfoundbytheHouseofLordstohaveactedproperly.Intheextremist

press, he was called' "The man who saved India"' Dyer himself apparently felt

no remorse. as he described the events:

IhadbeforemeintheJhalianwalaBaghnotafortuitousgathering,which

atworsthadassemblednegligentlyorevenrecklesslycontrarytoa

proclamation,butamobthatwastherewithexpressintenttochallenge

Governmentauthorityanddefymetotakeanyeffectiveactionagainst

it, and in particular to defy me to fire upon it'

Iknewthatitwasinsubstancethesamemobthathadbeenincourseof

organ!zationforsomedays,andhadcommittedhideouscrimesofloth

Aprilandwasthepowerandauthoritywhichfortwodayshadruledthe

cityindefianceoftheGovernment.Ihadinfacttherebe}armybefore

me (O'Dwyer' L925 ' PP' 353-4) '

Repercussionsofthisactioni-nflamedrebellioussentimentthroughout

India.confirmingthatlndiancitizenscouldnotexpectfairtreatmentwithin

whathadoncebeentheircountry.ThelndianNobellaureateRabindranath

Tagore,whohadrecentlyreceivedaknighthood,returnedthishonorin

indignation,particularlyinresponsetothewalkingonallfoursreguirement.

TheangryresPonsenowleftnochoicebuttoachieveatotalindependencefrom

the British by the means most rikely to produce resurts'

Afterconsiderabledebate,andagainsttherecommendationsofmanyearly

nationalistleaders,thisbecamethewayadvocatedbyGandhi,whoseoverall

effectiveness is much debated' The strategy of Passive resistance worked

particularlywel]-!nunderminingBritishconfidencethattheyoccupiedthe

L4

moralhighground.Apo$,erthatordersriflementofireuPoninnocent

civillansrenloyingareligiousholiday'musteventuallybegintodoubtits

ownintegrity,especiallywhenthisactofsavageryisapprovedbywhatwas

stilltheEmpire'shighestlegislatlvebodyrtheHouseofLords'

Thefactthatsaxyagrahahadsomeeffectinappeallngtotheworld,g

conscience,andunderminingthewiltoftheBritishtoremainbyforce,should

notsuggestthatthiswastheonlymeansbywhichlndiacouldhavebeenfreed.

Armedrebelliontoowouldsurelyhavebeeneffectiveandproductiveofthe

same result' Particularly after Britain's battering in the second world war'

withitsexhausted,depressedeconomyofLg46,therewasscarcelythewllland

meanstoresistaseriouslndianrebellion.Consideringtbeeasewithwhich

theSovietUnioncouldhaveaidedsucharevolt,therecanbenoquestionthat

armedconfrontationwouldhavebeensuccessful,justasitwasagainstthe

French,andlatertheAmericans,inlndo-China,theFrenchinAlgeria,and

fj-nally the Portuguese in Angola'

Butthemeansofbreakingthecolonialcontractisnotsolmportantas

theprocessbywhichthetwoparties-therulersandtheruled_reacha

state of mutuar dlsrespect which precrudes subseguent meaningfur diarogue' At

thatpointtheru}edbegintorecognizethatwhatwereoncemutuallnterests

withtheirrulersarenownolongershared.Theycometoreallzethatthey

would be better off on their own'

Gandhi early recognized that Indtan

contract in force' In one of hls first

noted that:

SomeEnglishmenstatethattheytookandholdlndiabythesword.Both

statementsarewrong.Theswordisentirelyuselessforholdinglndia.

WealonekeePthem...Manyproblemscanbesolvedbyrememberingthat

moneyistheirGod.ThenitfollowsthatwekeeptheEnglishforourown

self-interest had kept the colonial

works (Gandhi' 1909' PP'28'91 he

15

base self-interests'

TEE PROCESS OF BREAKING COLONIAI' BONDS

theabovereviewofeventsandmovementswithintheEmplreisimportant

inprovidingillustrationsofthemostimportantaspectsandcriticalfeatures

ofthedlssolutionprocess.Withinthelargebodyoftiteratureoncolonialism

thathasaecumulatedduringthelaethalfcentury,thereareanumberof

theoriespertinenttotheestab}ishmentofacolonialrelationshipandits

ultimate dissolution' Many of these already are beginning to sound dated' as

theyarebaseduponMarxistnotionsofimperial-ismastheinevitab}ehigh

pointofcapitalism,andtheirtheoriesseemlessfreshsinceeventsinthe

Soviet Union of the tate 1980s'

Thereare,nevertheless,Iessonstobelearnedfromtheseobservations,

particularlywhenwetakeforcomparisonthebreakingofcolonialbondson

another continent' The breaking away in t776 of the North American colonies'

thatlaterbecametheUnitedStatesofAmericarprovidessurprisinglyclose

parallels.UponreviewingtheProgressofthisevent,alsoofmajor

importancetotheBritishEmpire,anumberofsimilaritiesaPpear.Inneither

casearethefortunesofbattleasdecisiveastheattitudinalghifts,through

whichthecolonia}peoplescametore-evaluatetheirrelationshipwiththeir

rulers,whlletherulersreactedwithincreasinginsensitivityastohowthey

wereperceived.TheattitudinalchangescenteredaroundaconcePtwell

describedasalossofmutualrespect.Inlndiathiswascharacterizedby:

1)TheincreasinglackofrespectoftheBritishcoloniallststoward

theirnativelndiansubjects,whocameincreasinglytobecontemptuously

described as "niggers" and who came to occupy increasingly menial

posltions within their own country'

