Book-01-Chapter-42 Writing and Research in Different Disciplines

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of the brain (ventriculitis) or of the linings and substance of the brain

(meningoencephalitis). Such infection is most likely in those infants from

whom corrective surgery is withheld. The parents of Baby Jane Doe, a

child born with spina bifida, were told she would inevitably be severely re-

tarded. For that reason they decided not to allow a surgeon to treat her. Be-

cause she was not treated, she acquired a brain infection, which means she

is likely to be retarded. This becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.

David G. McLone, The Diagnosis, Prognosis, and

Outcome for the Handicapped: A Neonatal View

The author of this paragraph is a pediatric neurosurgeon who has treated

hundreds of infants born with spina bifida. But since he is writing for a

journal of general interest, he wants to reach more than just an audience

of fellow specialists. So he explains such technical terms as ventriculitis and

meningoencephalitis. He also explainsin language we can readily under-

standexactly how the threat of retardation is used to justify the with-

holding of surgery from infants who need it.

This explanatory point serves a persuasive end. Elsewhere in his essay,McLone shows that no one can predict the life of an infant born with

spina bifida until that infant has been treated. Here he shows what hap-

pens when a prediction of retardation is used to justify the withholding of

corrective surgery: the withholding of surgery leads to infection and retar-

dation, and the prediction becomes self-fulfilling. Thus McLone con-

verts his specialized knowledge into writing that can reach and persuade a

general reader to accept his main point, which is that all infants born with

spina bifida should be treated.

42.4 ORGANIZING A RESEARCH PAPER IN THE HUMANITIES

A research paper on one or more works of literature, art, music, or philoso-

phy normally includes secondary as well as primary sources, and in gen-

eral, you should organize this material as follows:

1. In the introduction you identify the particular work or works you will

consider in the paper. You also formulate the question you will try to an-

swer: What do we learn about motherhood from Toni MorrisonsBeloveda novel about a black woman who kills her own infant daughter to save

her from a life of slavery? How does J. D. Salingers Catcher in the Rye

represent the passage from innocence to experience? Why does Mary Woll-

stonecraft attack Rousseau in Vindication of the Rights of Women? Why does

Writing and Research in Different Disciplines42.4 human

660


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Writing and Research in Different Disciplines human

661

VelzquezsLas Meninas include a self-portrait of the artist himself at work?

How does the hard-boiled hero of the American detective novel reflect

American notions of heroism? Here, for instance, is the introduction to a

research paper by a first-year college student:

Individual identity is a cherished ideal, and when institutions

threaten to deny it, they provoke resentment. Nevertheless, in order to

function in a society, individuals must be willing to compromise their per-

sonal moralities and assume certain prescribed roles. This conflict between

the rights of the individual and those of society produces a sense of frus-

tration, creating the need for an outlet. Consequently, we look to heroes,

to strong individuals who will never compromise their values or surrender

their identities. To nineteenth-century individuals, America offered a vast

and challenging frontiera place where individuals could preserve their

identities. The question I want to answer is how the values of these fron-

tier heroes survive in the hard-boiled heroes of American detective novels.

Neil Okun, Heroism in the American Detective Novel

2. In the body of the paper, you develop an answer to the basic question

in terms of individual works, supplemented by comments drawn from sec-

ondary sources. Secondary sourcesbooks and articleshelp you to clarify

the meaning of the works you discuss, to explain the connections between

them, and to sharpen the edge of your argument. But the works them-

selvesnot the secondary sourcesshould be the prime source of evidence

for your argument:

Dashiell Hammetts first novel,Red Harvest, pits the Continental Op

against a town totally controlled by three mobs and a corrupt police force.

As Robert Parker notes, Personville (pronounced Poisonville) is the ulti-mate symbol of the end of the frontier . . . a western city, sprung up on

the prairie in the wake of the mines (95). When the Op arrives in re-

sponse to a call for his services, he discovers a dead client. At this point he

could have left, since he had already received all the pay he would get. But

in leaving, he would have sacrificed his heroic stature, so he stays to fight

for what he sees as justice.

