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Abstract High-performance driver assistance systems are already
helping drivers reach their destinations more safely and
comfortably. In the future, these systems will be able to analyze
ever more complex traffic situations and act either independently
or by supporting the driver. With each innovation, we move a step
closer to the goal of accident-free and fully-automated driving.
Future systems will evolve from “driver assistance” to fully
automated driving, completely piloting a vehicle through highways
and urban environments. With an increasing level of automation,
automated functions will reduce the driver’s burden more and more,
thereby creating space for productivity, communication or
entertainment while driving. Bosch is developing technologies for
an intelligent forward thinking vehicle—making the vision of injury
and accident-free driving a reality. Automated driving will
synchronize traffic flow, reducing travel times and fuel
consumption. It reduces the driver’s burden by taking over
dedicated driving tasks—in line with each individual’s
needs—allowing all age ranges to be mobile and safe. Automated
driving will allow the vehicle to become a part of the driver’s
inter-connected home and work life, making time spent on the road
more productive and eventful. Bosch is developing holistic mobility
concepts and services, paving the way for personalized
environmentally friendly travel.
Keywords Automated driving • Driver assistance •
Autonomous driving • Radar • Video • Bosch
Bosch’s Vision and Roadmap Toward Fully Autonomous Driving
Jan Becker, Maria-Belen Aranda Colas, Stefan Nordbruch and
Michael Fausten
G. Meyer and S. Beiker (eds.), Road Vehicle Automation, Lecture
Notes in Mobility,
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-05990-7_5, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
J. Becker (*)
Robert Bosch LLC, 4005 Miranda Ave, Suite 200, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USAe-mail: [email protected]
M.-B. A. Colas · S. Nordbruch · M. Fausten
Robert Bosch GmbH, Robert-Bosch-Allee 1, 74232 Abstatt, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
S. Nordbruch e-mail: [email protected]
M. Fausten e-mail: [email protected]
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50 J. Becker et al.
1 Introduction
Capable driver assistance systems are already helping drivers to
reach their des-tination more safely and comfortably. In the
future, these systems will be able to recognize ever more complex
traffic situations and to help drivers even more—or act
independently. Bosch is developing a variety of pioneering driver
assistance systems, and each innovation is bringing accident-free,
automated driving a step closer. Reaching this goal will change the
very nature of mobility itself. There will be fewer traffic jams,
lower emissions, and fewer accidents. Instead of steering the
vehicle ourselves, we will be able to relax and flip through a
newspaper, prepare for a meeting, or read our emails. The dream of
the driverless car is soon set to become a reality—the technical
basis for it is very much in place.
1.1 Distinction Between Driver Assistance and Automated
Driving
Automated driving is distinguished from driver assistance
primarily through the role of the driver, and more specifically,
through the involvement of the driver. Driver assistance systems
including partially automated systems require the driver to
constantly monitor the environment and to be instantaneously
available to take back control from the vehicle. Automated driving
systems will allow the driver to be completely out of the loop. If
the driver is out of the loop, a
signifi-cant amount of time may be required to return vehicle control
to the driver. This challenge leads to relevant implications on the
design of the automated driving system: the automated system has
to make decisions in all situations and cannot rely on the driver
to take back responsibility instantly. The shift from minimizing
false interventions (i.e. false positives) to optimizing overall
system performance, redundancy and reliability, constitutes a
paradigm change for vehicle systems development.
1.2 The History of Automated Driving
The idea of self-driving cars is almost as old as the car
itself. GM’s vision for the future of transportation at the
1939 World’s Fair in New York already included driverless cars.
The idea remained popular in research, media, fiction and
adver-tisement. Arguably, the first real automated vehicle was built in 1977 by Tsukuba Mechanical
Engineering Lab in Japan, which was able to track white street
mark-ers and maintain velocity to achieve speeds up to 30
kph. In the 1980s, Prof. Dickmanns’s group at
the UniBW Munich developed one of the first automated vehicles
travelling at highway speeds by controlling steering wheel,
throttle,
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51Bosch’s Vision and Roadmap Toward Fully Autonomous Driving
and brakes through computer commands based on real-time
evaluation of image sequences. The Eureka PROMETHEUS Project
(PROgraMme for a
European Traffic of Highest Efficiency and Unprecedented Safety, 1987–1995) was the larg-est R&D project so far in the field of driverless cars and several cars demonstrated automated
driving during the final presentation in October 1994
on Autoroute 1 near the Charles-de-Gaulle airport in Paris.
