book

1

Notes

Introduction

1. Peter Kilborn, “Solid Jobs Seem to Vanish Despite Signs of Recovery,” New York Times, December 26, 1992.2. As quoted in Peter Kilborn, “New Jobs Lack the Old Security in a Time of ‘Disposable Workers,’ ” New York Times, March 15, 1993.3. “All Things Considered,” National Public Radio, March 5, 1993.4. Barry Bluestone and Bennett Harrison, The Deindustrialization of America (New York: Basic Books, 1982), 25-26.5. Wassily Leontief and Faye Duchin, The Future Impact of Automation on Workers (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); for statistics on unemployment in the steel industry see David Bensman and Roberta Lynch, Rusted Dreams: Hard Times in a Steel Community (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 3.6. “America Rushes to High-Tech for Growth,” Business Week, March 28, 1983.7. Karen Pennar, “The Productivity Paradox: Why the Payoff from Automation Is Still So Elusive—And What Corporate America Can Do about It,” Business Week, June 6, 1988.8. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor Review 108, no. 11 (November 1985).9. Michael J. Piore and Charles F. Sabel, The Second Industrial Divide: Possibilities for Prosperity (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 251-80.

1. The New Knowledge Work

1. Steve Lohn, “Top IBM Issue: How, Not Who,” New York Times, March 25, 1993.2. The concept of human capital in its classic enunciation is in Gary Becker, Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference to Education (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964). Building on the work of T. W. Schultz, Becker argues that the growth of physical capital (machinery, buildings, and so forth) accounts for “a relatively small part of the growth of income” when compared to “education and skills.” Hence his argument that education, which, presumably, upgrades skills and knowledge, is crucial for growth policies.

2

3. The words used by the secretary of labor after the Bureau of Labor Statistics reported an increase of 365,000 jobs in February 1993 (New York Times, March 24, 1993).4. William DiFazio, Longshoremen: Community and Resistance on the Brooklyn Waterfront (South Hadley, Mass.: Bergin and Garvey, 1985).5. See chapter 10 for a fuller discussion of this point.6. Phillip K. Dick, The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch (London: Jonathan Cape and Granada Books, 1978). First published in 1964, Dick’s novel foreshadows the development of virtual reality technology, linking it to a future when most people can no longer live on Earth but are afforded the means to simulate a life on this planet from a position somewhere in the galaxy.7. Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World System (New York: Academic Press, 1974). Building on the work of “dependency” theorists such as Giovanni Arrighi, Cardozo and Faetto, Andre Gunder Frank, and, especially, the Annales school of French historiography (Braudel, Lucien Febvre), Wallerstein demonstrates that, since the sixteenth century, capitalism has been a global system, albeit one of unequal exchange.8. In 1992, Indian engineers and computer scientists emerged as world-class players in high-tech design. American and European corporations began letting contracts to Bombay- and Delhi-based software firms.9. Karl Marx, Grundrisse (New York, Vintage, 1973), 701-5.10. In the United States, nearly 70 percent of women had entered the labor force by 1990. In recent years, many have been able to obtain only part-time jobs.11. Stanley Aronowitz, False Promises: The Shaping of American Working Class Consciousness, with a new introduction and epilogue (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1992 [1973]); Working Class Hero (New York: Pilgrim, 1983).12. Beth Sims, Workers of the World Undermined American Labor’s Role in U.S. Foreign Policy (Boston: South End Press, 1992). For an earlier study of this question, see also Ronald Radosh, U.S. Labor and American Foreign Policy (New York: Random House, 1971).13. Wall Street journal, March 9, 1992.14. Martin Sklar, “On the Proletarian Revolution and the End of Political-Economic Society,” Radical America, June 1969. This remarkable article provides a theory, from the perspective of political economy, of the end of real capital accumulation. According to Sklar, the major tendency of contemporary advanced capitalist societies was toward an overaccumulation of capital; thus, the task of investment is to get rid of this surfeit, to disaccumulate capital. Hence advertising, the production of waste in the form of planned obsolescence, the proliferation of “services,” and, of course, in the United States, massive military expenditures.15. Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974).16. E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Knopf, 1963).17. Frederick Winslow Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management (New York: Norton, 1967 [1911]); Lillian Gilbreth, The Homemaker and Her Job (New York: Appleton, 1927). Gilbreth’s book is an application to “women’s work,” more specifically the work of the “mother” who must provide a “place of rest” by making invisible the myriad household tasks, of the principles of scientific management developed with her husband, Frank, and Taylor.18. Christian Palloix, “From Fordism to Neo-Fordism,” in The Labour Process and Class Strategies (London: Conference of Socialist Economists, 1976); Bernard Doray, From Taylorism to Fordism, trans. David Macey (London: Free Association Books, 1988).19. Michel Aglietta, A Theory of Capitalist Regulation, trans. David Fernbach (London: New Left Books, 1976).