2) The decreasinq aura of British invincibility'

held by many educated Indians during the 19th

which Eeeme to have been

centurY, but which was

16

progressivelyunderminedduringthetwentiethcenturyrasBritain,s

vulnerability was revealed by the two World Wars'

3)Theundermining'attimesdeliberateandattimesincidental'

particularlyafterthel'tutiny'ofnativelndiantraditionsandreligion'

with a concurrent increase in Christian proselytizing and a growing

beliefthat,i.nordertrulytobecomepartofthemodernworld,India

must be molded into a Christlan nation'

4)TheconseguentHindurevivalofthelatelgthcentury,accompanledby

an rsramic movement that sought ties with co-rerigionists ersewhere in

the worrd ' r that the

5) The raising of expectations of Indians during World War

greatcontributionsmadebytheircountrytowardtheBritishwareffort

courd result in a drastic impetus toward home rule, perhaps even dominion

status.

5) The subseguent disillusion after the

measures such as the Rowlatt Act convinced

achieve eguality within the Empirer but

thelr own efforts'

7)Agrowthwithintheco}onialpoweritselfofacritlcalminorityvoice

thatunderminedBritain,ssenseofmissionandrighteousness.often

oppositionwithinthecolonialcountrycoalescedaroundandwasenhanced

by this moralj-zing about the wrongs of colonialism'

Theabovestepsnotonlyaccountforthefractureofthe''colonlal

contract,.betv,eentheBritishEmpireandlndla,buttheyrepresentessentially

thesalneprocessthatoccurswhenevercolonialtiesarebroken.Analogous

events and attitudinar changes can be found during the period reading up to

the American Revolution and the French colonlal agony of the 1950s' The

significantfeaturesherearenotsomuchbattles,butthesenseof

warr when stern rePressive

manY that lndians would never

must win indePendence through

L7

determination among the sordiery by which battles are won or lost' A careful

revlew of each of the above points revears the extent of the changes'

THE LOSS OF RESPECT FOR THE INDIAN

When the British first sought trading concessions from the Moghul

Emperor,therewasnoguestionthattheyweremerchantsapproachingagreat

potentate.williamHawkinswaspresentedatJahangir,scourtinAgra,where

he asslduously curried favor with a rurer who, at that time, controlred vastry

moreterritory,Power,andwealththanhiscounterpart,JameslofEngland.

WhensirThomasRoearrivedln1615'hebrouqhtgifts'flattered'and

intriguedtoobtainrightstoestablishthefirstBritish''factories''in

India.Clearlytherewasnoconceptthathewasdealingwithinferiorsorthat

Indians were an i-mpossibly inept' evil' and dishonest race'

AsBritishpowerincreasedduringthelsthcenturylhowever,andMoghul

powerwanedafterthedeathofitslastgreatEmperor,Aurangzeb,inlToT,the

relativeposltlonsofthetwopeoplesunderwentagradualchange.Initially,

as the British began to take over the administratlon of one native territory

afLeranother,ttrerewasadualgovernmentalsystem,!nwhichBritishand

Indianofficia].soperatedwithinclearlydefinespheres,and,foratime,

therewassubstantialsociallntercoursebetweenlndians,particularlythose

of power and wealth' and their British Peers'

A dramatic change occurred with the arrival of Lord Cornwallis as

Governor General in 17A6' Cornwallis had been charged with reforming the

administrationofthecompanyandrootingoutthecorruptionandnepotismthat

were perceived as undermining the company's efficiency' As part of this

process,hesystematicallyexcludedlndiansfromimportantgovernmentPosts,

replacinglndianjudgeswithBritishjudges,andconfirmingthatthoseareas

annexedbyBritishinterestswereindeedcontrolledbytheBritishratherthan

through come collaborative Process'

18

ThesoclallntercoureethathadonceboundtogetherbothBritishand

IndianaristocracyCeased,andanewsenseofdistrustofthelndiangradually

carne to color British attitudes' In number the British were increasing

sorapldl.ythatnowtheyhadtheresourcestocreatelittleenclavesoftheir

own,IikeminiaturereplicasofEngland,wheretheycouldcultivateasenseof

superioritytowardthecorrupt'sneaky'treacherous'swarthy'andscheming

Indians.

one late 19th centurY account of

pP. t6-t7) attempts' unconvincingly a

Ithasalsobeenconsideredadvisable,of}ateyears,nottoinvite

nativegentlementotheballsatGovernmentHouse.Thereasonforthis

canbeputinaverysimpleform.Thenativegentlemandoesnotbring

his wife or daughters to the dance, and he himserf does not dance'

Thereforehispresenceinaballroomisunnecessary...Almosteveryone

knowsthatnativeideasonthesubjectofdancingdifferalmostentirely

from our own'

Clearlythereismoreimplicitinthisexplanationthanitsauthorwould

admit,andthissalneSengeofracialsuperioritywasnodoubtstrongin

Cornwal}ishimself,w}tohad,ironicallyljustcomefromoneofBritaln,s

costriest exercises in arrogance and infrexibility, the ross of the American

colonies,wherehehadmadethefinalsurrendertothevictorlousGeorge

Washington.Asifhehadlearnednothingbyhisdefeatatthehandsofan

irregulararmyofcolonists,towardwhomhehadcarriedanill-concealed

contemptthroughoutthewar,Cornwallissetinmotionaseriesofmeasures,

forlowed by his successors shore and wel-resreyr by which the British assumed a

,,righttogovern,,,baseduponanotionthattheywerebringingtheadvantages

of modern civilization to a backward people'