Since 1984, Carnegie Mellon University’s Navlab program
developed a total of eleven automated research vehicles, with
a highlight of the program being the “No Hands Across America”
drive in 1995, in which two researchers drove 3,000 miles
across the US with the vehicle steering itself 98 % of the
time. In 1991,
the United States Congress passed the ISTEA Transportation Authorization bill, which instructed USDOT to “demonstrate
an automated vehicle and highway system by 1997.” The
research culminated in a final demonstration in 1997 on I-15
in San Diego, California,
in which about 20 automated vehicles, including cars, buses, and trucks, were dem-onstrated
to thousands of onlookers, attracting extensive media coverage. In
the
2000s, DARPA organized a total of 3 challenges for autonomous and completely driverless
vehicles. While no vehicles finished the first race in
2004,
Stanford University’s Stanley won the 2005 DARPA Grand Challenge, which lasted 212 km across
the Nevada desert. The 2007 DARPA Urban Challenge moved the
com-petition into an urban environment with intersections and other
moving vehicles,
and was won by Carnegie Mellon University’s autonomous vehicle. The series of challenges
was able to show that advances in enabling technologies such as
com-puting, sensing, networking and connectivity finally enabled
automated street vehicles. This marked a milestone at which the
focus moved from academic research to industrial research. Bosch,
as the leading automotive supplier, is at the spearhead of this
development.
1.3 Forecasts
Recently a number of technology and market forecast have dealt
with the topic of automated driving. KPMG [6] expects reduction of
crashes, reduced need for new road infrastructure, productivity
improvement and improved energy efficiency, new business models as
well as vehicle ownership models. IEEE members have selected
autonomous vehicles as the most promising form of intelligent
transportation,
antici-pating that they will account for up to 75 % of cars on the road by the year 2040 [3].
ABI Research [1] predicts that fully autonomous, self-driving,
robotic vehicles will
start appearing between 10 and 15 years from now and that 10 million such new cars would be rolling out on to United States’ public highways every year by 2032. Wired Magazine forecasts that driver’s licenses will not be required anymore after 2040 [7].
PricewaterhouseCoopers forecasts a reduction of traffic accidents by a factor of 10, a reduction of wasted time/fuel in congestion also by a factor of 10, and it concludes that the fleet of vehicles in the US would collapse from 245 to 2.4 million with the complete introduction of autonomous vehicles [4].
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52 J. Becker et al.
2 Bosch’s Vision for Automated Driving
Bosch has been active in the research programs for automated
driving since the
1990s and has participated with Stanford University’s team in
the 2007 DARPA Urban Challenge. Since 2011, Bosch is
developing technologies specifically
for fully automated vehicles, and has since then showcased the technology at the 2013 IAA (Frankfurt Motor Show), the 2013 Transportation Research Board Workshop on Road Vehicle Automation at Stanford University, and in a video [8].
Bosch’s vision is an intelligent forward thinking vehicle—making
the vision of injury and accident-free driving reality. Automated
driving of the future will synchro-nize traffic flow to reduce
travel times and fuel consumption. It diminishes the load on the
driver by taking over dedicated driving tasks—in line with each
individual’s needs—allowing all age ranges to be mobile and safe.
Automated driving allows the vehicle to become a part of the
driver’s interconnected home and work life, making time spent on
the road more productive and eventful. Bosch is set to develop
holistic mobility concepts and services, paving the way for
personalized environmentally friendly travel.