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20. Sidney Pollard, The Genesis of Modern Management (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965); Daniel Nelson, Managers and Workers (Madison: University of Wis-consin Press, 1975).21. Alvin Toffler, The Third Wave (London: William Collins, 1980); Jacques Attali, Millennium: Winners and Losers in the Coming World Order (New York: Random House, 1991).22. Mark Poster, The Mode of Information (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1990).23. Martin Heidegger, The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays (New York: Harper & Row, 1979).24. For an extraordinary account of the sociology of industrial accidents, see Tom Dwyer, Life and Death at Work: Industrial Accidents as a Case of Socially Produced Error (New York: Plenum, 1991). For the transformation of American industrial relations, see Kochan, Katz, and McKersie, The Transformation of American Industrial Relations (New York: Basic Books, 1986).25. Anthony Hyman, Charles Babbage: Pioneer of the Computer (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982).26. Joseph Agassi, Faraday as a Natural Philosopher (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971).27. David F. Noble, America by Design: Science, Technology and the Rise of Corporate Capitalism (New York: Knopf, 1977).28. Martin Kenney, Bio-Technology: The University-Industrial Complex (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1986).29. Alfred Sohn-Rethel, Intellectual and Manual Labour (London: Macmillan, 1977).30. Marx, Grundrisse, 699.31. John Dewey, The Public and Its Problems, in Collected Works of John Dewey, vol. 1, Later Works (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1981).32. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion (1919).33. Lewis Corey, The Crisis of the Middle Class (New York: Covici Friede, 1936); James Burnham, The Managerial Revolution: What’s Happening in the World (New York: John Day, 1940); A. A. Berle and Gardiner Means, The Modern Corporation and Private Property (New York: Macmillan, 1932).34. Steve J. Heims, John Von Neumann and Norbert Weiner (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press,

1980) , 179.

35. Ibid., 180.36. C.Wright Mills, White Collar (New York: Oxford University Press, 1951).37. C. Wright Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956); Mills, The New Men of Power (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1948).38. Daniel Bell, The Coming of Post-Industrial Society (New York: Basic Books, 1973).39. Alain Touraine, Post-Industrial Society (New York: Random House, 1971); Serge Mallet, The New Working Class (London: Spokesman, 1979); Andre Gorz, A Strategy for Labor (Boston: Beacon, 1966).40. Rudolph Hilferding, Finance Capital (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1981).41. Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man (New York: Doubleday, 1961); Ralf Dahrendorf, Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society (Palo Alto, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1957).42. Harvey Swados, “The Myth of the Happy Worker,” Nation, April 26, 1957.43. Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 1978).44. Talcott Parsons, The Social System (Glencoe, 111.: Free Press, 1951).45. Paul Willis, Learning to Labor (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981).

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2. Technoculture and the Future of Work

1. Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York: Simon Sc Schuster, 1986), 143.2. David Dickson, The New Politics of Science (New York: Pantheon, 1984), 25.3. Fritz Macchlup, Knowledge: Its Creation, Distribution and Economic Significance, vol. 1, Knowledge and Knowledge Production (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,

1980).

4. John McDermott, “Technology: The Opiate of the Intellectuals,” in Albert Teich, ed., Technology and Man’s Future, 2d ed. (New York: St. Martin’s, 1977).5. Barbara Katz Rothman, Recreating Motherhood (New York: Norton, 1989).6. Karl Marx, “Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts,” in David Fernbach, ed., Karl Marx: Early Writings (New York: Vintage, 1982).7. Herbert Marcuse, One Dimensional Man (Boston: Beacon, 1964).8. Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno, Dialectic of the Enlightenment (New York: Continuum, 1972).9. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, Anti-Oedipus (New York: Viking, 1977).10. “It is moot whether, without restoring the category of the sacred, the category most thoroughly destroyed by the scientific enlightenment, we can have an ethics able to cope with the extreme powers which we possess today and constantly increase and are almost compelled to wield” (Hans Jonas, The Imperative of Responsibility in Search of an Ethics for the Technological Age [Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1984], 23).11. This conclusion was reinforced for one of the authors during a recent conference of North and Latin American intellectuals in Mexico City on issues of knowledge. A substantial number of the papers were profoundly informed by many of the ideas of the Frankfurt school and similar views by other tendencies of European critiques of science and technology.12. Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962); Barry Commoner, The Closing Circle (New York: Pantheon, 1969); Rene Dubos, Reason Awake: Science for Man (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970).13. Walter Lippmann, The Phantom Public (1922).14. The beneficent effects of a strong military and nuclear arsenal were reinforced by the fact that many students were able to complete their undergraduate degrees only with the help of National Defense Education Act grants and the GI Bill of Rights, which also provided funds for graduate research in science. In fact, it may be argued that the rubric of “defense” became the key umbrella under which federal aid to education and to science and technological research were promulgated in the United States. Otherwise, given strong states’ rights sentiments, especially in education, Congress has been unwilling to put the federal government in the business of education and research.15. Robert Merton, The Sociology of Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), 270.16. Ibid., 278.17. Ibid., 264.18. Martin Kenney, Bio-Technology: The University-Industrial Complex (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1986).19. Andrew Pickering, Constructing Quarks (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988).20. For a fuller discussion of this point, see chapters 3 and 4 of this book.21. McDermott, Opiate, 189.22. Ibid., 198.

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23. Ibid., 201. Emphasis added.24. Marcuse, One Dimensional Man, 257.25. Ibid., 256.26. Ibid., 230-31.27. McDermott, Opiate, 198.28. Ibid., 196.29. Ibid., 194.30. Ibid., 195.31. Ibid.32. See Sheldon Krimsky, Genetic Alchemy: A Social History of the Recombinant DNA Controversy (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1982), for a detailed treatment of the Cambridge citizens’ movement against bioengineering; the ACT UP/NY Women & AIDS Book Group, Women, AIDS and Activism (Boston: South End Press, 1990). See also Gilbert Elbaz, “ACT- UP,” Ph.D. dissertation, City University of New Y ork Graduate School, 1992, perhaps the most comprehensive treatment of the successful exercise of scientific citizenship in recent U.S. history.33. The literature on the social and cultural context of scientific work is vast. See especially Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life (Los Angeles and London: Sage, 1979); Bruno Latour, Science in Action (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987); Stanley Aronowitz, Science as Power (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988).34. Constance Penley and Andrew Ross, eds., Technoculture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991).35. Herbert Dreyfus, What Computers Can’t Do (New York: Harper & Row, 1979); John Broughton, “The Surrender of Control: Computer Literacy as Political Socialization of the Child,” in Douglas Sloan, ed., The Computer in Education: A Critical Perspective (New York: Teachers College Press, 1984).36. Martin Heidegger, The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays, trans. and with an introduction by William Leavitt (New York: Harper 8c Row, 1977).37. Howard Rheingold, Virtual Reality (New York: Summit, 1991), 345.38. Ibid., 346.

