Brame Jason Thesis-libre

Examining Non-Linear Forms: Techniques for the Analysis of Scores Found in Video Games

by

Jason Brame, BM

A Thesis

In

Music Theory

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of

Masters of Music

Approved

Dr. Michael Berry Chair

Dr. Matthew Santa

Dr. Peter Martens

Fred Hartmeister Dean of the Graduate School

December, 2009

Texas Tech University, Jason Brame, December 2009

ii

Acknowledgments

This thesis would not have been possible without the support of my advisor Dr. Michael

Berry. I deeply appreciate all his time spent readings drafts and giving advice.

And the utmost gratitude goes to my wife, who graciously read draft after draft of this

document and played hours of Final Fantasy in helping to complete this research.


iii

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................................... ii

Abstract ................................................................................................................................. iv

List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. v

I Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1

II Background Matter ............................................................................................................... 3

History of Video Game Music ......................................................................................... 3

Beeps and Blips of Yesteryear: Where is the Music? ....................................................... 4

Game Music Takes Form................................................................................................. 5

An Ever-Shifting Form ..................................................................................................... 6

State of the Discipline ..................................................................................................... 7

Terms Defined ................................................................................................................ 9

III The Unique and Unifying Qualities of Video Game Music .................................................... 12

Eighteenth-Century Dice Music .................................................................................... 13

Polyvalent Formation ................................................................................................... 15

Non-Linear Time ........................................................................................................... 16

Moment Form .............................................................................................................. 17

IV Formalizing Structure: Conceptualizing a Video Games Score ............................................ 22

What is the Score? ....................................................................................................... 22

Representing a Games Score ....................................................................................... 24

Real-Time Game Score Graph ....................................................................................... 26

Music Object Relation Graph ........................................................................................ 29

V Form of Game Music .......................................................................................................... 32

Reduction in Real-Time Game Score Graphs ................................................................. 32

Linear Forms ................................................................................................................ 34

Branching Forms: A Linear Subset ................................................................................. 36

Centric Forms ............................................................................................................... 38

Compound Forms ......................................................................................................... 41

VI Form and Analysis: Using Game Score Graphs as a Tool for Game Score Analysis ................ 45

The Harmonic Language of Early Video Games ............................................................. 46

Analysis of Super Mario Bros. ....................................................................................... 47

Analysis of The Legend of Zelda .................................................................................... 57

Analysis of Final Fantasy ............................................................................................... 63

VII Suggestions for Further Research........................................................................................ 80

Works Cited .............................................................................................................................. 85


iv

Abstract

This paper develops techniques for the analysis of video game music, with most of the

focus on form and the analysis of entire video game scores. Chapter 1 introduces the thesis and

goals of the paper. Chapter 2 gives an overview of video game music history, a survey of current

work on video game music research, and terminology specific to video game pieces. Chapter 3

discusses some older musical concepts that are relevant to video game music, such as the dice

music from eighteenth century and twentieth century ideas of moment form and non-linear

time.

The formal elements that make up the analytical portion of this paper are explained in

Chapter 4. This chapter goes methodically through two different types of graphs that are used

in game score analysis. Chapter 5 takes these graphs and explores some common forms that

have been identified. Three full video game scores are then analyzed in detail in Chapter 6,

showing how these graphing techniques can be beneficial in analyzing video games. Lastly,

Chapter 7 presents ideas on further research in the largely unexplored area of video game

music.


v

List of Figures

3.1: Simple House Floor Plan to Illustrate Possibilities in Game Music ....................................... 14

3.2: Structure of Moments from Momente................................................................................ 19

4.1: Real-Time Games Score Graph of Sonic the Hedgehog: Opening Levels .............................. 27

4.2: Music Object Relation Score Graph of Figure 4.1 ................................................................ 30

5.1: Sample Real-Time Score Graph Excerpt .............................................................................. 33

5.2: Reduction of Figure 5.1 ...................................................................................................... 33

5.3: Star Wars: The Force Unleashed RTGSG Reduction ............................................................. 35

5.4: Example of a Branching Form ............................................................................................. 36

5.5: Background RTGSG of Pokmon ......................................................................................... 38

5.6: Example of a Centric Form ................................................................................................. 39

5.7: Background RTGSG of Super Mario Galaxy ......................................................................... 40

5.8: Background RTGSG of The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past ............................................ 42

5.9: Background RTGSG - Levels 1 and 2 of Super Mario Bros. 3 ................................................ 43

6.1: Overworld Theme from Super Mario Bros. ......................................................................... 49

6.2: Underworld Object from Super Mario Bros. ........................................................................ 50

6.3: Waterworld Object from Super Mario Bros......................................................................... 50

6.4: Castle Object from Super Mario Bros. and Upper Voice Reduction ..................................... 51

6.5: Area Clear Object from Super Mario Bros. With Harmonic Analysis .................................... 51

6.6: Level Clear Object from Super Mario Bros. With Harmonic Analysis .................................... 52

6.7: 100-Second Object from Super Mario Bros. ........................................................................ 52

6.8: Death Object from Super Mario Bros. ................................................................................. 53

6.9: Game Over Object from Super Mario Bros. With Harmonic Analysis ................................... 53


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6.10: Invincibility Object from Super Mario Bros. ....................................................................... 54

6.11: Final Victory Object from Super Mario Bros. ..................................................................... 54

6.12: Reduction of the RTGSG for Level 1 of Super Mario Bros................................................... 54

6.13: RTGSG of Level One in Super Mario Bros. ......................................................................... 55

6.14: Complete MORG for Super Mario Bros. ............................................................................ 56

6.15: RTGSG of The Legend of Zelda .......................................................................................... 58

6.16: RTGSG of Location Object in Final Fantasy ........................................................................ 64

6.17: RTGSG of Location Objects: Keys and Neo-Riemannian Transformation Indicated ............ 66

6.18: Keys from Figure 6.17 Mapped on Tonnetz ...................................................................... 67

6.19: RTGSG of the Battle Sequence from Final Fantasy ............................................................ 69

6.20: RTGSG of Location and Looping Event Objects from Final Fantasy .................................... 70

6.21: MORG of Location and Looping Event Objects from Final Fantasy .................................... 71

6.22: Keys of Objects from Figure 6.21 Mapped on a Tonnetz ................................................... 72

6.23: General RTGSG for Most Location Objects in Final Fantasy ............................................... 72

6.24: Inn Stay Object and First Measure of Menu Object from Final Fantasy ............................. 74

6.25: Complete RTGSG of Final Fantasy ..................................................................................... 75

6.26: Complete MORG of Final Fantasy ..................................................................................... 76

6.27: Complete Tonnetz of Keys in Final Fantasy ....................................................................... 77

6.28: Graph of Final Fantasy Tonal Path .................................................................................... 78

7.1: Reproduction of Figure 5.5 ................................................................................................. 82

7.2: Linear Narrative in Pokmon .............................................................................................. 82


1

Chapter I

Introduction

Much of music theory starts with an intellectual curiosity. Whether it is examining the

structure of non-diatonic chord progressions or making sense of a serial piece, music theory is

the process of attempting to understand and discuss the music we encounter in our survey of

the sounding world. This project started from a small collection of soundtracks from the

Nintendo video game series, The Legend of Zelda. As I began to notice similarities and variations

among the soundtracks to different entries in the games series, I began to wonder if the

similarities were intentional, what they were, and what they were trying to convey.