3 Motivation
Automated Driving is a key enabling technology for increased efficiency, comfort and safety. More than 90 % of all accidents are at least partly caused by human error. The Texas Transportation
Institute estimates that in 2011, congestion
in 498 metropolitan areas caused urban Americans to travel 5.5 billion hours more and to purchase an extra 2.9 billion gallons of fuel for a total congestion cost of $121 billion [5].
Increased vehicle automation still leaves plenty of room for
driving pleasure. Figure 1 shows situations where automation can
assist overwhelmed or under-stimulated drivers through accident
avoidance or assistance functions. In situations
Fig. 1 Focus of vehicle automation during different driving
tasks
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53Bosch’s Vision and Roadmap Toward Fully Autonomous Driving
where the driver enjoys active driving, systems may offer
information to the driver. In situations where the driver would
much rather sit back and be productive, com-municate or relax and
consume media, vehicle automation can relieve the driver of tedious
driving tasks and take over control.
4 Roadmap for Automated Driving
4.1 From Driver Assistance to Automated Driving
The introduction of automated driving will happen in several
steps (Fig. 2). Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) has been on the
market for over a decade. Advanced assistance functions such
as Predictive Emergency Braking
Systems, Lane Departure Warning and Lane Keeping Support
(LKS) help
to prevent acci-dents or reduce their consequences. However,
these well-used assistance systems require permanent driver supervision. The architecture of today’s vehicle relies on the
driver as a backup in case of system failure.
4.2 Partially Automated Driving
As a next step in driver assistance, Adaptive Cruise Control and
Lane Keeping Support will be combined into Integrated Cruise Assist
providing longitudinal and lateral guidance within one assistance
system, see Fig. 3. This system will be based
Fig. 2 Bosch’s roadmap for automated driving
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54 J. Becker et al.
on a radar sensor for longitudinal guidance and a monocular
video camera for lateral
guidance. Automated lane changes with driver confirmation will
require additional mid-range radar sensors for surround sensing.
Speed may be adapted based on
vis-ual road sign recognition. Partially Automated Systems will still require permanent supervision
by the driver and the availability of the driver as a backup.
4.3 Highly and Fully Automated Driving
The step from partially automated to highly automated driving
will be significant. The driver will be enabled to focus on other
tasks while driving, and will be able to communicate, watch a movie
or spend the time in the vehicle productively. We envision the
introduction of these systems initially on highways. The Highway
Pilot (Fig. 4) will start on the highway upon driver
request and system confir-mation. The vehicle will center itself
within the lane and will maintain complete awareness of the
environment through a number of sensors for environmental
per-ception. The vehicle will control its trajectory via automated
steering interventions as well as automated longitudinal control.
The vehicle may automatically change lanes when appropriate. The
technical challenges and key technologies for highly automated
driving vehicles are highlighted in the following section.
Fully automated vehicles will be able to assume the complete
driving task including all the speed ranges and under all
environmental conditions manageable
by a human driver. This level of automation is currently seen more than 10 years in
the future due to the significantly higher scene complexity to be
encountered.
Fig. 3 Integrated cruise assist combining longitudinal and
lateral assistance for partially auto-mated driving
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55Bosch’s Vision and Roadmap Toward Fully Autonomous Driving
In the meantime, Bosch is developing additional functions to
assist the driver
also in low-speed situations such as parking and maneuvering. With Park Distance Control
and Park Steering Control already being on the market, higher
levels of parking automation will be introduced step by step. The
highest level of parking automation will be automated valet
parking.
5 Key Technologies for Automated Driving
Many key technologies for automated driving still
require substantial research and development (Fig. 5). Without
using the human driver as a fallback system, an automated vehicle
has to decide on the best course of action in all situations
encountered within the defined range of the function with highest
reliability. Monitoring the driver and communicating vehicle
intention will push HMI beyond the state of the art for existing
driver assistance systems.Surround sensing will require a
combination of multiple sensors including
radar and video sensors to generate a reliable and
comprehensive 360° environ-ment model of the vehicle environment.