3. The End of Skill?

1. The increasingly large literature on technophilia includes the following: from a cultural perspective, Constance Penley and Andrew Ross, eds., Technoculture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991); from a historical perspective, Howard P. Segal, Technological Utopianism in American Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); and from a sociological/management perspective, Shoshana Zuboff, In the Age of the Smart Machine: The Future of Work and Power (New York: Basic Books, 1988).2. There are many versions of this story. John Barnard tells it this way: “When Reuther toured a new highly automated Ford engine plant in Cleveland a company engineer taunted him with this remark: ‘You know not one of those machines pays dues to the United Automobile Workers.’ Reuther shot back: ‘And not one of them buys new Ford cars either.’” John Barnard, Walter Reuther and the Rise of the Auto Workers (Boston: Little, Brown, 1983), 154.3. Robert H. Zeiger, American Workers, American Unions, 1920-1985 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986). See chapter 5, “Affluent Workers, Stable Unions: Labor in the Postwar Decades.”4. Karl Marx, Grundrisse (New York: Vintage, 1973), 692-93, 699. Emphasis added.5. Ibid., 700.

6

6. Michael J. Piore and Charles F. Sabel, The Second Industrial Divide: Possibilities for Prosperity (New York: Basic Books, 1984).7. Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974).8. Frederick Winslow Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (New York: Norton, 1967).9. Mike Cooley, Architect or Bee? The Human-Technology Relationship (Boston: South End Press, 1980), 36.10. Ibid., 129.11. Three books that deal with Braverman’s position but take a different approach are Michael Burawoy, The Politics of Production (London: Verso, 1985); Larry Hirschhorn, Beyond Mechanization: Work and Technology in a Postindustrial Age (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1984); and Paul Thompson, The Nature of Work: An Introduction to Debates on the Labor Process (London: Macmillan, 1983).12. Paul Adler, “Technology and Us,” Socialist Review, no. 85 (January-February 1986):

82.

13. Ibid., 83.14. Paul S. Adler, “Automation, Skill and the Future of Capitalism,” Berkeley Journal of Sociology: A Critical Review 33 (1988): 3.15. Ibid., 2.16. Ibid., 33.17. Stanley Aronowitz, “Marx, Braverman, and the Logic of Capital,” in The Politics of Identity: Class, Culture, Social Movements (New York: Routledge, 1992). William DiFazio, Longshoremen: Community and Resistance on the Brooklyn Waterfront (South Hadley, Mass.: Bergin & Garvey, 1985).18. Paul S. Adler, “When Knowledge Is the Critical Resource, Knowledge Management is the Critical Task,” IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management 36, 2 (May 1989): 92.19. Adler, “Automation, Skill and the Future of Capitalism,” 33.20. “Study of New Jobs Since 79 Says Half Pay Poverty Wage,” New York Times, September 27, 1988. Frank Levy states on current income stagnation, “By 1975 median family income had fallen by $1,700. It gained most of this back by the end of 1979, but fell sharply in the 1980-82 recession and stood at $26,433 in 1984. This sudden break in trend—twenty-six years of income growth followed by twelve years of income stagnation—is the major economic story of the postwar period” (Dollars and Dreams: The Changing American Income Distribution [New York: Norton, 1988], 17).21. Bennett Harrison and Barry Bluestone, The Great U-Turn: Corporate Restructuring and the Polarizing of America (New York: Basic Books, 1990), 37-38.22. Manuel Castells, The Informational City (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989), 342.23. Harold Salzman, “Computer-Aided Design: Limitations in Automating Design and Drafting,” IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management 36, no. 4 (November 1989).24. Ibid., 255.25. Adler, “Automation, Skill and the Future of Capitalism,” 3.26. Feminist Majority Foundation, “Empowering Women in Business” (Arlington, Va.: Feminist Majority Foundation, 1991).27. John Rule, “The Property of Skill in the Period of Manufacture,” in Patrick Joyce, ed., The Historical Meanings of Work (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 108. See also Maxine Berg, The Age of Manufactures, 1700-1820 (London: Fontana, 1985).28. Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books,

7

1982) , 391.

29. Robert Gray, “The Languages of Factory Reform in Britain, c. 1830-1860,” in The Historical Meanings of Work, 150.30. Stanley Aronowitz, Science As Power (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,

1988) , 298.

31. Charles F. Sabel and Jonathan Zeitlin, “Historical Alternatives to Mass Production,” Past and Present 108 (August 1985).32. Piore and Sabel, Second Industrial Divide, 269.33. Ibid., 261.34. Ibid., 270.35. Ibid., 272.36. Erie Norton, “Future Factories: Small Flexible Plants May Play Crucial Role in U.S. Manufacturing,” Wall Street Journal, January 13, 1993.37. Ibid.38. Ibid.39. Fred Block, Postindustrial Possibilities: A Critique of Economic Discourse (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 94-103.40. Tom Forester, High-Tech Society (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1987), 172.41. Block, Postindustrial Possibilities, 101; Ramchandran Jaikumar, “Postindustrial Man-ufacturing,” Harvard Business Review 64, no. 6 (November-December 1986).42. Block, Postindustrial Possibilities, 103.43. Ibid., 94.44. David Harvey, “Flexibility: Threat or Opportunity?” Socialist Review 21, no. 1 (Janu- ary-March 1991).45. Ibid., 73. Emphasis in original.46. Sabel and Zeitlin, Piore and Sabel.47. Block, Postindustrial Possibilities, 96.48. Zuboff, In the Age of the Smart Machine, 61.49. Ibid., 397.50. Reinterpretation of Karl Marx’s ironic use of “The Law of the Tendential Fall in the Rate of Profit” in vol. 3 of Capital (New York: Vintage, 1975), 315.