After the mutiny this sense of right gave way to

social life in India (Buckland' 1-884'

rationalization for the social gap:

19

a more benign, but far

Iessrespectfulconceptofthe"whiteman'sburden"'foundedonasenseof

superiority so secure as to reguire no proof and a sease that this innate

advantagealsoimposedanobligationtoruleandmanagelndiaforitsown

good.Inthemeantime,therecipientsofthisbeneficenceweredeniedeven

rudimentaryresPectandcametobereferredto,boththerulingcastesandthe

untouchables, as "niggers' "

Nearlytwentyyearsafterthel,Iutiny,whenEdward,PrinceofWales

visitedlndia,heexpressedshockatthe,,rudeandroughmanner''ofterr

displayedbyEnglishpublicservantstowardlndiansandthe..dlsgracefulhabit

of offlcers""'speaking of the inhabitants of Indla' many of them sprung from

thegreatraces,as,niggers,(Lee,L925.7,p.352).,,Asoneoftheprince,s

party remarked ' "Tf I were an Indian' I would long be free of such

contemPtuous masters' 7

Even when the intent was

this Period was condescending'

Itisinvainthatearnestloversofthebackwardracesasseveratethat

no nation, however, superlor, is competent to take charge of its

neighbour,sfuture.Eventshaveshownwithirreslstiblelogicthatitis

with certain nations"'that in the main the schooling of the Iower races

must li.e 'between the Negro and European there yawns a chasm similar

in character (though not in degree) to that which divides us from the

brutecreation;thelowertlpesofmankinddifferingradicallyfromour

ownandkindredstocksinsuchawaythatitwitlneverbepossibleto

raise them to a level with ourselves'

BytheoutbreakoftheGreatwar,thesocialgapbetweenBritishruler

andlndiansubjecthadbecomeanimpassablegulf,witblittlerespectflowing

downward. The natives were niggers' who were fit to be servants' provided

benign, the tone of much British writing from

As Alston (1907r PP' 3-5) notes:

20

theywerewatchedcareful}y.Thewealthierlndianswerethoughttobecorrupt

and sinful' Indeed nothing about this infernal country' where Britons were

freguentlydyingyoungofobscurediseases,quitemeasureduptoBritish

standards Ln cororing and

whire some of this surery related to the differences :

physiognomybetweentheBritishandlndians,asimilarlackofrespecttoward

the coroniars prevaired in North America, where both partles were of the same

Englishstock.Nevertheless,thecolonialwasthoughtinferior,often

ridiculed,andseenasnotdeservingavoiceinhisgowernance.Thename

,,yankee,,wagor!ginallyatermofcontempt,andmanyBritishofficers

approachedthetaskofputtingdownthecolonialrebellionaslittlemorethan

an inconvenience wlth an inevitably favorable outcome'

THE DECREASTNG SENSE OF BRITISH INVINCIBILITY

such lack of respect suggests an approaching clash between rulers and the

ruled,andthisbecomesimminentwhentheruledsensethatthemastersmight

notbequitesopowerfulastheyhadlongappeared.WorldWarlwasnotthe

kind of undertaking to enhance the myth of British lnvurnerability'

ThePressreportingeventsontheEuropeanfronttoBritishreaderswas

Iessthanfrankabouttheaspectsofthewarthatcouldhaveledtoworryand

disillusionamongthevoters.Theextentofthecasualties,thereal

Iikelihood of a German victory as a result of the 1918 German spring

offensive, and news concerning the mutiny in the French army in the spring of

lgllwereneverhonestlyreportedtotheBritishcltlzenry.Despitethe

availabilltyofBritishnewspapersinlndia,theoutlyingoutpostsofthe

Empirewereeven}essinformedastothewar,scosts,risks,andbrutality.

TheEnglisheommunityoflndia,forthemostpart,readreassurances

ratherthanrealities,andmostlndianswouldhavebeenhardpressedtogather

informationrevealingthefullvulnerabllityofBritishpower.Inthelong

run,thisbecameimpossibletoconceal,however,astherewereoveramillion

21

Indiansfightinginvariouspartsoftheconflict.Whileanumberhadbeen

usedontheEuropeanfrontinlgl5,asthewarProgressed,manycametobe

used in the Near East, in attacks uPon German colonies, and even in the

ealIiPoIi Campaign'

Asthesemenreturnedfromthewar,theaccountsbroughtwiththemmust

alsohavecarriedasubtlerbutmorelastingstoryotBritishweakness.

NowherehadthelndiansoldieryEeenthatBritishfightingmenwere

irresistibre, as even their struggres agalnst the Turks had been won at high

cost. Against the Germans' British arms had been no better than an even

match,divisionfordivision.Theoldbe].ief,perhaPsmoresuperstitionthan

facL,thattheBritishcou}dnotbebeatenmusthavebeenbadlytarnished.