Video games are discussed in great detail among cultural, communications, and

technology studies, but the scholarly study of video game music is only just beginning. A quick

look through this papers literature review will show that the bulk of this research has only

begun in the last three or four years. However, the study of game music is almost exclusively in

the realm of musicology, with much discussion on the subjects of game music in culture, history

and development of game sound, and the aesthetics of video games. Some interesting research

is being done on the types of interactivity of music in video games, but the field is void of any

detailed music theory research. As I began to analyze video game music in more depth, I found

that there is a lack of theoretical tools available to aptly analyze the scores to video games. Like

the creation of dice music in the eighteenth century and the chance or aleotoric music of the

twentieth century, video game music is rarely experienced the same way twice. Much of the

experience of video game music is determined as much by the player as by the composer. This

paper will lay down the foundation of an analytical approach to video game music.


2

Matthew Belinkie contends that "Video game music pieces are united only by a common

instrument (the console) and not much else".1 To some degree, this statement is true. Game

music comes in all types, whether it is the jazzy upbeat music of Super Mario Bros., the rock-

techno sounds of Sonic the Hedgehog, or the full classical orchestral texture found in The Legend

of Zelda: Twilight Princess. The variety of musical styles found in the video game world suggest

that we would need different tools to analyze each score, much as we might use different tools

to analyze a serial piece and a tonal piece. However, in this thesis I will develop a common

language and tools to talk about game music that will allow us to compare these disparate styles

of game music in an intellectually fulfilling way. The primary concern of this thesis is to unify a

conception of video game music and develop tools to discuss its form and structure. Then these

tools will be used to discuss similarities among different types of games and explore the

structure of music in video games.

After a brief history of game music and a literature review, I will explore the uniqueness

of game music and why scores to different games may have more in common than just an

instrument. In Chapter Four, I will discuss the conception of a video game score and show a

method for formalizing a game score. Chapter Five takes the techniques developed in Chapter

Four and explores different types of game forms. Utilizing the same techniques, Chapter Six will

show how this form diagram can be used to show unity and structure within a single game,

aiding in the understanding and appreciation of a games structure. The thesis will close with

suggestions for further research.

1 Matthew Belinkie, Video game music: not just kids stuff, http://www.vgmusic.com/vgpaper.shtml,

December 15, 1999 (accessed June 20, 2008).


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Chapter II

Background Matter

History of Video Game Music

The story of game audio gets retold time and time again in research of video game

music, but rarely seems to get old. One of the earliest printed histories of video game music

told in a research paper is Mathew Belinkies Video Game Music: Not Just Kids Stuff, which

leaves out some of the earlier developments in game sound and music. A more concise history

can be found in Karen Collinss From Bits to Hits: Video Game Music Changes its Tune, where

she outlines three main stages of game audio. These ideas are presented again in more detail in

her textbook Game Sound, which spends the first three chapters going into her three different

stages of game audio development. Each of these three sources offers something new and

interesting about video game music, but the facts are all the same. I will begin with a brief

history of game audio, which will serve as a backdrop and frame of reference for the analyses

that will be conducted in this paper.

Collinss three stages of game music development are rooted in technological

developments, namely, early 8-bit sound cards, the development of 16-bit technology, and the

incorporation of CD audio. While my history does not differ in facts from Belinkie or Collins, I

will take a more music-based approach in delineating the stages of game music development. I

will not go into much technological detail about each system, but will provide any information

that is necessary to understanding the music being discussed.


4

Beeps and Blips of Yesteryear: Where is the Music?

Video Games, in the broad sense, were around long before they first had sound.

William Higinbothams soundless Tennis for Two (Unpublished, 1958) is credited as the first

video game. While sound was present in arcades (notably the sounds emanating from pinball

machines when certain interactions took place), sound was not present in video games until

1972, when Ataris Pong made the familiar beep sound so famous. Sounds were not an

aesthetic decision, but were a direct result of the limited capabilities of the technology of the

time.2 The sound in Pong was not the sound that the original creators wanted, yet it was only

what the technology governing the game was capable of.

Space Invaders (Midway, 1978) was the first game to have continuous sound, which was

integral in setting a new standard for sound in games. It contained a continuous four-note

chromatic line that sped up as the game progressed. By 1980, arcade systems were coming with

their own sound chips (known as programmable sound generators, or PSGs) which allowed for

the development of more tonal background music and more variety of in game sounds.

Through the 1970s, music in video games was limited to very short motives looped

during game play, leaving the more substantial musical elements to be found in title music or

the occasional level transition screen (such as in Pac-Man). The same can be said of music on

the Atari 2600, one of the first successful home video game consoles, which was only capable of

two simultaneous sounds, with an interesting set of pitch restrictions.3

2 Karen Collins, Game Sound: An Introduction to the History, Theory and Practice of Video Game Muisc and

Sound Design (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2008), 9. 3 See Karen Collins, Flat Twos and the Musical Aesthetic of the Atari VCS, Popular Musicology Online,

No. 1 (2006), http://www.popular-musicology-online.com/issues/01/collins-01.html.


5

Game Music Takes Form

Just as there is no clear dividing line between musical periods (such as Classical and

Romantic music), there is no clear line between musical developments in video game music.

Though the Atari offers some interesting theoretical discussion, the bulk of theoretical work that

needs to be done starts with the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). This system, like the

arcade systems, has an onboard PSG, so it is still part of the 8-bit history in terms of

technological development, as found in Collinss writings. However, the variety and depth of

continuous background music ushered in a new era of game music that helped propel the

system into the popularity it received. Unlike the Atari, the NES was capable of four

simultaneous sounds (three pitched, and one unpitched for percussion or sound effects).

Belinkies account of game music history begins with the NES, and gives no mention to earlier

arcade and home console attempts. The older systems offer interesting paths of musical

inquiry, and are worth discussing, but they lack much of the substance we find in systems since

the NES.

The Sega Genesis (or Sega Mega-Drive as it was known outside the US) was the first true

16-bit system. It contained the same PSG chip that the NES had, which was reserved for sound

effects alone. The Genesis was also equipped with an FM synthesis sound chip which has six

channels of stereo sound and another channel for 8-bit samples. Some could argue that the

Genesis really was a transitional system in terms of technological development. I would say The

FM chip was a predecessor to MIDI, but the music on the system did not sound much different

than the 8-bit NES, aside from the increased number and quality of voices.

The Super NES followed the release of the Genesis and was superior in many ways to

that system, including its sound capabilities. It had a multipart sound chip which included an 8-


6

channel digital signal processor that allowed for eight channels of stereo sound through a set of

MIDI instruments. Controls such as volume, reverb, and panning were all possible on this sound

board.

While Collins groups the Genesis and Super NES into a different period of development

from the NES, the use of music on these three systems and their peers is relatively similar.

Transitions from musical object to musical object were done with hard cuts or rapid fades (if

technology allowed) and little was done to make music dynamic and adaptable. There are a few

exceptions, but in general these consoles did little to further the development of video game

music from the NES.