4. The Computerized Engineer and Architect

1. Magali Sarfatti Larson, The Rise of Professionalism: A Sociological Analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977). The “professional” engineer who possesses not only advanced degrees but also certification from leading professional associations is the exception, not the rule, in most industrial design workplaces. Since the United States has experienced severe shortages for the past decade, the labor force in engineering, as in medicine, includes an increasing number of foreign-born professionals who are not considered qualified by U.S. asso-ciations.2. Antonio Negri, The Politics of Subversion, trans. James Newell (London: Polity Press,

1989).

3. Karl Marx, Grundrisse (New York: Vintage, 1973), 705.

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4. Stanley Aronowitz, Patricia D’Audrade, William DiFazio, et al., Time for Decision: Computer-Aided Design and the Future of the Civil Service Professional in New York City (New York: Institute on Labor and Community, August 1984), section 6, 3. Computer-aided design (CAD) is the term in general use throughout the profession. Computer-Aided Design and Drafting (CADD) was the title of the section where we began our studies of the computerization of the design work of engineers and architects in the Department of Environmental Protection in New York City. In design, traditionalists have insisted on the division between drafting and design, thus CADD. But computer-aided design has made this division unrealistic; drafting has been combined with design, making drafting redundant.5. Business Week, August 12, 1991, 61.6. Tom Forester, High-Tech Society (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1988), 210.7. Jan Forslin, Britt Marie Thulestedt, and Sven Andersson, “Computer-Aided Design: A

Case Strategy in Implementing a New Technology,” IEEE Transactions on Engineering Man-agement 36, no. 3 (August 1989): 192.

8. Paul S. Adler, “CAD/CAM: Managerial Challenges and Research Issues,” IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management 36, no. 3 (August 1989): 205-6.9. Wassily Leontief and Faye Duchin, The Future Impact of Automation on Workers (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Harley Shaiken, Work Transformed (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1984); Mike Cooley, Architect or Bee? The Human-Technology Relationship (Boston: South End Press, 1980).10. Stanley Aronowitz, William DiFazio, and Eric Lichten, Contracting Out, Computer Aided Design, Engineering and the New Jersey Department of Transportation (New York: Public Technology Study Group, 1985), section 2, 10.11. Shaiken, Work Transformed, 219-20.12. Harold Salzman, “Computer-Aided Design: Limitations in Automating Design and Drafting,” IEEE Transactions on Engineering and Management 36, no. 4 (November 1989): 255.13. Ibid., 255.14. Aronowitz et al., Time for Decision, section 1, 1-2.15. Ibid., section 6, 3.16. Michael T. Cetera, “Conference Proceedings,” GDS User Conference (Cambridge, England: King’s College, September 1988), 48-49.17. Computer Aided Drafting and Design Committee, “Pilot Project Evaluation,” prepared for the Department of Transportation, City of New York, December 1988, 31.18. Douglas F. Stoker, “The Disappearance of CAD in the ’90s,” Architectural & Engineering Systems 6, no. 1 (January 1990): 34.19. Adler, “CAD/CAM: Managerial Challenges,” 214.20. Alvin W. Gouldner, The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979).21. Eric Lichten, Class, Power and Austerity (South Hadley, Mass.: Bergin & Garvey,

1986).

22. Stanley Aronowitz, William DiFazio, and Eric Lichten, “Unions, Technology and Computer Aided Design,” in Pamela Wilson, ed., Here Comes Tomorrow: Technological Change and Its Effects on Professional, Technical and Office Employment (Washington, D.C.: Department of Professional Employees, AFL-CIO, 1988).23. Ibid., 3.

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24. Ibid., 5.25. Ibid., 8-9.26. Stephen Levy, Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution (New York: Dell, 1984).27. Seymour Papert, Mindstorms: Children, Computers and Powerful Ideas (New York: Basic Books, 1980).28. For a thorough critique of computers in education, see especially John M. Broughton, “The Surrender of Control: Computer Literacy as Political Socialization of the Child,” in Douglas Sloan, ed., Computers in Education: A Critical Perspective (New York: Teachers College Press, 1984). Also see Edmund Sullivan, “Computers, Cultures and Educational Futures: A Critical Reflective Meditation on Papert’s Mindstorms,” Toronto, Strategic Planning Documents on Computers in Education, 1983.29. As quoted in Hubert L. Dreyfus and Stuart E. Dreyfus, “Putting Computers in Their Proper Place: Analysis Versus Intuition in the Classroom,” in Computers in Education, 62.30. Walter Benjamin, “A Small History of Photography,” One Way Street (London: New Left Books, 1979).