He wins only a limited victory. Though he eventually cleans up the

town by turning the various mobs against each other, the novel lets us see

that evil will return. When the Op leaves, Personville is nice and clean

and ready to go to the dogs again (178). Nevertheless, the detective has

endured and upheld his own personal code of morality.

Neil Okun


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Writing and Research in Different Disciplines42.5 cms

662

3. In the conclusion of the paper, you restate the main point of your

argument and indicate what the argument contributes to our understand-

ing of the works of literature you have discussed:

The demand for an individual who will not compromise on questions

of morality produced the wilderness hero, a man who fled the corrupting

influence of society for the freedom and challenge of the frontier. When

the frontier closed, this man no longer had a refuge; he was forced to fight

to retain his individuality and preserve his moral integrity. With a value

system rooted in the nineteenth-century frontier, the hero of the detective

novel must often confront the twentieth-century city. The reaction is

often violent, and the hero can never impose his values on society. Yet he

is personally victorious, for he always leaves uncorrupted, and he continu-

ally restores our faith in what Sisk calls the American as rugged individu-

alist and shaper of his own destiny (368).

Neil Okun

42.5 DOCUMENTING SOURCES IN THE HUMANITIES

IN-TEXT PARENTHESES VERSUS NOTES

Authors of papers written in the humanities typically cite sources in either

one of two waysin parentheses within the text or in notes. The author

of the paragraphs quoted above uses the MLA style of parenthetical cita-

tion, the parenthetical style normally used in the humanities (see chapter

39). But if your teacher asks you to cite your sources in notes, you should

follow the note system explained in the Chicago Manual of Style, 14th ed.

(Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1993). In the CMS system, each citation in the

text is followed by a raised numberreferring to a note.1

USING THE CMS NOTE SYSTEM

CMS notes may be footnotes at the bottom of each page or endnotes at

the end of the paper. While footnotes are easier for the reader to find, they

are sometimes harder for the writer to manage because varying amounts of

room must be left for them on each page. Some word processing programs

will lay out footnoted pages for you. But in any case, you should find outwhich kind of note your teacher prefers and then use it consistently. Do not

use footnotes and endnotes in the same paper.

1. This is the note. (Citation numbers within the text are raised, but note numbers are

not.)
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All notes written in CMS stylewhether footnotes or endnotes

should be written as follows. The first reference to any book you cite

should look like this:

1. Seamus Heaney, The Redress of Poetry (New York: Farrar,

Straus and Giroux, 1995), 15.

To cite again a source you have just cited in the previous note, use Ibid.

(Latin for in the same place):

2. Ibid., 17.

To cite again a source you have cited more than one note earlier, use the

authors last name:

3. Heaney, 17.

If your paper cites more than one work by the same author, a follow-up ref-

erence to any of his or her works should include a short version of its title:

4. Heaney, Redress, 17.

Specific in-text, footnote/endnote, and Bibliography-entry formats are

illustrated below. For further variations, see the CMS or the student guideadapted from it, Kate L. Turabians Manual for Writers of Terms Papers,

Theses, and Dissertations, 6th ed. (rev. John Grossman and Alice Bennett

[Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1987]).

1. BOOK BY ONE AUTHOR

Goldberg believes that moral notions tend to be basic to

each sociodiscursive order, for they are key in defining the

interactive ways social subjects see and conceive [of] them-

selves.1

1. David Theo Goldberg, Racist Culture: Philosophy and the

Politics of Meaning (Cambridge: Blackwell, l993), 20.

Writing and Research in Different Disciplines cms

663

Author Comma Title Place of publication

Date of publicationComma

Page number(s)

ParenthesesPublisher

Raised numb

followspunctuation

end of senten

First line of e

footnote is

indented five

spaces.


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664

Goldberg, David Theo. Racist Culture: Philosophy and the Politics

of Meaning. Cambridge: Blackwell, l993.

2. BOOK BY TWO AUTHORS

Kinder and Sanders maintain that the most complicated aspect of

race relations in America today concerns attitude.2

2. Donald R. Kinder and Lynne M. Sanders, Divided by Color:

Racial Politics and Democratic Ideals (Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, l996), 6.

Kinder, Donald R., and Lynne M. Sanders. Divided by Color: Racial

Politics and Democratic Ideals. Chicago: University of

Chicago Press, l996.