At the same t!me, rndian fighting men by the hundreds of thousands could

attesttothefactthat,withProPertraining,up-to-dat9w€apollf}rand

competentleadershlpltheycouldbemeldedintoamodernarmynotinferiorto

thatmadeupofEnglishmen.Modernwarfare,withitEmachinegunsr,poison

gdstanddeadlyartillery,wasagreatethnicleveler.Thelndianexperlence

abroadmusthavebroughthometomi}lionstheirpotentialassoldiersandthe

Iimj-tations of British Power'

Theoldmastermightstillblusterandstrutashehadahundredyears

before,buthewagexhaustedlwar.weary,financiatlyembarrassed,andshaken

in confidence' His debt to the Americans had reached staggering proportions'

and his taste for war had waned' The horrifying casualties on the western

frontwerebeginningtoinfluenceanewgenerationtoseewaraslessglorious

and heroic'

This reality did not gJo unrecognized by those Indians

their colonial masters' It must have been egualty clear to

had previously identified their interests with those of the

of potential rebels surely increased with the growing

wishing to exPel

those Indians who

master. The number

a!.rareness that a

22

rebellion could succeed' Those many private citizens' who worried more about

theirowneconomicstabilitythanabouttheidentitiesoftheirrulers,must

alsohavetakennoticethatthechancesofasuccessfulrewolthadincreased.

They had arso seen the example of an Asian people who had defeated a European

imperialistpower,astheJapanese,inlg05,hadsoundlybeatentheRussians.

Europeans were not invincible'

THE BRITISH ATTACK ON NATIVE CUSTOMS AND RELIGION

lftheBritishweresuperiorinporiticarinstitutions,interlect'moral

fiber, and basic honesty, then it vras onry rogicar that their re)-iqion wourd

alsobesuperior.WhatthePoor,deludedsoulsoflndlaneededwerethe

benefitsofChristianity,whichalsoseemedagoodideafromapractical

standpoint.Thisapproachwasslowtodevelopanddidnotbecomefirmly

establisheduntiltheearlypartofthenineteenthcenturylastheBritish

East rndian company had initiarly folrowed a stri-ct policy of non-interference

around religious or cultural matters'

Thewisdomofthisinitialapproachbegantowane,however,assuccessive

governorgeneralsassumedmoreresPonsibilityforthegeneralwelfareofthe

territories under their control' The Hindu practice of suttee' in which

widowswereoftenburnedonthefunera}Pyresoftheirhusbands'was

prohibitedbyLordBentincklinofficefroml82Stols35),whoa}soorganized

acampaigntoridthecountryofThugee'areligious-basedformofbanditryin

whi-chtravelerswererobbedandthenofferedassacrtflcetothegoddessKali.

Estimates prace the annuar deaths from this practice at between twenty and

thirtythousand(MoorhouselP.93).Thepracticeoffemaleinfanticide,common

in some parts of India' was also brought under British law'

TheCharterActoflEl3hadalreadyreguiredtheappointmentofaBishop

for the entire British territory' and it opened the eountry to Christian

misslonaries' Prior to the British arrival' one function of government had

alwaysbeenthemaintenanceofnumerousreligiousinstitutionsandtemples'

aa

andaRegulationpassedinlslTallowedthegovernmenttoassume

responsibilityfora}argenumberofendourmentsandbuildings.Accordingto

Edwardes(].967,p.55)theMadrasgovernmentwasresponsibleaslateaslS33

for.T,50Otemplesandfundsrandasimilarsituationexistedthroughoutlndia.

TheCharterActofls33prohibitedthispractice,whichdidnotcompletely

disappeatforseveraldecades'and'ir1theprocess'itabrogateda

responsibilitythathadtraditionallybeenacceptedinlndiaasoneofthe

majorfunctionsofqovernment.Alongwiththelncreaseinmissionary

activity,itcouldbereasonablysurmisedbymanylndiansthattheBritishhad

come to favor Christianization of the country'

Whilethereligionsoflndiawerenotunderdirect,officialattack,they

wereheldingreatdisrespectbytheBrj.tishestablishment,whichclearly

wouldhavepreferredtoseethecountrymadeChristian.WhenHinduleaders

reflectedthatmostMoslemsthenlivinginlndiawerenotdescendantsof

Moghulinvaders,butlaterconvertswhochoseareligionofferingbetter

chance of advancement' there must have been some apprehension that

Christianity would offer the same kind of attraction'

Ataboutthesametimethelndianreligionswerecomingunderattack,

consciousdeclsionsweremadetoexpandteachingoftheEnglish}anguageand

promoteitsuse.ThismetwithsomeoPpositionamongtheBritishcommunity'

butthemainthrustofBritishopinion,asthenineteenthcenturyv,oreon,was

thatbothlndianreligionsandlanguageswerebarrierstoproqress.

Afreshproblemarosewiththefirstworldwar|whenTurkeybecamea

belligerentagainsttheBritish.AstheSu}tanofTurkeywasconsideredby

manytobetheCaliph,orleaderofa}lIslam,theMos]-emsoflndiawere

placedinadilemmaofowingadlfferentkindofloyaltytobothsides.

THE INDIAN RELIGIOUS''REVIVAI'S''

gaining support from the administrativewith ChristianitY increasinglY

24

egtablishment,alongwithBritiEhabrogationoftraditionalgovernment

responsibi}itieeassociatedwithre}igiousendowmentsandbuildings,the

IndianreliglouseetabliEhmentgEenEedthattheBritiehv,ereslowlyabandoning

theirnoninterferencepolicy.AsChristianevangellcalssoughtconvertg,and

IndianChristianseeemednowtohavesomeadvantageEinseekingpositionsof

power,itshouldnotbesurprieingthattherewaEareaction,areligious

revivalthatsoughttorevitallzeHinduiEm.Expectably,thiswouldtakean

overt or covert anti-foreignr anti-Britlsh direction'

Themogtprominent,ageJreggivelyanti-Westernmovement,AZyaSanaj,v,ag

foundedbyDayanandaSaraswati,whoadvocatedareturntothereligionofthe

orlginalAryaninvadereofthegubcontinent.Basiaghisteachingeuponthe

ancientsacredbooks,theVedas,Dayanandacriticizedmanysubeeguent

deveropments in Hlndu soctety, preaching revivarism much rike a christian

fundamentalist with his Bible'

AnotherHindurevivalmovementwaEbasedontheteachingsofRamakrishna,

whose s,ork was continued by his most fanous disciple, Swami. Vivekananda. Eere

partofthefocuswaBul)onservingneedsofthedowntrodden,andeventually

thisbecameincorporatedtntothenationaligtmovementoftheearly20th

century.