5. The Professionalized Scientist

1. By elite Magali Larson means monopolistic control of a professional marketplace based on expert knowledge. Magali Sarfatti Larson, The Rise of Professionalism: A Sociological Analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977).2. Bruno Latour, Science in Action (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987).3. Ibid., 131.4. Ibid., 68-69.5. National Science Board, Science & Engineering Indicators: 1991, 10th ed. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1991), 75, 290.6. Latour, Science in Action, chapter 6.7. National Science Board, Committee on Industrial Support for R&D, The Competitive Strength of U.S. Industrial Science and Technology: Strategic Issues (Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation, August 1992), ii.8. Science & Engineering Indicators: 1991, 93.9. Alain Touraine, Return of the Actor (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988), xxv.10. Brahmins in Spencer Klaw’s sense: “The basic researcher is free, in principle, to work only on what interests him—a freedom he shares with artists, poets, and people who inherit money. Basic research also has the fascination of being a game in which victory—the discovery of a new relationship or the formulation of a new law or concept—confers on the victor the gratifying sense of having changed the universe.” Spencer Klaw, The New Brahmins: Scientific Life in America (New York: Morrow, 1968), 45-46.11. Mandarins as defined by Charles Derber et al.: “In the world’s greatest ancient civilization, bureaucratic scholar-officials or ‘mandarins’ ruled China for over 1,000 years. They contended that, according to the laws of nature, ‘there should be two kinds of people: the educated who ruled and the uneducated who were ruled’” (Dun Li, “The Four Classes,” in Molly Joel Coye, Jon Livingston, and Jean Highlands, ed., China [New York: Bantam, 1984], 48, quoted in Charles Derber, William A. Schwartz, and Yale Magrass, Power in the Highest Degree: Professionals and the Rise of a New Mandarin Order [New York: Oxford University Press, 1990], 4-5). The mandarins created a formal class hierarchy based on Confucian credentials conferred by exams.12. Alfred Sohn-Rethel, Intellectual and Manual Labor: A Critique of Epistemology (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1978).

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13. Andrew Pickering, Constructing Quarks: A Sociological History of Particle Physics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 136.14. Stanley Aronowitz, Science as Power (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988).15. Plato, Timaeus and Critias (London: Penguin, 1977). Aristotle, Metaphysics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1952).16. Aronowitz, Science as Power, 331.17. John Dewey, The Quest for Certainty (New York: Putnam, 1929), 21.18. Robert Weinberg quoted in Jerry E. Bishop and Michael Waldholz, Genome (New York: Touchstone, 1990), 21.19. Karl Mannheim, Ideology and Utopia (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1936), 157.20. Quoted in Philip J. Hilts, “Congress Urged to Lift Ban on Fetal-Tissue Research,” New York Times, May 27, 1992.21. Warren Leary, “Gene Altered Food Held by the FDA to Pose Little Risk,” New York Times, May 26, 1992.22. Warren Leary, “Cornucopia of New Foods Is Seen as Policy on Engineering Is Eased,” New York Times, May 27, 1992.23. Aronowitz, Science as Power, 337.24. Andre Gorz, “Technology, Technician and Class Struggle,” in Andre Gorz, ed., The Division of Labor (Sussex: Harvester, 1976).25. Stanley Aronowitz, “On Intellectuals,” in Bruce Robbins, ed., Intellectuals (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990), 4.26. Russell Jacoby, The Last Intellectuals: American Culture in the Age of Academe (New York: Basic Books, 1987).27. Jurgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989).28. G. W. F. Hegel, Phenomenology of Spirit (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), 7. Emphasis in original.29. Ibid., 29-30.30. Willard Van Orman Quine, “Two Dogmas of Empiricism,” in From a Logical Point of View (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1953).31. Aronowitz, Science as Power, ix.32. Aronowitz, “On Intellectuals,” 6.33. Mary Hesse, “The Explanatory Function of Metaphor,” in Revolutions and Reconstructions in the Philosophy of Science (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980).34. Sharon Traweek, Beamtimes and Lifetimes: The World of High Energy Physics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988), 103.35. Bettina Aptheker, Tapestries of Life: Women’s Work, Women’s Consciousness and the Meaning of Daily Life (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1989), 39.36. Sandra Harding, Whose Science? Whose Knowledgei Thinking from Women’s Lives (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991), 126.37. Ibid., 133.

6. Contradictions of the Knowledge Class: Power, Proletarianization, and Intellectuals

1. Alvin Gouldner, The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class (New York: Seabury, 1979), 28-29.2. Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge (New York: Pantheon, 1980).3. Ernesto Laclau, “The Impossibility of the Social,” paper presented at the “Marxism and

11

the Interpretation of Culture” conference, University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana, July 1983. This essay does not appear in the volume of the same name edited by Cary Nelson and Larry Grossberg.4. Stanley Aronowitz, Science as Power (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988).5. For a good account of this process, see Andrew Pickering, Constructing Quarks (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984).6. Foucault, Power/Knowledge.7. We can see this process vividly expressed in the career of Russian President Boris Yeltsin. Unlike his Czech counterpart, Vaclav Havel, Yeltsin not only led the social movement that toppled the Soviet state (even if much of its apparatus remains to be dismantled), but also has led the process of partial privatization, having survived numerous attempts to dislodge him from power. Still, as of this writing (January 1994), his hold on power is ever tenuous, especially since his bold move to dissolve Parliament in 1993.8. But, as illustrated by Vaclav Havel’s fall from presidential power, the cultural intellectuals have had a more difficult time of it than political intellectuals, who tend to have a firmer

connection to the old state bureaucracy and, perhaps more importantly, are prepared to bow to nationalism in order to remain in power.