3. BOOK BY THREE OR MORE AUTHORS

Medhurst et al. argue that the cold war, like its hot counter-

part, is a contest.3

3. Martin J. Medhurst, Robert L. Ivie, Philip Wander, and

Robert L. Scott, Cold War Rhetoric: Strategy, Metaphor, and Ide-

ology (New York: Greenwood, 1990), 19.

For subsequent references in text and footnotes, useMedhurst et al. (Latin et

alia, and others).

Medhurst, Martin J., Robert L. Ivie, Philip Wander, and Robert L.

Scott. Cold War Rhetoric: Strategy, Metaphor, and Ideology.

New York: Greenwood, 1990.

Bibliographic

entries are

formatted as

hanging-indent

paragraphs.

Footnotes,

endnotes, and

bibliographic

entries are

single-spaced,

with a double

space between

them.


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4. BOOK, EDITED, WITH FOCUS ON ORIGINAL AUTHOR

Thoreau says we need to witness our own limits transgressed, and

some life pasturing freely where we never

wander.4

4. Henry David Thoreau, Walden, ed. William Rossi (New York:

Norton, 1992), 212.

Thoreau, Henry David. Walden. Edited by William Rossi. New York:

Norton, 1992.

CMS allows the abbreviations Ed. (Edited by), Trans. (Translated by), and

Comp. (Compiled by).

5. BOOK, EDITED, WITH FOCUS ON EDITOR

For most of her life, writes J. Paul Hunter, Mary Shelley

lived (apparently contentedly) in the shadow of her famous par-

ents and ultimately more famous husband.5

5. J. Paul Hunter, ed., Frankenstein, by Mary Shelley (New

York: Norton, 1996), xi.

Hunter, J. Paul, ed. Frankenstein, by Mary Shelley. New York:

Norton, 1996.

6. BOOK WITH EDITOR(S)

Gary Peller, one of the editors of Critical Race Theory, thinks

the conflict between nationalists and integrationists in the


665


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666

late sixties and early seventies represented a critical juncture

in American race relations.6

6. Kimberl Crenshaw, Neil Gotanda, Gary Peller, and Kendall

Thomas, eds., Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings That Formed

the Movement (New York: New York University Press, 1995), 1323.

For subsequent references in text and footnotes, use Crenshaw et al.

Crenshaw, Kimberl, Neil Gotanda, Garry Peller, and Kendall

Thomas, eds. Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings That

Formed the Movement. New York: New York University Press,

1995.

7. CHAPTER IN A BOOK

The basic issue in the classical period, according to

Corbett, was whether rhetoric or philosophy would be the domi-

nant element in the Greek educational system.7

7. Edward P. J. Corbett, Classical and Modern Rhetoric: The

Basic Issues, in Discourse Studies in Honor of James L. Kinneavy

(Potomac, Maryland: Scripta Humanistica, 1995), l46.

Corbett, Edward P. J. Classical and Modern Rhetoric: The Basic

Issues. In Discourse Studies in Honor of James L. Kinneavy.

Potomac, Maryland: Scripta Humanistica, 1995.

8. EDITION OTHER THAN THE FIRST

As Petracca and Sorapure put it, popular culture encompasses the

most immediate and contemporary elements in our lives--elements

which are often subject to rapid changes in a highly technological

world . . . by the ubiquitous mass media.8


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667

8. Michael Petracca and Madeline Sorapure, eds., Common Cul-

ture: Reading and Writing about American Popular Culture, 2nd ed.

(Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998), 3.

Petracca, Michael, and Madeline Sorapure, eds. Common

Culture: Reading and Writing about American Popular Culture,

2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:

Prentice Hall, 1998.

9. REPRINT

Women who had only known maids uniforms and mammy-made

dresses, Angelou writes, donned the awkward mens pants and

steel helmets.9

9. Maya Angelou, Gather Together in My Name (New York: Ran-

dom House, 1974; reprint, New York: Bantam, 1993), 38.

Angelou, Maya. Gather Together in My Name. New York: Random

House, 1974. Reprint, New York: Bantam, 1993.

When you cite a reprint of a very old book, give only the year of the

original publication along with full publication facts of the reprint.

If the reprint adds something new or combines two or more volumes in

one, give that information before the name of the city and publisher.