AlEoprominentErmoogthereligiousreformerswaERaml{ohunRoy,who

foundedlt,heBrahllloSamaj,anefforttobringaboutaeynthesisbetweenlndian

andwesternreligiousandethicalvalueg.AtRamMohun,sdeath,Keshub

SunderSen,broadenedthescopeoftheBtalutoSaltajintoamovementadvocating

massive reforms within llinduism' The line between retigion and potitics in

IndiaisnotSoclearlydelineatedaeinotherpartsoftheworld,asthe

Eindu religion is not merely a set of beliefs, but an entire system in which

everyfacetof'Iifealsohasareligiousconnotation.thereeponsetothe

British/ChrietianPregEureuPonHinduism,wasthusnotmere}yareligious

resPonse,buthadpoliticalovertoneswithadistinct}yanti-Britishlanti-

2s

western slant'

Gandhi,s styre of combining rerigion with polltics werl exemprifies this

blurringofboundaries,whichleadtosuchostensiblyanomalouspositionsas

hisvigorousattackontheuseoftheEnglishlanguage(Gandhi,1958),based

ultimate)-y uPon religlous premises' At the time he entered the Indian

politicalscene,theconceptofself.determlnationhadenteredthemainstream

internationalintellectualcurrentsofitsday.YetGandhi,whileonseveral

occasionsquotingWoodrowWilson,thechiefperpetratoroftheseideals,

seemedconsciouslytoavoidborrowingfromWesternthought.Instead,hechose

words,suchassatyagraha,swarajralrdhartaTrSltdtheiraccompanying

actions, from Hindu tradition, probabry !n conscioug rejection of things

British or Western'

IslamchangedsubstantiallylessthanHinduisminresponsetotheBritish

presence,astherewerestillneareasternPowers,suchagTurkey,towhom

Moslemscouldlookfotinspirationandleadership.Indeed,theconceptof

gainingindependencefromtheBritishwasnotalwayeappealingtoMoslems,as

itsuggestedthattheymightbeleftasPartofaHindustate.Aroundthis

issue Gandhi was an important unifier'

RISING EXPECTATIONS

Historiansofrevolutlonhavenotedthatthisprocessdoesnotoccurwhen

conditionsareattheirworst,butduringperiodsofimprovementinwhich

risingexPectationsaregenerallyshared.Thiswasthesituationinlndiaat

war,send,when!tappearedtomanynationaliststhatthelrdesireforhome

rule,dominionstatus,oxsomedramatlcimprovementintheirpolitical

fortuneswas}ikelytobemetbytheBritish.Themostdangeroustimecomes

whenthepopulatlonhasbeendisappointed,whenltsexpectationshavenotbeen

met. The comments quoted above of Edwin lrontagu, secretary of state for rndia'

aretypicalofwhatlndiansweretold,andwerepresumablywillingtobelieve,

26

during the war'

THE DlSILLUSION

The repressive tone of the immediate post-war period provided the final

impetusforthechangesinattitudethatbroketheco].onialbond.Thegrowing

mutual loss of respect, coupled with a cultural/religious gaP that $las,

paradoxically,widening,evenagmorelndianslearnedEnglishandaccepted

BritishconcePtsofadministration,hadresultedinadiminishingnumberof

Indiansfee}ingthattheyreapedanybenefitsfromcontinuingassociationwith

the British'

Theharshlyrepressivemeasuresimposedatwar,send,promptedmany

notableamongthemGandhiandNehru-totakethefinalattitudinalsteP.It

wasclearthatrndia,smajorcontributionstothewarhadgainedforthe

countrylittlecreditintermsofbringingdominionstatusorofhasteningthe

Iong-anticipateddayofself.governmentundertheEmpire,sauspices.Now

therewaswidespreadrealizatlonthatonlytrueindependencewouldbringthe

necessarychanges.Thefocusoflndiannationa].ismchangedrapidlytoa

recognition that India must break the colonial bonds'

TheRowlattActoflglgwasperhapsthemostoffensiveofthepost-war

repressions,alongwiththeatrocitiesinAmri-tsarunderBrigadierGeneral

Dyer.Moreover,evenattemptedreforms,suchasthelglgGovernmentoflndia

Act'stoppedfarshortofrealdemocracyorself.government.lhevoting

franchisewasextended,butstitlincludedonlythosewithdegrees,membersof

achamberofcommerce,orPayersofanincomeorpropertytax,agroupof

possiblyfivemillionfromacountrywithseventytimesthatpopulation.