9. J. P. Nettl, “Intellectuals,” in Phillip Reiff, ed., Intellectuals (New York: Doubleday Anchor, 1968).10. Sylvia Scribner, “Everyday Cognition,” in Jean Lave, ed., Everyday Cognition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).11. Richard Hofstadter, Anti-Intellectualism in American Life (New York: Vintage, 1963).12. William James, “The Will to Believe,” in Essays in Pragmatism (New York: Hafner, 1948).13. Michael Weinstein, The Wilderness and the City (Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 1985).14. Charles Sanders Peirce, “The Fixation of Belief,” in Justus Buchler, ed., Selected Writings (New York: Dover, 1954).15. In a personal conversation with Aronowitz in spring 1976, Wynter used this term to designate the oxymoronic state of holding a salaried job and, simultaneously, being part of the bourgeoisie, which, as is well known, is constituted as a class of owners.16. Serge Mallet, The New Working Class (Bristol: Spokesman, 1975); Andre Gorz, Strategy for Labor: A Radical Proposal (Boston: Beacon, 1967).17. Barbara and John Ehrenreich, “The Professional/Managerial Class,” in Pat Walker, ed., Between Labor and Capital (Boston: South End Press, 1976).18. The use of the term majority may at first appear to be excessive, but more than half of all physicians and attorneys, at least 90 percent of nurses and engineers, and virtually all teachers and social workers hold salaried jobs rather than being self-employed. The largest professions are, indeed, proletarianized, at least in comparison to the beginning of the twentieth century, when most professionals were still self-employed.19. Arlie Hochschild with Anne Machung, The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home (New York: Viking, 1989).20. Fritz Machlup, The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962, 1969, 1983).21. Shoshana Zuboff, In the Age of the Smart Machines (New York: Basic Books, 1988).22. J. David Bolter, Turing’s Man (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989).

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7. Unions and the Future of Professional Work

1. William E. Leuchtenburg, Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1963), 71.2. Daniel Nelson, Managers and Workers (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press,

1981) ; Sidney Pollard, Genesis of Modern Management (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965).

3. Alfred E. Sloan, My Years with General Motors (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1965).4. Frederick Winslow Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management (New York: Norton, 1967).5. Thorstein Veblen, The Engineers and the Price System (New York: Harcourt, Brace 8c World, 1963 [1921]).6. Compare salaries of these professionals to those of auto workers in 1992. Fully employed auto workers earn $50,000 a year (albeit for a fifty-hour week) while teacher salaries average about $40,000 (slightly higher in metropolitan areas) and engineers average $48,000. Social workers who are not managers earn about the same as teachers but, like teachers, start at salaries in the high twenties. There are, of course, much higher paid engineers, especially those employed by large corporations in the military and aerospace sectors and those who work as design engineers.7. H. J. Habakkuk, American and British Technology in the 19th Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962, 1967). Habakkuk cites the following: “Until well into the 20th century, Americans have been content to let most of the basic discoveries in science and technology originate in Europe, while they themselves have followed a policy of adapt, improve and apply” (J. B. Rae, “The ‘Know-How’ Tradition: Technology in American History,” Technology and Culture 1, no. 2 [I960]: 141, quoted in Habakkuk, 202). Habakkuk invokes examples: the early dynamo improvements were the work of Gramme, a Frenchman, and Von Hefner Alteneck, a German, but were developed by Edison and Bush in the United States; “Garz and Company of Budapest were the first to perfect the transformer, and it was there that Westinghouse got his ideas. . . . The internal combustion engine was another borrowed idea” (ibid.). And, we may add, the U.S. development of nuclear weapons and energy was largely based on the work of Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, Leo Szilard, and other Europeans.8. Politically generated because, although it began as a program geared to the special needs of the physically handicapped, it evolved into a way of segregating “hyperactive” or “disturbed” kids and, finally, into a hidden tracking device to separate some “slower” learners from the “normal” kids. Special education often brings in funds school systems would not otherwise get from states and municipalities, so it is in the interest of the school system to have extensive special education programs and many students in them.9. For a fuller discussion of the rise of public-employee and white-collar unionism, see Stanley Aronowitz, Working-Class Hero: A New Strategy for Labor (New York: Pilgrim,

1983).

10. For a sympathetic account of the rise of teacher unions, see Phillip A. Taft, United They Teach (Ithaca, N.Y.: ILR Press, 1974); for a hostile account, see Robert J. Braun, Teachers and Power (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972). Clearly, the often abrasive personality of Albert Shanker has produced considerable controversy among critics of the labor movement. In fact, Shanker was instrumental in transforming many organizations of professionals from associations into unions. The example of the 1964 strike in New York reverberated to the massive National

13

Education Association, currently the largest union in the United States, but also to associations of nurses, social workers, and, and more recently, attorneys and physicians. At the same time, Shanker and the teachers proved a loyal ally of the most conservative forces in U.S. foreign policy, were generally found in the centrist wing of the Democratic party, and, until the last ten years, were notable for their craft union approach to educational unionism.11. Leon Fink and Brian Greenberg, Upheaval in the Quiet Zone: A History of the Hospital Workers Union Local 1199 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1989). The authors render the later split within the union with notable dispassion and considerable skill, although their affections are clearly with the founders and organizers, Leon Davis and Elliot Godoff.12. For a discussion of university teachers and their problems, see chapter 8 of this book.13. H. L. Nieburg, In the Name of Science (New York: Quadrangle, 1965); Martin Kenney, The University-Industrial Complex (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1986); Dorothy Nelkin, “Intellectual Property: The Control of Scientific Information,” Science 216 (May 14, 1982).14. Charles Derber, William A. Schwartz, and Yale Magrass, Power in the Highest Degree (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).

15. George Konrad and Ivan Szelenyi, Intellectuals on the Road to Class Power (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1981); Alvin Gouldner, The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class (New York: Seabury, 1979).