An Ever-Shifting Form

Little has been said of computer gaming in this brief history, as the musical development

on computers was very similar to that of home consoles. Sound on computers depended greatly

on the capabilities of the computer the game was played on and its sound card. Developers had

a lot less control over what the user was going to hear, because they were not guaranteed a

certain kind of equipment. However, as MIDI came to be a dominating medium of game music

programming, LucasArts became really concerned with dynamic music, which lead to the

creation of the iMUSE technology. IMUSE allowed for the music to change and adapt midstream

based on a set of conditions. During a musical sequence, a set of decision points in the game

would be indicated. Each time a decision point was reached, the system checked for a set of in-

game conditions to determine whether to continue with the current music object, or to make a

change. The change could be anything from transposing keys, changing instruments, tempo, or

even branching off to another piece of music. For the first time, composers had the ability to


7

make smooth transitions, and allow the music to change with changing game conditions.

Perhaps background music could become more dissonant as a characters life was in jeopardy,

or could speed up as you got closer and closer to a goal.

More and more dynamic audio elements are in development for game music. The

creation of iMUSE really was the beginning of the modern video game music era. Creating an

ever-changing and interactive score is a primary concern for many game music composers.

Certainly there are games that have not gotten out of the simple cut or fade transitions of older

systems, but they are somewhat limited to quickly produced games and budget releases.

The idea of iMUSE has been incorporated into home consoles after the Super NES, as

sound and storage capabilities continue to improve. With increased storage size, sound does

not need to be compressed. Game systems can output recorded sound and some can even

sequence live-recorded samples in the same way MIDI is programmed in, allowing for the same

dynamic iMUSE concepts to be applied.

Most histories of video game music end with the incorporation of iMUSE concepts and

CD-quality samples. The next major development will define this era for what it is and has

accomplished, but for now, we will turn to the true focus of this paper, the analysis of video

game music.

State of the Discipline

As stated previously, music theory has had very little to do with video game music.

However, some important publications are available that give us a good starting point for

introducing music theory into the body of inquiry.


8

One of the earliest contributions to the study of video game music is Matthew Belinkies

paper Video Game Music: Not Just Kid Stuff. Though Belinkie wrote this paper early in his

undergraduate work at Yale and has since gone onto pursue a non-musical career, this paper

has been disseminated through the online Video Game Music Archive. This paper was

frequently cited in earlier game papers, but has since been replaced by the work of Karen

Collins. Belinkie, as mentioned above, ignores consoles prior to the NES in his history of game

music development, showing that he is more concerned with the continuous background tracks,

and not the sporadic music found in earlier systems. His paper provides a lot of dialogue with

accessible game music composers and gives us limited insight into the industry. The paper itself

is simply an overview of game music, but in many respects has provided a starting point for

much of the early research.

Perhaps the most significant contributor to the study of video game music is Karen

Collins, who has a book and a number of articles all dealing specifically with video game sound.

Note that I used the term game sound, as opposed to music, as she deals with all aspect of

audio production in video games. Among these, her textbook Game Sound serves as a reference

point for all things related to video game sound and music. In a sense, this book provides all the

background knowledge about game sound development that would normally be the pre-

research for this paper. Much of the terminology that will be introduced in the next chapter

comes from this source. The bulk of her recent work deals with the interactivity of sound and

ideas for future game sound development. Her work has always been on the border of

musicology and music theory, having written on the music of the Atari 2600s unique tuning

system,4 as well as on the influence of popular music in video games.

5 Her account of game

4 Collins, Flat Twos


9

sound development is always technologically based, which serves the theorist in understanding

how the music is created, but does not accurately reflect the use of the music in video games.

Writings such as Zach Whalens Play Along An Approach to Videogame Music,6

Tristan Capacchiones Musical Gamescapes: A Study of Unity in Arcanum: Of Steamworks and

Magick Obscura,7 and Axel Stockburgers The game environment from an auditive

perspective,8 have dealt with music elements more directly than others. Whalen and

Capacchione take specific examples to show how game music and the game environment are

directly linked to each other. Stockburger goes further to give us terms for the different

functions of music in games and how that music interacts with the game environment with

detailed examples from Metal Gear Solid 2. Each of these authors contributes to the concept of

how music functions in video games, but still leaves a void in overall game music structure and

construction. While Capacchione attempts to explore game unifying elements in the music of

Arcanum, he does not have a way for the reader to conceptualize the whole score at once.

Terms Defined

From this point forward, I will begin using terms specific to video game music that need

some explanation. Video games are not composed of one musical idea, but consist of many

5 Karen Collins, Video Games Killed the Cinema Star, Music, Sound and the Moving Image 1/1 (2007):

15-20. 6 Zach Whalen, Play Along: An Approach to Videogame Music, Game Studies: The International Journal

of Computer Game Research 4, No. 1 (November 2004), http://gamestudies.org/0401/whalen/. 7 Tristan Capacchione, Musical Gamescapes: A Study of Unity in Arcanum: Of Steamworks and Magick

Obscura, http://www.gamessound.com/Arcanum.pdf. 8 Alex Stockburger, The Game Environment From an Auditive Perspective,

http://www.audiogames.net/pics/upload/gameenvironment.htm.


10

musical ideas. Each single idea is referred to as a music object. Music objects can be classified

in a number of different ways, depending on the function they serve.

On the most basic level, music objects can be looping or non-looping. A looping music

object plays the same music over and over again in a repeated loop. Sometimes these objects

have short introductions that are only heard at the beginning of the object, and sometimes the

object is repeated in its entirety. They can be of any length, from short four-measure loops to

longer multi-phrase loops. These objects never end until the player does something to trigger a

change. Non-looping objects play from beginning to end. They can occasionally be cut short by

an input from the player, but if left to play through, they will not repeat, but typically be

followed by silence or another music object.

Some music objects are called background or location objects. These objects play

throughout an area, level, or game environment, usually looping until something interrupts

them or the area is left. Other objects are triggered by in-game events, such as opening a

treasure chest, obtaining a special item, or beating a level. These objects are usually non-

looping, though there are exceptions in certain situations. Menu objects occur when the music

changes during menu screens, either in-game or before the game begins.

Though not used frequently, terms describing the interactivity of music objects are

present throughout video game music literature. Borrowing film terminology, Collins frequently

describes music objects as diegetic and nondiegetic. Diegetic music is music which exists as part

of the game environment, whereas nondiegetic music exists to enhance the environment, but

does not exist within the environment. For example, the players character in The Legend of

Zelda: Ocarina of Time can pick up and play an ocarina at various points throughout the game.

The notes that are heard when the character plays the ocarina are diegetic. The music playing in


11

the background when the character is walking through the field is non-diegetic. Game music

objects can also be dynamic or non-dynamic. Dynamic music can change and react to game

conditions, such as the time of day, location within an area, or players status (character health,

power-ups, and so forth). Dynamic music is also music that the player can interact with. Non-

dynamic music does not change regardless of situation.9

This paper will rarely discuss music objects in terms of dynamic capability or diegesis,

but they do occur on occasion when referencing other writings on game music. Description of

music objects as looping and non-looping, and their function as event-triggered or background

objects are the most important. These terms are frequently used throughout the rest of the

paper.

9 Collins, Game Sound, 125-127.


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Chapter III

The Unique and Unifying Qualities of Video Game Music

Any music object in a video game can be extracted an analyzed using a variety of

theoretical tools which currently exist. However, it is the examination of all the objects in a

video game that begins to pose a problem. To illustrate this problem, let us envision a person in

his house. Now imagine that each room in this house has a different piece of music playing,

heard only from that particular room. We can analyze each piece separately, but how do we

examine the relationships between the dining room piece and the living room piece? If the

hallway piece is connected to three different bedrooms, each with their own piece, how do they

each interact with the piece heard from the hallway? Only the person in the house can control

how long he stays in one room, and at what point in the piece he moves from one room to the

next.