Thisrespongetolndianaspirationscameatatimew}rentheAmerican

President,WoodrowWilson,hadmadetheconceptofself-determinationamajor

issue at the Paris Peace Conference' If former subject peoples in Europe were

beingallowedthelrownse}f-governingcountries,whynotlndia?Theworld

27

cllmate of opinion toward colonialism had changed precipitously'

CRITICIS}'T FROM WITHIN TI1E COLONIAI POWER

Fromthebeginningtherehadbeenasmallminorityvoicewithinthe

British camp who had not approved of coloniallsm, and there had always been a

smallnumberw}roeitherdeploredtheevilsofexploitingtheirfellowmen,

foundqrea|inspirationfromlndiancultureandreligion,ottonthecontrary'

disapprovedofanykindofintercoursewiththeheathen.Bythelgthcentury,

asignificantvolceofprotestwasraisedamongBritishdissidents,mostly

amongthoselivingwithinlndia.Notsurprisingly,someoftheseassumed

leadershiprolesintheprocessthroughwhichlndianssoughtincreasing

political Powers'

TheIndlanNatlonalcongress,theorganizationthatwaseventuallyto

carrythegreatestinfluenceinthelndiannationallstmovement,wasactually

founded in 1gg5 by Arran octavian Hume, a British former civil servant' whire

there have been suggestions (Edwardes , !968, pp' 279'8o) that this was a

machiavellianplothatchedwiththeapprovaloftheViceroy,LordDufferin,

Hume,sinvolvementalsoseemstohavecarrledsomealtruisticcomPonent,and

theCongressaccomplishedagreatdealinmaki-ngtheeventualindependence

movement a truly national operation and of encouraging Hindu-Moslem

cooPeration'

Similarty helpfut to the cause of Indian nationalism

Theosophist who was elected president of the National

Besant often expressed her views in print (Besant ' !9L5 '

which contended that:

Indiaisnowfullofunrest,righteousunrest;sheisconseguentlyheld

downbYasertesofenactmentsunpara}leledinanymoderncivilized

countryiLordMorleyhashadtheaudacitytostate...thatthegowernment

of India "must be an autocracy"' and India loathes autocracy""she is

was Annie Besant' a

congress !n 1-9L'7 '

p. I), the focus of

28

nowmatureishedemandsfreedom,andsheisresolutetotakeherdestiny

into her own hands" '

Finally,ttrepoliticaloppositionwithinBritainmadeitscontributionl

witharePortpreparedbytheLabourResearchDePartmentinlg34(Beauchamp,

p. 11) Here were are informed that:

sub-continent of nearly two million

inestimable advantage in the race forThe Plunder and exPloitation of a

sguare miles gave Great Britain an

supremacy among European natlons" '

British capitalist imperialism was built uP on

exploitatlon of India" ' British capital investment

with intense exploitation of Indian labour' backed by

the Crown, represents the third and final stage in the

for it is a me hod whlch carries within it the

destruction'

the basis of the

in India, together

all the forces of

system of robberY'

seeds of its own

BREAKING COLONIAI BONDS AS PROCESS

Lesttherebesomesusp!clonthattheE'everanceofthecolonial

relationshipbetweenBrltainandlndiawasbasedprimarilyuponracial/ethnic

differences,areviewoftheAmericanRevolutionrevealsmuchthesame

procesg,minustherellgiousdifferences.I{erebothcolonistsandrulerswere

ofthesameethnicstock,andyetthedisrespectofmastersforthegoverned,

asdescribedabove,Iedtoakindofarrogancethattreatedthesubjectsas

inferior, Iacking in refinement' honesty' cleanliness' and moral fiber'

Englishmilitarylimitationshadalsobeenplainlyvisib}eduringthe

French-IndianWar!nNorthAmericaotL'154l:ot763'inwhichtheBriti-shwere

oftenout-maneuveredandout.foughtbytheFrenchandtheirNatlveAmerican

allies. English armies eventually captured Quebec and overcame a string of

Frenchfortsrbuttbissuccessragainstafarressnumerousenemy'didrittle

29

tobolsterBritishprestigeinthecolonies.

Atthesametime,thecolonistshadcometobelievethattheirmassive

contributionstothewaragainstFrance,bothinfightingmenandf€SoUfC€Sl

wouldleadtowardagreaterlevelofhomerule.Againsttheserising

expectations,theBrj-tishwerefacedwiththetaskofpayingforthewar,and

thistheyproposedtodobytaxingthecolonistsbymeanswithwhichthe

Englishthemselveswerenottaxed.Taxesonsugarandanumberofother

importedgoodswerelmposed,alongwithrestrictionsreguiringthatcertain

cargoesboundforEuropemusteittrerroutethroughBritishportsorbecarried

on British ships' The Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts' intended to raise

revenue,werebitterlyresented,andtheQuarteringsacts,requiringthat

Brj_tish sordiers could be guartered within coroniar private homes' were

ferventlyresistedbythecolonists.Theseactghavetheirparallelsamong

therepressivemeasuresimposedbytheBritishonlndiaandhadasimilar

result- There r^'as even an episode in March of 1773' known as the Boston

Massacre, in which British troops fired into a gathering of unarmed civirians'

aneventechoedbythefarbloodierAmritsarincidentofl9l9.