8. A Taxonomy of Teacher Work

1. Lucius Outlaw, “Toward a Critical Theory of ‘Race,’” in David Theo Goldberg, ed., Anatomy of Racism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990).2. See especially books by bell hooks, for example, Ain’t I a Womanf Black Women and Feminism (Boston: South End Press, 1985).3. Joan Scott, “Comment,” October, no. 61 (Summer 1992).4. “Minorities in Science,” Science, November 22, 1992.5. Some may dispute this judgment, but in comparison to professors in teaching colleges, especially the private four-year institutions, high school and elementary school teachers, and almost all other professionals, the tenured professor in a research university with a four-course yearly teaching load has much more time to do work that is not prescribed by the institution.6. Others include City University of New York, some of the campuses of the State University of New York, and some campuses of the California State University system.7. In December 1992 a commission appointed by the chancellor of the City University of New York and headed by President Leon Goldstein of Kingsborough Community College issued a report calling for elimination of ninety-seven programs throughout the university and consolidation of some key areas of the liberal arts in a few campuses. Within four months, the faculty senates of nearly all of the campuses rejected these recommendations by wide margins. The main source of dissent was faculty belief that the autonomy of the colleges that constitute the university would be lost to the central administration.8. “Workloads of Faculty in Institutions of Higher Education” (Washington, D.C.: State Higher Education Executive Officers, 1992).9. “U.S. Colleges Are Forced to Restrict Access to Students,” New York Times, November

11, 1992.

10. Steven Brint and Jerome Karabel, The Diverted Dream: Community Colleges and the Promise of Educational Opportunity in America 1900-1985 (New York: Oxford University Press,

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1989).11. Emily Abel, Terminal Degrees (New York: Praeger, 1986).12. Lingua Franca, March 13, 1993.13. Carnegie Foundation Report on Teaching in Higher Education, 1991.

9. The Cultural Construction of Class: Knowledge and the Labor Process

1. Karl Marx, Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 141.2. Andrew Feenberg, Lukdcs, Marx and the Sources of Critical Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 19.3. Karl Marx, The Poverty of Philosophy (New York: International Publishers, 1963),

173.

4. Spike Lee with Lisa Jones, Do the Right Thing (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989),

140.

5. Ibid., 142.6. Jean-Paul Sartre, The Critique of Dialectical Reason (London: Verso, 1976). Sartre defines practico-inert as “matter in which past praxis is embodied” (829).7. Lawrence Mishel and David M. Frankel, The State of Working America: 1990-91 (New York: Sharpe, 1991), 221.8. Harold Garfinkel, Studies in Ethnomethodology (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1967), 146.9. Pierre Bourdieu, In Other Words (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1990), 137-38.10. Pierre Bourdieu, “Outline of a Theory of Art Perception,” International Journal of Social Science 2 (1968): 598.11. Ronnie Steinberg, “Debate on Comparable Worth,” New Politics 1, no. 1 (Summer

1986) : 111.

12. Donald J. Treiman and Heidi Hartman, Women, Work and Wages: Equal Pay for Jobs of Equal Value (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1981), 28, 66-67.13. Linda M. Blum, Between Feminism and Labor: The Significance of the Comparable Worth Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991). “Simply put, whereas affirmative action aims to move women into men’s work, comparable worth aims to raise the value of women’s work” (4). She says of affirmative action: “The policy aims primarily to ensure equality of opportunity in the labor market; it strikes down barriers assigned according to ascriptive traits and gives preference to members of underrepresented groups in order to equalize competition. For feminism, it has represented a job integration strategy, one that has succeeded in demonstrating that women’s capacities are indeed the same as men’s” (18-19).14. Karl Marx, The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (New York: International Publishers, 1963), 124.15. Karl Marx, Grundrisse (New York: Vintage, 1973), 706.16. Jürgen Habermas, Knowledge and Human Interest (Boston: Beacon, 1968), 208.17. Ellen Meiksins Wood, The Retreat from Class: A New “True” Socialism (New York: Verso, 1986), 4.

15

18. Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe, Hegemony and Socialist Strategy: Towards a Radical Democratic Politics (London: Verso, 1985), 154.19. Ibid., 177.20. Ibid., 191-92.21. Nicos Poulantzas, Political Power and Social Classes (London: Verso, 1978), 77.22. Nicos Poulantzas, State, Power, Socialism (London: Verso, 1980), 132.23. Ibid., 247.24. Robert K. Merton, “On Sociological Theories of the Middle Range,” in Social Theory and Social Structure (New York: Free Press, 1968), 39-72.25. Nicos Poulantzas presented a detailed analysis of “new petty bourgeoisie” in Classes in Contemporary Capitalism (London: Verso, 1974). In “The New Petty Bourgeoisie,” Insurgent Sociologist 9, no. 1 (Summer 1978): 60, he makes a short summary statement: “I have taken other characteristics, in particular the bureaucratization of labor in the organisation of the labor process of unproductive workers in order to show the significance of the distribution of author-ity. It is these elements which determine the class position of the new petty bourgeoisie. The new petty bourgeoisie interiorizes the social division of labor imposed by the bourgeoisie throughout the whole of society. Each level of the new petty bourgeoisie exercises specific authority and ideological domination over the working class, which takes on particular characteristics within the factory division of labor since the workers do not exert any kind of authority or ideological dominance over other workers, for example, over unskilled workers, that has even remotely the same characteristics as that exercised by the different levels of the new petty bourgeoisie over the working class. These are the political and ideological elements in the social division of labor that I have taken to show the class specificity of the new petty bourgeoisie. It is important to stress that these are the elements that have nothing to do with the so-called ‘class for itself.’ ”26. Serge Mallet, The New Working Class (Bristol: Spokesman, 1975). Andre Gorz, Strategy for Labor: A Radical Proposal (Boston: Beacon, 1967).27. Erik Olin Wright, Classes (London: Verso, 1985), 7.28. Ibid., 87.29. Ibid., 56.30. G. A. Cohen, Karl Marx’s Theory of History: A Defence (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1978).31. Wright, Classes, 65.32. Ibid., 66.33. Erik Olin Wright, “A General Framework for the Analysis of Class Structure,” in Erik Olin Wright, ed., The Debate on Classes (London: Verso, 1989), 10.34. Wright, Classes, 61.35. Ibid., 69-70.36. Ibid., 76.37. Ibid., 78.38. Ibid., 79.39. Ibid., 89.40. Ibid., 91.41. Ibid., 132.42. Ibid., 285-86.43. Ibid., 290.44. Guglielmo Carchedi, Class Analysis and Social Research (New York: Basil Blackwell,

1987) , 7.