The concept of non-linear time in music seems contradictory as music always is

experienced within a linear time span. However, the music itself can be composed or conceived

of outside a linear framework. A video game gives us a set of musical objects that are put

together in a non-linear manner. Game music changes, interjects, and adapts with the actions

of the player. The sequence of presentation of the objects is controlled by the player, not the

composer. What the composer controls are the contents of the musical objects. To use our

previous analogy, the composer cannot control when the person moves from the living room to

the hallway, or which bedroom he goes into, but he can control what piece is playing in each

room. The challenge is to find a way to express the structure and relationships within video

game music and uncover a way to conduct a meaningful analysis. The idea of writing music

within a non-linear structure, yet controlling the relationships falls between the eighteenth-


13

century practice of dice music compositions and Stockhausens twentieth-century concept of

moment form, incorporating ideas of polyvalent formation and non-linear time.

Eighteenth-Century Dice Music

Well before the compositions of John Cage and his contemporaries, eighteenth-century

composers were experimenting with the idea of chance music compositions. Though over a

dozen of these chance pieces are known to exist, the model for many of these was the first

dice piece, a composition by Johann Philipp Kirnberger (1721-1783) called Der allezeit fertig

Menuettenund Polonoisenkomponist. This composition, or game as it is typically referred to10

,

consists of a set of instructions and twenty-nine pages of measures that were to be cut up into a

deck of cards with each card containing one measure of the piece. The secondary composer

(the one playing the game) would then throw two dice. The value of the dice would reference

a table of numbers indicating the exact measure to be used. Then the dice would be thrown

again for the next measure. This number would again be crossed-referenced with the next line

on the table and the appropriate measure selected. This would continue until a polonaise with

two periods of six and eight measures respectively, or a minuet and trio of thirty-two measures

was composed. The minuet alone had 11 to the 32nd power possible variants.

11

As the composer, Kirnberger controls the content of the measures. All of the possible

first measures are built on the tonic harmony, despite the different melodic content. Kirnberger

has no control over which measure comes next, but all of the second measure choices feature

10

Both sources consulted use this term, though the piece is no less a composition than any other piece of

music. 11

Stephen A. Hedges, Dice Music in the Eighteenth Century, Music & Letters Vol. 59, No. 2 (April 1978):

180-181.


14

dominant harmonies.12

He maintains a coherent tonal relationship from measure one to

measure two by controlling the content of the measures, even though the choice of the

measure is left up to chance. Imagine if each measure were a music object in a video game. In

the same way as this dice composition, a composer can control the relationship between the

various music objects in a video game by understanding the possible ways the objects connect.

This allows the music objects to relate in a way that is desirable. Unlike Kirnberger, many game

music composers explore other variations, instead of using the same keys and harmonies in all

music objects. For an illustration of some of these variations, let us refer back to the rooms-in-

a-house example (diagramed in Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1: Simple House Floor Plan to Illustrate Possibilities in Game Music

Let us first start with the Living Room, which is playing a piece in C Major, and is

reflecting a calm living environment. Knowing that the living room can only transition to the

12

Leonard G. Ratner, Ars Combinatoria: Chance and Choice in Eighteenth-Century Music, in Studies in

Eighteenth-Century Music, ed. H.C. Robbins Landon (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd, 1970), 343.


15

Dining Room, or the hallway, the composer might choose to create a piece for the dining room

in the dominant key of G major. This could reflect a constant pull to return to the Living Room

tonally. The hallway might then have a piece in a minor, and be in a mood that might reflect

indecision at which room to go into. The composer now has four rooms to choose from in the

hallway. The living room is set, so it is the mood of the other three rooms that is now important

to set, not only by the object, but the relationship to the previous object. For instance, perhaps

the first bedroom is a very dangerous place, and might be a harsh piece in E-flat minor, a tritone

away from the hallway key. The second bedroom could be a place that is not dangerous or

difficult, but not a place of rest. The composer then might choose to use E major, dominant of

the hallway key to pull the music back to the a minor hallway. Lastly, the third bedroom could

be the final place of rest, returning back to C major. This would not only reinforce an overall

tonic key, but identify both the living room and the third bedroom as resting points. You will

find that the video games analyzed in chapter six exhibit many of these ideas on a more

complicated scale.

Polyvalent Formation

Contemporary composers often considered the idea of composing pieces that were not

fixed. Boulez was not averse to the idea of a serial music composed of modules that could be

shuffled and rearranged in performance, but he was concerned that such a composition be

designed so that the pieces would always fit, and the final result invariably makes musical

sense.13

Though most game music is not serial, the idea of creating a composition that makes

sense, even when sections of the piece are left up to the performers discretion, is a primary

13

Robin Maconie, Other Planets (Lanham: The Scarecrow Press, 2005), 157.


16

concern of many video game composers. The idea of moving or indeterminate forms was

coined polyvalent formation by Stockhausen.14

There is a certain character of polyvalent

formation in video game music: though the modules, or objects themselves are composed out,

the placement in time relative to the other objects is largely up to the player.

Non-Linear Time

The experience of musical objects in video games can be considered non-linear. The

idea of non-linear time in music has various interpretations. Kramer discusses non-linear time

from the perspective of a piece not following a standard, logical functional scheme. For

example, he argues that you can understand the final cadence of Beethovens String Quartet

Opus 135 to be in measure ten. He then goes on to show how elements later in the piece all

lead up to the final cadence, which has already occurred.15

In Jonathan Kramers book The Time of Music he defines the idea of linear and non-

linear time. Linearity is the determination of some characteristic(s) of music in accordance

with implications that arise from earlier events of the piece.16

Thus, a piece in sonata form

follows a linear convention, where the ending is somehow based on the material of the

beginning. Even a simple binary form is related from beginning to end by way of key

relationships. Video game music can sometimes be thought of as linear in terms of key

relationships or tonal motions. However, many characteristics of game music fit Kramers non-

linear definition. Non-linearity is defined by Kramer as the determination of some

14

Karl H. Wrner, Stockhausen: Life and Works, trans. Bill Hopkins (Berkeley: University of California

Press, 1973), 105. 15

Jonathan D. Kramer, Multiple and Non-Linear Time in Beethovens Opus 135, Perspectives of New

Music Vol. 11, No. 2 (Spring-Summer, 1973): 122-145. 16

Jonathan D. Kramer, The Time of Music: New Meanings, New Temporalities, New Listening Strategies

(New York: Schirmer Books, 1988), 20.


17

characteristic(s) of music in accordance with implications that arise from principles or

tendencies governing an entire piece or section.17

Game music objects are usually unrelated

motivically, orchestrationally, and so forth, to that which came before them. The music objects

are related to the game as a whole, and the section of the game where that object is heard.

These definitions may seem abstract, but we can also understand video game music as

exhibiting qualities of non-linear time in a more apparent way. Music objects frequently go back

and forth; such that a player can be in an area, travel to a second area, then back to the first.

Going forwards and backwards through the order in which the music objects are experienced is

another interpretation of the non-linear time concept. If this is conceptualized with regards to

Kramers definition, it is that all music objects in a game are generated from the idea of the

game itself, and that the objects do not necessarily have to have content related to each other,

but are all related to the idea of the game and the games environment.