TheBritishattitudetowardtheAmericansseemedtocombinearrogance

withanarbitrarinessthatgrantedtothecolonialsnottheslightestvoicein

theirowngovernlng.whiletherewerefewradlcalsinthecoloniesinlT53

whoadvocatedindependencefromthemothercountry,amerethirteenyears

later-Iargelybecauseofharshtaxationandrepressivetradepolicies-a

great attitudinal shift had taken place'

Thishadbegunwithasenseamongthecoloniststhattheyshouldbe

grantedsomerepresentationinParliamentorgivensomevoiceregardingthe

Iawsimposeduponthem.withtheincreasigdisrespectandrepression,a

growingnumberofcolonistscametorecognl-zethatonlythroughtotal

independencewouldtheirneedsbemet.Thisstriftinattitudewasbased

30

aroundanincreasingsensealnongallsocialclassesthatthecolonieswouldbe

betteroffwithoutthanwiththeirBritishrulers.Thisehangehadcomeabout

)-argelybecauseofinsensitiveandcounter-productiveregulationsimposedby

the British government'

The same realization gradually took prace in rndia, and the process was

acceleratedbyeventsinthespringoflglg.Afterthatitwasonlyamatter

oftimeandcircumstance,andacasecouldbemadethatGandhi,snon-violent

approachmayevenhaveslowedtheprocess.Indeed,theBritishwouldhave

beenhardpressedtoresistafull.scalerebel].ioninlglg,Ietaloneafter

1945. A case could also be made that the Indian decision to break the

colonialbondsoccurredbeforetheBritishreachedtherealizationthatthis

actwasinevitable.LettinggowasmoredifficultfortheBritishthanthe

Indians.

Somethingoftheambivalenceinthefinalrenunciationiswellexpressed

by Stokes (1950, PP' 10-11):

Forj'mperialismwasaboveallanunformulatedphilosophyoflifeand

politics.AtitsheartwasthebeliefthatpoliticalPowertended

constantlytodeposititselfinthehandsofanaturalaristocracy,that

powersodepositedwasmorallyvalid'thatitwasnottobetamely

surrenderedbeforetheclaimsofabstractdemocraticideals,butwasto

beassertedandexercisedwithjusticeandmercy.Againstthisbelief

hasbeatentheinexorabletideofthetwentiethcentury,demonstrating

thatsuchabeliefcannotbepermanentlyupheldwithoutadegreeof

coercivepowerwhichEuroPeancommunitiesoftheWesternworldhavefound

themselves unable morally or materiatly to sustain'

onelingeringguestioncentersaroundwhetherthecoercivepowerwould

havecontinuedhadthewesternnationscontinuedtocontroladequatematerial

resources '

31

Asforrestivecoloniesltheambivalenceisgonebythetimethebreak

arrives- As John Adams' a leader of the American Revolution' spoke in later

years,,,TheRevolutionwaseffectedbeforethewarcommenced.TheRevolution

wasinthemindsandheartsofthepeople...Thisradicalchangeinthe

principles,opinions,sentiments,andaffectionsofthepeoplewasthereal

American Revolution' " 8

IN RETROSPECT

LookingbackuponthedaysofEmpireandtheirgloryhasoftenprompted

thenostalgictothinkintermsoftheerrorsandomissionsthatledtothe

catastrophic ross that, in a generation, changed Britain from the worrd's pre-

eminentpowertosomewherenearthemiddleofthepackofwesternnations.A

moreanalytlcapproach,however,wouldresultinarecognltionofcertain

historicalinevitabilitiestoxtrather,eventsthatwouldoccuratsomepoint

no matter what was done to prevent them'

Theconceptthatlndiawas,,lost,,bysomekindofmistakesormalfeasance

isanexampleofignoringaninevitability.lndia,spopulationoutnumbered

thatofGreatBritainbyovertentoone,andtheBritishachievedcontrol

overthlsmasslveterritoryastheresultofanhistorica}anomaly.whilethe

industrialrevolutionrapid}ytransformedthemilitarypotentialofBritain,

rndiaremainedratthattimerdormantrdividedranddisorganized'TheBritish

slowlycametodominatelndiabecauseofthisgxealimbalance,and,duringthe

sameperiodoframpantEuropeanco}onialexpansion,otherpartsofAsiaand

Africa came under the control of France' the Netherlands' Portugal' and'

eventually, Germa Y'

The idea that any of these uneguar rerationships courd ever be permanent

wasbasedonanassumptionthatthetechnologicalimbalancebetweenwestern

EuroPeandtheAsianandAfricancontinentswouldbepermanent,butthe

obvious rearity is that the imbarance began to correct itself as soon as

32

colonialcontactwasmade.Theprocessofmodernization-inbothtechnology

andpoliticalinstitution-wasattimesresisted,butitmovedforwardata

ratebasedonthestateoftechnologyinthecolonizingcountry.Not

surprisi-ngly,coloniesoftheleastmoderncountry,Portugal,modernized

slowest,Ieadingtotheanomalyoftheweakestcolonialpowerkeepingits

colonies the longest'

thereisthusreasontolookupontheeolonizationofAsiaandAfricaas

self-limitinginduration,aswasthecolonizationoftheAmericas,where

colonistsbrokeawayfromthemothercountriesastheself-interestsof

EuropeanandAmericancountriesdiverged.Thisisasunderstandableasitis

inevitable -

AsthetechnologygapbetweenlndiaandBritainnarrowedduringthe

nineteenth century, there were additional factors' EuroPean countrles derived

agreatsenseofprideandgloryfromtheiroverseasPossessions.Without

guestionthiswaspartoftheinspirationforthepeculiarbrandofBritish

arrogance that evolved during the colonial Periodt and arrogance is obviously

satisfyingtothosewhocanaffordit.LossoftheEmpirewasablowtothe

Britishpsyche,oftencontemplatedwithsadnessevenbythosepolitically

opposedtoimperialism.Francehadanevenmoredestructiveexperiencewith

lettinggoofcoloniesitdesperatelywishedtokeep.SurelytheEmpirewaga

stimulant for British national morale'

Butwasiteconomicallyprofitable?wasitworththemaintenance?