This will be supplemented by information
from other vehicles (V2V communication), infrastructure (V2I communication) or a
back-end server depending on availability. In addition the vehicle
will get up-to-date map information from an online
server.Perception, also called sensor data fusion, is
comprised of the processing of
data from all sensors to a common sensor-independent description
of the vehicle environment. Bosch is developing a probabilistic
grid representation, where the vehicle environment is modeled as a
grid of cells. Sensor measurements estimate
Fig. 4 Highway pilot
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56 J. Becker et al.
the probability that each cell is unknown, blocked or
traversable. This “occupancy grid” technology was developed for
indoor robots, and Bosch has extended this technology to automotive
applications by incorporating object velocity measure-ments and
additional contextual information.
Localization is defined as estimating the position and
orientation of the ego-vehicle for positioning in the lane
and on the roadway. Localization
require-ments for automated driving depend on
the respective use case: highway driving requires accurate lateral localization within the lane, while accuracy requirements are
relieved longitudinally due to larger curve radii on
highways. Requirements in urban environments are equally high
laterally and longitudinally due to
small curve radii encountered. Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GPS, etc.) are used for
absolute positioning on the earth with an accuracy of several
meters, and are therefore not yet accurate enough to determine the
lane in which the vehicle is positioned. Improvement to
centimeter-level precision is achieved by correlation of sensor
data with prerecorded maps. These maps may be stored on an online
server and transmitted to the vehicle.
An automated driving vehicle needs to handle all situations
within its func-tional scope. Driver assistance systems are
typically designed and optimized for certain scenarios and often
use rules to makes decision based on the detected scenarios.
Automated vehicles must make reliable decisions in all scenarios
and Bosch therefore use continuous decision making to cover the
complete continuous spectrum of possible situations in road
traffic.Automated vehicles require combined lateral and longitudinal motion control to
also ensure the desired position over time. Unlike the current generation of driver assistance
systems, our control algorithms use coupled lateral and
longitudinal control for improved
performance.Another major change in automated driving systems will be in the ECU architec-
ture. The E/E-architecture of automated vehicles will change from a fail-safe archi-tecture
as seen in current driver assistance systems (with the driver being
available as a redundant backup), to a fail-operational
architecture, which must maintain basic
functionality in a failure situation and even without a driver
in the loop. ECUs for automated driving will
require significantly increased computational
resources and connectivity while fulfilling highest automotive safety requirements.
Actuation systems for automated driving will be highly reliable,
which may be
achieved through redundancy. Bosch is in the unique position to have to alternative brake actuation systems with ESP and iBooster, which can be combined into one fail-operational
system for automated driving.
The interaction of the human driver with the automated system
will be most relevant when it comes to the “handover” between
manual driving and automated driving. The vehicle must monitor the
driver’s position to take back control from the vehicle and must
also ensure that the driver has taken back control. In case the
driver fails to respond to a takeover request, the vehicle must be capable of bring-ing
itself into a safe state. The execution of the safe state
transition depends on the specific driving situation and may
include changing to the emergency lane to come to a controlled stop
or may result into a gradual slow down on the existing lane.
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57Bosch’s Vision and Roadmap Toward Fully Autonomous Driving
6 Test and Application
Bosch is testing automated driving on roads in Germany and in the USA [2,
8], see Figs 6 and 7. The goal is to use everyday driving
situations to put the cars to the test and to improve them. In
order to ensure safety during the development pro-cess, Bosch’s
safety concept was reviewed and confirmed by the German
certifica-tion organization TÜV Süd.In
total, over 5,000 engineers work at Bosch
to develop safety and assistance
systems which form the foundation for automated driving. A
project team dedi-cated exclusively to automated driving is now
working to safely integrate these future functions with a car’s
sensors, control units, and actuators to form a unified
system. They are working toward this goal in two places: in Palo Alto, California, engineers
are driving the development of functions, while systems integration
is being done in Abstatt, near Stuttgart in Germany.