Moment Form

Most musical forms rely on the idea that musical material is based on that which came

before it. In moment-form works, every present moment counts, as well as no moment at all;

a given moment is not merely regarded as the consequence of the previous one and the prelude

to the coming one, but as something individual, independent and centered in itself, capable of

existing on its own.18

A moment-form work strings together a series of moments that are

experienced in a linear manner, but the moments themselves are part of something else. It is

the moment itself that is important in this form, and it disregards any connection to previous

17

Ibid., 20. 18

Quoted in Seppo Heinkinheimo, Electronic Music of Karlheinz Stockhausen: Studies on the Esthetical

and Formal Problems of its First Phase, tr. Brad Absetz, Acta Musicologica Fennica 6 (Helsinki:

Musicological Society of Finland, 1972), 120.


18

moments. Heikineimo states that this concentration on the present moment on every

present moment can make a vertical cut, as it were, across horizontal time perception,

extending out to a timelessness I call eternity.19

Each moment is just a glimpse at a segment of

music that has been ongoing for some time. For Stockhausen, these moments did not begin or

end:

I have made a strict difference between the concepts of beginning and starting,

ending and stopping. When saying beginning, I imply a process, something that

rises and merges; when saying ending I am thinking about something that ends,

ceases to sound, extinguishes. The contrary is true with the words start and stop,

which I combine with the concept of caesurae which delineate a duration, as a section,

out of a continuum.20

It is as if multiple pieces are being performed in different concert halls, and the audience travels

from one hall to the other experiencing moments of pieces that are ongoing, before and after

the experience.21

Momente, one of Stockhausens early moment-form works, provides a great example of

many aspects of moment-form and polyvalent formation. Moment form employs three

different types of moments that can be grouped in a variety of ways. These moments are based

on melody (M), duration (D), and timbre (K, for Klang). The I moments are neutral and serve to

connect the different moment groups together. The various moments will borrow qualities of

19

Heikinheimo, 120-121. 20

Quoted in Jonathan D. Kramer, Moment Form in Twentieth Century Music, The Musical Quarterly Vol.

64, No. 2 (April 1978): 180. 21

Wrner, 108.


19

other moments. For example, the M(d) moment will be a melody-based moment with elements

of duration, while a K(m) moment will be focused primarily on timbre elements, while

containing fragments of melodic material.22

Figure 3.2 shows the structure of Momentes

moments.

Figure 3.2: Structure of Moments from Momente.23

This is where we can see the polyvalent formation qualities in this piece. The K group of

moments is in the center, but the performer can decide on which side of K that the M and D

groups go. This rotation around a central moment continues through the branches. For

example, K(d) and K(m) can rotate about K; MD(k) and MD can rotate about M(d). Momente

combines the ideas of moment-form and polyvalent formation, but this is rather uncommon for

moment-form works. His other moment-form compositions such as Carr and Kontakte consist

of moments strung together, but there is no variation in the order of the moments from

performance to performance.

Stockhausens moment-form works were composed with a sense of non-linearity. It is

the discontinuity of the moments that made the form what it is. Video game music is similar to

22

Karlheinz Stockhausen, Stockhausen on Music, compiled by Robin Maconie (London: Marion Boyars,

1989), 64-67. 23

Maconie, 242.


20

a moment-form work in many ways. Video game music is experienced in moments, with each

moment having a different and unique character. Though each moment is usually heard as

having a clear beginning, the moments rarely have a clear ending, unless they are non-looping

objects. Background objects can even be thought to always exist in the background of an area,

even when the player is not in that area. This parallels Stockhausens idea of taking part in a

moment of an object that is infinite in both directions.

Kramer explains moment time as a piece or section where the moments may be

related (motivically, for example) but not connected by transition.24

Kramer discusses

discontinuity as part of a piece that exhibits moment-forming. He believes that discontinuity is

most profoundly felt in tonal music which has natural tendencies of motion and time. To

interrupt this continuity is believed to be a principal element of moment-form music.25

However, we will see that video game music, while exhibiting qualities of moment-form music,

is largely continuous from moment to moment, creating a continuity throughout the game.

Moment form works are often analyzed moment by moment, then considered as a

whole.26

This pattern will continue in this paper, as video game music will be analyzed object by

object, then considered as a whole. However, unlike Kramers admiration of discontinuity in

moment-form, this thesis will focus on the formal aspects of video game music, uncovering

continuity and structure in a video game. Like in moment-form, game music composers

concentrate on creating self-contained moments, or music objects, but like in dice music, they

are concerned with the relationship from one measure, or music object, to the next. These

24

Kramer, The Time of Music, 50. 25

Kramer, Moment Form: 177-179. 26

See analysis of Kontake in Heikinheimo, p. 151-215.


21

relationships are designed to function in an environment of non-linear time where the player is

constantly reordering the polyvalent formation of the game music.


22

Chapter IV

Formalizing Structure: Conceptualizing a Video Games Score

What is the Score?

In his paper titled The Game Environment from an Auditive Perspective, Alex

Stockburger defines the games score as a number of sound objects that belong to the non-

diegetic part of the game environment.27

While this is the beginning of a definition, it ignores a

long list of important music objects which should be considered part of the score. Non-diegetic

sounds in video games are almost always music objects, and should be considered part of the

score, yet there are a number of diegetic objects that should also be considered. Going purely

by Stockburgers definition, the music of Guitar Hero (Activision, 2005) is not part of the games

score, nor is the ocarina in The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time (Nintendo, 1998).28

Excluding

these music objects from the score is equivalent to saying the on-stage band at the end of Bergs

Wozzeck is not part of the operas score. I am certain that this is not the case, and in most

circumstances, a games composer has as much control of the diegetic music objects as he does

the non-diegetic objects.

It is also important to think of the games score as the music for the entire game, and

not a collection of scores that just happen to be connected through a games action. This is a

notion that is included in Stockburgers definition. It is understood that a films score

encompasses the music from start to finish, and that excerpts from a film score are not the

same thing as the score itself. As it will be shown later, the composer of a well composed game

score demonstrates awareness of the entire score when composing its various music objects.

27

Alex Stockburger, The Game Environment From an Auditive Perspective,

http://www.audiogames.net/pics/upload/gameenvironment.htm. 28

The latter here would, by Stockburgers definition, would be considered an Effect sound object.


23

Therefore, a formal definition of video game score is better stated as follows: a video

game score is the collection of music objects contained within a video game, the transitions

from one music object to the other, and the arrangement of the music objects within the games

action. The games action is used to generalize the various types of game progressions that exist,

such as the level progress of a fighting game versus the world exploration of a role-playing

game.

How can we distinguish music objects from other sound objects? While most music

objects are clearly identified, there will be occasions, especially with older games, when the line

between sound effects and music objects becomes unclear. Music objects should contain a

discernable motive, as defined by William Drabkins definition of motive: A short musical idea,

melodic, harmonic, rhythmic, or any combination of these three. A motif may be of any size, and

is most commonly regarded as the shortest subdivision of a theme or phrase that still maintains

its identity as an idea.29

A music object is not only a motive, but must be a part of the larger

game music landscape. This can include two-second music objects which signal some game play

event. This would not include objects like one or two note blips that are heard when collecting

common game objects, such as coins. These objects stand apart from the music objects because

they are extremely short, have no rhythmic or key context, and occur within most every major

music object within a game. They may be motives, but do not have structural implications on

the games score. In the end, it will be up to the analyst to decide if a sound object has enough

musical credence to be included in a games score.