SurelytheinitialBritishtradingpresenceinlndiabroughtenormousprofits

andenrichedmanyfamilies.Anumberofeconomists,however,havemarsbaled

tradestatisticsshowingthatrbyaboutlsSOrtheprofi-tsofEuropean

colonialism had evaporated, and, by the earry twentieth centuryr colonies were

morecostlythantheywereworth.Clark,forexample(1936,PP.12-3t82,92)

presentsStatisticsshowingasteadydeclineinthePercentageoflndia,s

tradewithintheEmpireandofBritain,stradewithlndia.Atatimewhenthe

33

defense of rndia, and maintaining its government, was an enormous drain on the

Britishtaxpayer,profitsfromthelndiantradeweresteadilydeclining.

while Britain,s status as a great power unquestionably diminished after

theEmpirewaslost,theeconomicstatusandfinancialsecurityofindividual

Britishcitizensimprovedduringthelg50s.Thismustbefactoredintoany

eguationdealingwiththelossofEmpire,asitconcernsthecolonizing

power's motivation to maintain its status'

Edwardes(1953,p.232|reasonablystatesthatinreleasinglndia,',the

actofrenunciationitselfwaswithoutprecedentorevenanalogyinhistory.''

Hegoesontopointoutthatita]-lowedBritaintoremainonfriend}yterms

withitsformercolonies,tothebenefitofbothparties,notingthatthis

would not have happened had not Britain given up rndia peacefurly'

Suchaviewmayglvemorecreditthanisdeservedhere,raisingthe

guestionofwhetherthisactofstatesmanshipwouldhaveoccurredhadthis

.,jewel in the crown,, remained profitable. Clearly, however, giving up India

wasawiseactandoneththadenormousrePercussionsthroughoutthecolonial

world. With India's freedom' the end of French' Dutch' and Portuguese

colonialismwashastened,althoughitwasalreadydoomedforthesamereasons

as Britain's domination of rndia' Everywhere colonialism was becoming more

.expensivethanitwasworth,whichFrancewe}ldemonstratedwithits

impressiveeconomicgrowtshfollowingtheendofitseffortstokeepAlgeria.

Accepting a pragrmatic reasoning for giving up India' however' Ieaves us

withacertaindiscomfortwhenwecontemplatethetensofthousands,even

hundred,softhousandsofnativelndianliveslostoveraseveralcentury

perj.odbecausetheyhadresistedtheimperativesofEmpire.LossofBritish

IivestomaintaintheEmpirewasalsosubstantialandraisesthequestionas

to whether these were wasted lives' With such a view' the colonial process

might be iudged as a cruel' deadly force unLeashed upon the world'

34

NOTES

l.Themilitarysituationwassoprecariousduringtheearlypartofthe

Mutiny,thatnumerousscenarloscanbeconstructedbywhichtheBritishcould

havebeenoverwhelmedwithonemoredefection.Atthemostcriticalphase,

afterfailureofthefirstattempttorelieveDelh!inJune,arisinginany

ofthemajorsouthernprincipalities,suchasHyderabad,couldhavespread

British forces even thinner' Sind and most of the Punjab had only recently

been annexed, and if they had moved strongly to break away, the British could

trave done little to hold them back'

Evenmoreominouswouldhavebeentheemergenceofaninspiredleader

amongtherebels.I.fleadershiphadbeendirectedtowardexpellingthe

British from the entire sub-continent' the mutinous armies would almost

certainry have operated more cooperativery, moving to points where they were

most needed rather than settring into controrring onry the rocal- areas of most

interest to them'

2.Noneofthehistoriansdea}ingwiththeMutinyprovideclearinformation

astoexactlywhatwassmearedonthecartridges.Colllerdoesnotspeculate

on the matter, whire Hibbert (p. 63) guotes a European officer's assurance

thatthegreasewasamixtureofmuttonfatandwax.othersourcessuggest

that,whatevertheintendedcompositionofthegrease,eitherpigorcowfat

or both could have been substituted'

3.Thisguotationisused'byMoorhouse(1983,p.9).Ihavebeenunableto

find its PrimarY source'

4. Statistics guoted here are taken from an artic].e by Cuthbert CoIIln Davies,

Encyclopedia Btitannica' Chicago' 1965' VoI' t2' P' 157 '

5.SlightlydifferingversionsoftheMontagustatementhaveappearedin

various sources' The one guoted here !s from Roberts (1938' p' 580) '

35

6.o,Dwyer,saccountofthetroub]'einAmritsar(o,Dwyer,]]g25.PP.253-309)

illustratestrowthreatened'and'perhaps'evenparanoid'theBritlsbin

Amritsar felt at that time' As O'Du'yer underEtood General Dyer's predicament'

thelatterbe}ievedthat,,ifhe[Dyer]haddelayedinordertogivefurther

warninge,hj-ssmallforcewouldprobatrlyhavebeensweptali,aylikechaff

before the wind" " he wag Practically isolated in the middle of a great city

seething with rebeJ-lion' and heEltation would have been fatal.''

T.ThegequoteswereuEedbyllibbert(1978,p.391)Theremarkbyoneofthe

prince'6 Party ie from the papers of Albert Grey'

S.QuotedrbutnotepecificallyidentifiedastoprimarySource'in?be

Anerican Hexitaqe Book of the Pevolution' (p' 49)'

36

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39