7 Conclusions
Bosch is convinced that Automated Driving is becoming a
reality and will offer benefits for safe, relaxed and economical
driving. We expect a stepwise intro-duction of automated driving
starting with increased levels of automation on the
highway. The first highly automated driving function will be a Highway Pilot. The trend
towards Automated Driving is generating new technical
challenges for the sensors, algorithms, actuators as well as
the E/E-architecture of future vehicles. Bosch is developing
automated highway driving functions in dedicated project
Fig. 5 Key technologies for automated driving
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58 J. Becker et al.
Fig. 6 Bosch test vehicle brings highly automated driving to the
Autobahn
Fig. 7 A Bosch engineer supervising an automated vehicle test
drive. The safety concept
worked up for the test campaign was tested and approved by TÜV Süd. [2]
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59Bosch’s Vision and Roadmap Toward Fully Autonomous Driving
teams in Abstatt, Germany and Palo Alto, USA. These
teams are continuously testing automated vehicles on the German
Autobahn as well as on highways in California and Michigan.
References
1. ABIresearch, Autonomous Vehicles, Q3/2013.
https://www.abiresearch.com/research/product/1016486-autonomous-vehicles/
2. Bosch Media Service (2013) Automated driving Bosch carries out tests on German roads, May 2013. http://www.bosch-presse.de/presseforum/details.htm?txtID=6235&locale=en
3. IEEE News Release, 9/2/2012. http://www.ieee.org/about/news/2012/5september_2_2012.html
4. PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP (2013) Analyst Note, Autofacts,
Look Mom, No Hands!, Feb 2013.
http://emarketing.pwc.com/reaction/images/AutofactsAnalystNoteUS%28Feb2013%29FINAL.pdf
5. Schrank D, Eisele B, Lomax T (2012) Annual urban
mobility report, Texas A&M Transportation Institute.
http://mobility.tamu.edu/ums/
6. Silberg G et al (2013) Self-driving cars: the next
revolution, 16 Jan
2013. http://www.kpmg.com/US/en/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesPublications/Documents/self-driving-cars-next-revolution.pdf
7. Wired Magazine (2012) Let the robot drive: the
autonomous car of the future is here,
Feb 2012. http://www.wired.com/magazine/2012/01/ff_autonomouscars/
8. Youtube (2013) Bosch automated driving, Published on
22 Jan 2013. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0D0ZN2tPihQ
https://www.abiresearch.com/research/product/1016486-autonomous-vehicles/https://www.abiresearch.com/research/product/1016486-autonomous-vehicles/http://www.bosch-presse.de/presseforum/details.htm?txtID=6235&locale=enhttp://www.ieee.org/about/news/2012/5september_2_2012.htmlhttp://www.ieee.org/about/news/2012/5september_2_2012.htmlhttp://emarketing.pwc.com/reaction/images/AutofactsAnalystNoteUS%28Feb2013%29FINAL.pdfhttp://emarketing.pwc.com/reaction/images/AutofactsAnalystNoteUS%28Feb2013%29FINAL.pdfhttp://mobility.tamu.edu/ums/http://www.kpmg.com/US/en/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesPublications/Documents/self-driving-cars-next-revolution.pdfhttp://www.kpmg.com/US/en/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesPublications/Documents/self-driving-cars-next-revolution.pdfhttp://www.wired.com/magazine/2012/01/ff_autonomouscars/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0D0ZN2tPihQhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0D0ZN2tPihQ
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Bosch’s Vision and Roadmap Toward Fully Autonomous Driving
Abstract 1 Introduction1.1 Distinction Between Driver Assistance
and Automated Driving1.2 The History of Automated Driving1.3
Forecasts
2 Bosch’s Vision for Automated Driving3 Motivation4 Roadmap for
Automated Driving4.1 From Driver Assistance to Automated Driving4.2
Partially Automated Driving4.3 Highly and Fully Automated
Driving
5 Key Technologies for Automated Driving6 Test and Application7
ConclusionsReferences