29

William Drabkin, "Motif," In Grove Music Online, Oxford Music Online,

http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/19221.


24

Representing a Games Score

Video game music is set apart from other, more static musical forms because of its

interactivity. Understanding the possibilities in a games progression is important in

conceptualizing the score. Depending on the type of game, the games actions may occur in a

set order, or in any order. It is unknown how long a player will linger in one area of the game or

where the player will travel. A games entire world could be interconnected, allowing a player to

roam free between different areas with many possible music object transitions. Various in-game

events can trigger adaptations in certain music objects. In some games, background music can

be randomly selected from a set of music objects, and related only to some non-musical

element of the game, or not related to anything at all. With all these possibilities and more,

theorists need a way of conceptualizing the potentially complex relationships between music

objects.

A graphic representation of the score allows analysts to view and understand the score

as a whole, providing a useful tool for analyzing the more subtle nuances of a video game score.

A video game score graph has two main components: music objects and transitions. In the

graphs explored here, music objects will be enclosed in either an ellipse or rectangle. Elliptical

figures represent objects that loop endlessly. In video games, many music objects will repeat, or

loop, endlessly, either in whole or in part. For example, the Overworld object in The Legend of

Zelda (Nintendo, 1986) begins with a four-bar introduction that is never repeated, though the

remainder of the object loops until it transitions to another object. On occasion, a game will call

for a more interactive looping object, in which case the ellipse will be varied in some way,

usually with a dashed outline, to indicate the objects adaptability within game play. This will be

indicated on the score graph with a legend.


25

A rectangular figure indicates a non-looping object. These objects do not repeat, and

are usually immediately followed by a different music object. It is important to differentiate

between looping and non-looping objects because the latter have a clear beginning and end.

Having a definitive final cadence can affect the interpretation of an object as opposed to an

object that never has a clear ending (usually using an unstable cadential figure to loop back to

the objects beginning).

The second criteria for a game score are the transitions. Transitions must be indicated

in the game score graph to show which object can transition to which, and how the transition

occurs. It is important to show whether the object transitions hard or softly. A hard transition is

when a stinger is used to abruptly end the object to go to another one. A hard transition can

just be a hard cut, the most common transition in the 8-bit era. A soft transition can either be a

simple cross-fade, where one object fades out as the next one fades in, or the use of a transition

matrix, where the computer had predetermined points to transition from one object to the

next, making a smooth and musical connection. Solid line arrows are used to indicate hard

transitions while dotted lines are for soft transitions. I leave it up to the individual analysis

whether or not it is important to break down the transition indications even further on a game

score graph. However, the most important in this paper is the direction indication. The way a

game score graph is laid out is determined by the type of game score being created. There are

two very distinct ways to construct a video game score graph: a real-time game score graph, and

an object-relation graph.

Theses graphic systems that I am about to describe owe much of their development to

the models for network music analysis developed by David Lewin, Richard Cohn, and their

followers. However, there is a very important distinction to make between the graphs


26

presented here and those of Lewin and Cohn. Their network graphs are all transformationally

based, where each arrow in the network represents not only a connection but also a

transformational operation. The arrows in the following graphs represent the direction and

connection between music objects only. This relationship may or may not be transformational.

It simply indicates relationship in time and space within the games score.30

Real-Time Game Score Graph

The most important aspect of a real-time game score graph (RTGSG) is the layout of the

game environment. Transition indications in a real-time score show how music objects are laid

out in the game environment.

As an example, I will show excerpts from the score to Sonic the Hedgehog (Sega, 1991).

Sonic the Hedgehog (to be referred to as Sonic from here on) was published for the Sega Genesis

System. Designed by Hirokazu Yahuhara with music composed by Masato Nakamura, Sonic is a

side-scrolling platform adventure. Each level is divided up into three acts; at the end of the third

act, Sonic, the player-controlled character, fights the level boss. The games action happens

linearly, so once you have completed an act, you cannot return to that act. Various in-game

actions, such as gaining invincibility, can trigger music objects.

30

For more on network graphing systems, see David Lewin, A Formal Theory of Generalized Tonal

Functions, Journal of Music Theory 26, No. 1 (Spring, 1982): 23-60; David Lewin, Some Notes on

Analyzing Wagner: The Ring and Parisfal, 19th-Century Music 16, No. 1 (Summer, 1992): 49-58; and

Richard L. Cohn, As Wonderful as Star Clusters: Instruments for Gazing at Tonality in Schubert, 19th-

Century Music 22, No. 3 (Spring, 1999): 213-232.


27

Figure 4.1: Real-Time Games Score Graph of Sonic the Hedgehog: Opening Levels

Figure 4.1 gives us a RTGSG of the opening levels from Sonic. The first music object

heard when you begin a game of Sonic the Hedgehog is the Title Music object. Unlike many

games, Sonics Title Music object is non-looping. Once the player presses the start button, the

game proper begins in the Green Hill Zone, the first level of the game. So the title screen goes

straight into the first level, and you cannot return to the title screen without restarting the

game. That is why the arrow in the game score graph points one direction, from the title object,


28

to the Green Hill Zone object. The arrow is solid, which indicates a hard transition, which is a cut

in all instances of this game.

The Green Hill Zone object is an object that is adaptable to a certain situation. This is

indicated with a dashed ellipsis, and a Dynamic Audio key. The dynamic audio key is a box on

the graph similar to the legend on a road map. It shows a line pattern and what it represents in

terms of dynamic audio. In the case of Sonic, any time the players character finds speed shoes,

the levels music object goes twice as fast. Connected to the Green Hill Zone object with a

double-headed arrow is the Invincible Object loop. This arrow indication shows that this object

occurs from the Green Hill Zone and goes back to the Green Hill Zone object when it is

completed.

At the completion of the Green Hill Zone, you hear the End Level object, a non-looping

fanfare that can go one of two ways, either to a bonus round, or to the next act. The Bonus

object also ends with the End Level fanfare, but is not linked with a double arrow to emphasize

its linear nature. Instead, it is connected to another End Level object. It is not returning to the

first end level object, but playing a new one, which occurs at a different place in the games

actions. It is important in this type of game score graph to be clear about the direction of the

arrows. It may be simpler to combine the objects that are the same which occur in different

places in the game; however, that would defeat the purpose of a RTGSG: to show the elements

of the game as they occur in the game environment and to trace a path of the actions through

the music.

The next act looks exactly the same. The third act has some minor differences that

break the pattern: that is the addition of the Boss music object connected to the Green Hill Zone

with a double-headed arrow. The music changes once the player engages the boss. When the


29

boss is defeated, the music returns to the Green Hill Zone. It is this sequence that triggers the

continuation to a different level, and a different music object, the Marble Zone object. This

sequence also does not have a Bonus object option.

This pattern continues throughout the game, which would not be represented well had I

used more double-headed arrows for closely placed music objects. Had I combined all the

Green Hill objects into one, it would be easy to falsely show that there was a bonus option after

the Boss object is heard, or that the boss object could happen in any of the three acts.