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45. Ibid., 60.46. Wright, Classes, 182. Requoted by Guglielmo Carchedi, “Classes and Class Analysis,” in Wright, Debate on Classes, 106.47. Ibid., 107.48. Ibid., 108-9.49. Wright, Classes, 154.50. Ibid., 147.51. Ibid., 115.52. Ibid., 125.53. Carchedi, Class Analysis, 79-80.54. Ibid., 80.55. Ibid., 80-81.56. Ibid., 82-83.57. Ibid., 85-86.58. Ibid., 177.59. Ibid., 191.60. Ibid., 108.61. Merton, Social Theory, 66.62. Ibid., 42.63. William Julius Wilson, The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980).64. Barbara Ehrenreich, Fear of Falling (New York: HarperCollins, 1989).65. Alvin Gouldner, The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class (New York: Seabury, 1979), 30-31.66. Ibid., 44-45.67. Ibid., 45-46.68. Eric Lichten, Class, Power and Austerity: The New York City Fiscal Crisis (South Hadley, Mass.: Bergin and Garvey, 1986).69. Stanley Aronowitz, “On Intellectuals,” in Bruce Robbins, ed., Intellectuals: Aesthetics, Politics, Academics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press), 54.70. Editorial Collective, “Introduction,” Zerowork 1 (December 1975): 2. “The political strategy of the working class in the last cycle of struggles upset the Keynesian plan for develop -ment. It is this cycle that the struggle for income through work changes to a struggle for income independent of work. The working class strategy for full employment that had provoked the Keynesian solution of the Thirties became in the last cycle of struggle a general strategy of the refusal of work. The strategy that pits income against work is the main characteristic of strug gle in all articulations of the social factory. The transformation marks a new level of working class power and must be the starting point of any revolutionary organization. The strategy of refusal of work overturns previous conceptions of where the power of the working class lies and junks all the organizational formulae appropriate to the previous phases of the class relation.”71. William DiFazio, Longshoremen: Community and Resistance on the Brooklyn Waterfront (South Hadley, Mass.: Bergin and Garvey, 1985), vii.72. Alain Touraine, Return of the Actor: Social Theory in Postindustrial Society (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988).

10. Quantum Measures: Capital Investment and Job Reduction

1. David Lodge, Nice Work (New York: Macmillan, 1986), 84-85.2. Terri Mizrahi, Getting Rid of Patients: Contradictions in the Socialization of Physicians (New

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Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1984).3. Lawrence Mead, The New Politics of Poverty: The Nonworking Poor in America (New York: Basic Books, 1992).4. On service pay, see Mead, New Politics of Poverty, 76. On average factory pay, see the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Labor Yearbook, 1990.5. Oscar Lewis, Five Families (New York: Basic Books, 1959); Pedro Martinez (New York: Basic Books, 1961); La Vida (New York: Random House, 1964).6. Nathan Glazer and Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot (New York: Free Press, 1966). But the book is based on an earlier report by Moynihan for the U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Planning and Research: The Negro Family, the Case for National Action (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965). This report, together with Lewis’s anthropological studies in Mexico and especially Puerto Rico, became the basis of the current conservative view that disorganization, rather than either discrimination or economic vicissitudes, led to the devaluation of the work ethic among the poor.7. Jean Elshtain, Public Man, Private Woman (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,

1981) ; Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, Feminism without Illusions (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991).

8. Robert Bellah et al., Habits of the Heart (Berkeley: University of California Press,

1987).

9. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).10. Juliet Schor, The Overworked American (New York: Basic Books, 1991).11. Arlie Hochschild and Anne Machung, The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home (New York: Viking, 1989).12. Mead, New Politics of Poverty, 77.13. Ibid., 19-21.14. Ibid., 76.15. Benjamin Hunnicut, Work without End: Abandoning Shorter Hours for the Right to Work (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988).16. “Fewer Jobs Filled as Factories Rely on Overtime Pay,” New York Times, May 16, 1993.17. Wall Street Journal, December 3, 1992.

11. The Jobless Future?

1. David Lodge, Nice Work (New York: Macmillan, 1986), 85-86.2. Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958).3. Ibid., 137.4. Ibid., 146.5. Ibid., 152.6. There is a long polemic in the Grundrisse against Fourier’s utopian program to transform work into play. Apparently these passages escaped Arendt’s notice.7. Arendt, Human Condition, 207-19, 325.8. Jürgen Habermas, Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 1 (Boston: Beacon, 1984).9. Jürgen Habermas, Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1991).

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10. William DiFazio, Longshoremen (South Hadley, Mass.: Bergin and Garvey, 1985).11. Solidarity, a publication of the United Auto Workers (AFL-CIO), May 1993.12. Karl Marx, Grundrisse (New York: Vintage, 1973), 706.13. “Companies Cutting Funds for Scientific Research,” New York Times, June 30, 1993.14. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation (Boston: Beacon, 1957), 33.15. William Honan, “New Pressures on the University,” New York Times Education Life, January 8, 1993, 18.16. R. William Kapp, The Social Costs of Private Enterprise (New York: Schocken, 1951).17. Paul Lafargue, The Right to Be Lazy (Chicago: Charles Kerr, 1907).18. This is a major argument of Jürgen Habermas’s theory of communicative action. See especially Habermas’s “Toward a Reconstruction of Historical Materialism” in Communication and the Evolution of Society (Boston: Beacon, 1979), 131-38.

19. Ernest Mandel, Late Capitalism (London: New Left Books, 1979).