A RTGSG graph has its advantages and disadvantages. It is a great way to show every

nuance of the game and to show patterns like the one uncovered in the Sonic graph. You can

also get a sense of distance between the different game music objects. This can be very useful

in identifying Leitmotifs and discussing the content of closely related objects. One can imagine

when a game composer starts writing for a game, that he already has a grasp of the action and

environment of the game. A RTGSG represents which music object he put with which areas and

actions of the game. The downside of this kind of graph is the size that they can become. The

Sonic graph above, even though it only uses a few music objects, it will contain 24 or more lines,

as there are eight levels with three acts each. Video games for later systems have over a

hundred separate music objects, which can result in some very unwieldy graphs.

Music Object Relation Graph

Of a more manageable size, the Music Object Relation Graph (MORG) only shows each

music object once. The arrows then indicate which objects are directly connected to each other,

regardless of the games actions. A single-headed arrow from Object A to Object B shows that

the object can only move from A to B, and not the reverse. A double-headed arrow shows that


30

at some point in the game A can go to B, and at some other point, B can go to A. In this type of

score, it does not mean back and forth, but just that the possibility exists.

Figure 4.2: Music Object Relation Score Graph of Figure 4.1

Figure 4.2 shows the excerpt of the Sonic score reworked into a MORG. This provides a

different way of looking at certain aspects that might be of interest to an analyst. For example,

this chart shows us more clearly that the Invincibility object can occur adjacent to either the

Marble Zone object or the Green Hill Zone object. While this observation may seem quite

obvious on the Real Time Score graph, it might not be so clear with other games. Also note that

the Bonus object only occurs between the End Level object. That can be quite significant

depending on the music content of those objects, and could make for an interesting analytical

point of discussion.

This score concisely shows all the possible connections from one object to another,

which is one of the more interesting aspects of game music analysis. The MORG can be

misleading without the RTGSG because it alludes to possibilities that are not true. It would be

easy to see how a misinterpretation of this graph would imply that the Green Hill Zone object

could connect to the Invincibility object, and then go to the Marble Zone object. This path is not


31

possible as we know from the RTGSG. It is important to remember that the MORG shows

relationships, among the objects, not possible orders of experience. This illustrates why both

types of scores are important in analytical discussion about game music, each providing

different types of information to the analysis.


32

Chapter V

Form of Game Music

Though there are many different types of video games, from action, adventure, and

role-playing games to sports, fighting, and puzzle games, their fundamental score structures can

be compared to uncover similarities behind different game scores. In this chapter, we will only

look at RTGSGs when discussing form, since MORGs do not represent how the music is

presented in the game environment. Form is an accurate representation of how music is

experienced in a game. Though there is no clear separation of fundamental structure types in

game scores, in this chapter I will present a number of different kinds of forms encountered in

analyzing game scores.

Reduction in Real-Time Game Score Graphs

To obtain the underlying form, we have to utilize some basic reduction principles.

Instead of removing non-essential chords and prolonging harmonies, which is the standard for

analytical reduction in music, we will be removing non-essential music objects to uncover a

games fundamental form. For example, take Figure 5.1.


33

Figure 5.1: Sample Real-Time Score Graph Excerpt

It is very common to have a looping background object that is present throughout a

section of the game, and to have this object occasionally interrupted with event-triggered

objects, either looping or non-looping. These objects return to the ever-present background

object when they end or the event that triggered the object ends. In theory, some video games

can be played without any of these event-triggered objects occurring, if the player avoids them.

While these musical objects may be avoided, the background objects cannot be avoided. These

event-triggered objects are superseded by the more prevalent background objects. We can

then reduce this graph down to just the background objects, as shown in Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2: Reduction of Figure 5.1

This reveals the core musical components of a game score graph and will uncover the

fundamental structure of a game score.


34

Linear Forms

As mentioned previously, one way in which video game music is interesting is in its non-

linearity. Every game has some aspect of non-linearity, but many games exhibit an underlying

linear fundamental structure. A linear video game score occurs in a defined sequence. Level by

level, and event by event, the game has only one course to follow, and the major musical

objects can only occur in a fixed order.

One such game is Star Wars: The Force Unleashed (LucasArts, 2008) for Xbox 360,

Playstation 3, Playstation 2, Wii, Playstation Portable, and Nintendo DS. It was developed by

LucasArts, lead by Haden Blackman. The score was composed by Mark Griskey, and supervised

by Jesse Harlin, based on themes developed by John Williams. This section will reference the

game developed for Playstation 3, though all releases are similar.

Star Wars: The Force Unleashed (hereafter referred to as Force Unleashed) is an action

game where the player assumes control of Darth Vaders secret apprentice, Starkiller. As

Starkiller, the player proceeds through each level, destroying all enemies that come along. The

game proceeds through ten separate missions, each of which is bridged with a cinematic cut

scene that advances the story of the game.


35

Figure 5.3: Star Wars: The Force Unleashed RTGSG Reduction

As we noted in the games construction, the levels progress one after another with no

flexibility to the order and no choosing one level over another.31

While unpredictable game

elements such as the length a character stays in an area and the time certain game events take

place are still variable, the overall form of the game is a linear pattern. This graph shows that

after each level, a cut scene occurs, propelling the action into the next level and next music

object. These cut scenes are of a fixed length with a fixed music object.

31

It is possible to go to a previously completed level from the menu screen, but this requires all forward

motion in the game to stop. The game is designed to play out in a linear narrative, therefore this ability to

go back to previous worlds is not placed in the graph. Furthermore, the menu system in the game is void

of music, so transition to a previous world is not musically interesting because the silence that spans the

music objects is enough to make the transition analytically trivial.


36

Branching Forms: A Linear Subset

A type of linear form that is more diverse is a branching form. This form has a clear

beginning and end, but instead of one straight path there are multiple paths that branch off and

converge at different points throughout the game. An example of this form is given in Figure

5.4. While in this example, the player might have to visit all ten areas before completing the

game, the player must travel through various paths in the game to reach each location. The

music objects are not connected through any one object but branch out in several paths.

Though the composer might choose to utilize the same music object for different areas, a Real-

Time score graph must be representative of the order in which the objects are encountered. In

a Branching Form, the same object can be used frequently throughout, but the lack of a central

connecting area on the game map prohibits the graph from linking these areas together.

Figure 5.4: Example of a Branching Form


37

Pokmon (Nintendo, 1996), a game that spawned television shows, comic books,

collectible card games, and over twenty different video games, is a very popular version of this

game score form. Pokmon was released in Japan in 1996 and in North America in 1998. It was

conceived of and directed by Satoshi Taijri with music composed by Junichi Masuda. The player

controls the lead character in a Birds-eye view adventure, traveling through towns, caves, and

routes capturing Pokmon (player-controllable monsters) to battle other characters monsters.

The ultimate goal is to defeat eight gym leaders in order to gain access to the final area, Victory

Road, where the player faces the final battles of the game.

Figure 5.5 represents the branching form as it exists in Pokmon.32

Just after the

beginning, there is a branch from Viridian City going to Route 2 and Route 22. Though Route 22

takes the player to the final areas of the game, they are not accessible until first going through

all the other areas. I consider this type of form a subset of linear, because it has some of the

same qualities. The player must go through a particular set of music objects in order to reach a

goal. However, the difference in this form is that the order in which the player experiences each

music object is flexible, depending on the path that is chosen. Once all the paths are unlocked,

the player has freedom to wander the game world, but must experience the music objects in the

set orders defined by the branching paths.

32

The underground passageways that connect different musical objects through various caves have been

omitted in order to simplify the graph.


38

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Figure 5.5: Background RTGSG of Pokmon

Centric Forms

Linear forms are very common in games from the 8-bit era, but are less common now.

One of the most common form types that exists in video games, especially quest-based games

(action, role-playing, and adventure games) are centric forms. These forms resemble bicycle

spokes, where the entire game revolves around a single music object. This object is usually an


39

Overworld map or a menu system which is connected to the games other areas. Figure 5.6

shows a general example of a centric form score.

Figure 5.6: Example of a Centric Form

Centric forms can have other embedded centricities, but generally fall back to a single

object that serves as a main crossroads for the game. For example, in Figure 5.6, Area 4 object

is centric to the Area 5 object and the Town object, but the Area 4 object is centric to the Centric

object along with Area 1, 2, 3 and 6. The most important thing to note about this form is that

the centric object is directly connected to numerous other objects that exist in the game. The

analyst can then look at the various connections and see what the relationship of this central

object is to all the others connected to it, and how the game composer creates a sense of

connection and unity throughout the game.


40

Figure 5.7: Background RTGSG of Super Mario Galaxy

Super Mario Galaxy (Nintendo, 2007) is a prime example of a centric form. Published by

Nintendo for the Wii system, this game was designed by Yoshiaki Koizumi with music by Mahito

Yokota and Koji Kondo. The player controls the protagonist, Mario, in a three-dimensional

platform game in a quest to collect power stars.

Figure 5.7 shows the background RTGSG of Mario Galaxy. All the worlds in which Mario

travels to are connected to the Comet Observatory in the center of the graph. He then can

enter one of six hub areas to access the different galaxies in the game. The Comet Observatory

object serves as the centric object in this game. This is connected to each of the six hub objects

as well as twelve levels that are directly connected to the Comet Observatory. The Six hub

objects are each connected to four or five different levels, or galaxies, each with their own

unique object. Interestingly in this game, the Hub object is actually the same for each hub. The


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Hub object is an ametric, atonal, ethereal object that destroys any sense of tonality from the

Comet Observatory, allowing the connecting level objects to transition into various keys without

regard for the Comet Observatory object.

Compound Forms

Some games have more complex structures that can be classified as combinations of the

forms listed above. I will present two such games here, The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past

(Nintendo, 1991) and Super Mario Bros. 3 (Nintendo, 1988). Each of these games can be

expressed as a compound form. The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past has two parallel centric

structures connected only at a couple of points, while Super Mario Bros. 3 has multiple centric

structures imbedded in a larger linear framework.

The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past (hereafter referred to as Link to the Past) was

published by Nintendo for their Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES). Produced by

Shigeru Miyamoto with music by Koji Kondo, A Link to the Past is a Birds-eye view adventure

game where the player controls the main character Link on a quest to rescue Princess Zelda.

The quest involves traveling across the light world of Hyrule to three dungeons to gain access to

the Master Sword, the only item that can defeat the evil wizard. Upon defeat, the wizard sends

Link to the dark world, a parallel version of the light world, where he must travel to seven more

dungeons to gain the power to seal away the evil Ganon. Travel between the dark world and

the light world is limited.


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Figure 5.8: Background RTGSG of The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past

Figure 5.8 shows an extremely reduced version of the Link to the Past, highlighting the

overall dual structure. Each world has its own centric structure around the Light World object

on the left, and the Dark World object on the right. Since the map of the Light World and Dark

World are parallel to each other, there are many similarities between the objects. For example,

the Caves, Fairy Fountain, and Houses objects are the same in each world. The Light World and

Dark World dungeons each have their own music object, but are mirrored in the structure.

However, these two centric structures are only connected between the Light World and Dark

World objects, through the Warp object. This creates an overall dual-centric structure, where

two separate centric structures function independently of each other, but are connected at

some level between a small number of objects

Super Mario Bros. 3 (hereafter referred to as Mario 3), was also published by Nintendo,

designed by Shigeur Miyamoto, and has music composed by Koji Kondo. It was originally

released for the Nintendo Entertainment System (Famicom in Japan) in 1988. Like other games

in the series, the player controls the protagonist Mario through a platforming adventure. This

game is two dimensional and the action is side-scrolling.


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Figure 5.9: Background RTGSG - Levels 1 and 2 of Super Mario Bros. 3

Figure 5.9 is a background RTGSG of the opening levels of Mario 3. After the opening

sequence, Mario starts out on the world one map which is connected to several different levels,

castles, and other surprise objects, each with their own music object. Once Mario has defeated

the Koopas Air Ship, he is then taken to the next world. This sequence is continued until

reaching World Eight, defeating the final boss King Koopa, and saving Princess Peach. Each

world is a centric structure, linking the brief world object to the music objects contained in each

of the levels. Though each world object is a centric form, the worlds connect to form an overall

linear progression from beginning to end.

We can even take this form one step further and add in the warp aspect to our graph. If

the player obtains the whistle object, a secret found in some of the levels, he can travel to

World 9, the warp world, and take a shortcut to a future level. This then would create a

branching form, where multiple paths could be taken to reach the same goal. However, in this

game, if the warp is taken, the player cannot go back to a previously visited level, unlike the

branching form explored in Pokmon.

These are just some of the primary forms that exist in video game scores. Different

genres of video games may exhibit other types of forms, but most games will fall into either a

Linear or Branching model, or a combination of the two. Understanding a games form can help


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discuss similarities between the construction of different video games. Within the analysis of a

single game, the form can help shape the MORG of the game, and give us reference to an

analytical approach. A background linear form will lead to a background analysis similar to

diagramming the tonal scheme of a symphony, as the action happens along one directional

plane (either forwards or backwards). A background centric score will encourage an analysis

that focuses on networks and multiple simultaneous relationships. Both types will be explored

in the next chapter.


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Chapter VI

Form and Analysis: Using Game Score Graphs as a Tool for Game Score Analysis

Up to this point, I have discussed various methods of score construction and possible

forms of video game scores. Using these ideas and techniques, I will examine three different

games in depth, showing how the models discussed in this thesis are important in the analysis of

video game scores. I will also show how analysis of the entire score can yield interesting

information about narrative aspects of that particular game.

The games chosen for this analysis are all from the Nintendo Entertainment System

(NES). Aside from my familiarity with this system, these games have been chosen because they

provide scores that are small enough to map and discuss in detail within the scope of this thesis.

They will allow me to take a look at entire game scores, not just small areas or the reduced

forms explored in the previous chapter. As mentioned in Chapter 2, the NES was only capable of

four simultaneous sounds. Three of these sounds were pitched and one was unpitched, used

for sound effects or percussion. However, even with these limitations, the games I will be

exploring here have incredible variety.

The analysis of Super Mario Bros. (Nintendo, 1985) will present a basic analysis of a

simple linear game score, and explore the benefits of the RTGSG and MORG. The Legend of

Zelda analysis will explore the narrative connections uncovered through the examination of an

entire game score. Lastly, Final Fantasy (Nintendo, 1987) will show how illustrating the

re

Brame Jason Thesis-libre

Documents

music approved

music theory

dice music

history of video game

video games score

moment form

michael berry chair

graduate school