If, as above, you give all the original publication data, you may omit

the word reprint, though you may also retain it for clarity.

Finally, if you give page references and are not certain that both edi-

tions have the same pagination, identify the edition used. For example:

(page citation is to the reprint edition).


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668

10. TRANSLATION

Albert Camus argues, Capital punishment upsets the only indis-

putable human solidarity--our solidarity against death.10

10. Albert Camus, Resistance, Rebellion, and Death, trans.

Justin OBrien (New York: Vintage, 1960), 222.

Camus, Albert. Resistance, Rebellion, and Death. Translated by

Justin OBrien. New York: Vintage, 1960.

11. CORPORATE AUTHOR

According to Resources for Teaching Middle School Science, stu-

dents explore the melting points and conductivity of ionic and

covalent compounds.11

11. National Science Resource Center, Resources for Teaching

Middle School Science (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press,

1998), 82.

National Science Resource Center. Resources for Teaching Middle

School Science. Washington, D.C.: National

Academy Press, 1998.

12. SELECTION FROM AN ANTHOLOGY

My literary agenda, Mukherjee explains, begins by acknowledg-

ing that America has transformed me. It does not end until I show

how I (and the hundreds of thousands like me) have transformed

America.12


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12. Bharati Mukherjee, A Four-Hundred-Year-Old Woman, in

The Norton Anthology of Short Fiction, 6th ed., ed. R. V. Cassill

and Richard Bausch (New York: Norton, 2000), 1704.

Mukherjee, Bharati. A Four-Hundred-Year-Old Woman. In The Nor-

ton Anthology of Short Fiction, 6th ed., edited by R. V.

Cassill and Richard Bausch. New York: Norton, 2000.

13. ARTICLE IN A MAGAZINE

In South Florida, Martine Bury reports, street gangs

that represented most countries on the Caribbean, Central Ameri-

can and South American maps have created a blunt, broad geography

to demarcate their turfs.13

13. Martine Bury, Lost Ones, The Source, March

1999, 67.

Bury, Martine. Lost Ones. The Source, March 1999, 67.

14. ARTICLE IN A JOURNAL WITH YEARLY VOLUME NUMBERS

Pamela L. Caughie states that passing traditionally refers to

the practice of representing oneself--for social, economic, or

political reasons--as a member of a particular group not consid-

ered ones own.14

14. Pamela L. Caughie, Let It Pass: Changing the

Subject, Once Again, PMLA 112 (1997): 2640.


669

Volume number


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670

Caughie, Pamela L. Let It Pass: Changing the Subject, Once

Again. PMLA 112 (1997): 2640.

15. ARTICLE IN A REFERENCE BOOK, SIGNED

Robert Brandt describes the Appalachian Trail as a continuous

marked footpath extending 2,140 miles through 14 states from

Springer Mountain, Georgia, to Katahdin, Maine.15

15. Robert Brandt, Appalachian Trail, in The

Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture, ed. Carroll Van

West (Nashville: Tennessee Historical Society, 1998), 22.

Brandt, Robert. Appalachian Trail. In The Tennessee Encyclope-

dia of History and Culture, edited by Carroll Van West.

Nashville: Tennessee Historical Society, 1998.

16. ARTICLE IN A REFERENCE BOOK, UNSIGNED

The bark and fruits of the greenheart tree contain bebeerine,

an alkaloid formerly used to reduce fever.16

16. Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th ed., s.v., greenheart.

In notes for well-known, alphabetically arranged reference books, as

above, omit facts of publication (place, publisher, and date), volume, and

page number. Cite the edition if its not the first, then cite the item, pre-

ceded by s.v. (sub verbo, Latin for under the word).

Do not list well-known reference books in your bibliography.

17. ARTICLE IN A NEWSPAPER

Wilgoren reports that in retrospect, the name sounds a

little menacing, now that it is linked to the two young men be-

hind one of the deadliest school massacres in American history.17


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17. Jodi Wilgoren, Menacing Trench Coat Mafia Was Just a

Joke, at First, New York Times, 25 April 1999,

national edition, sec. A, p. l.

Wilgoren, Jodi.Menacing

Trench Coat Mafia

Was Just a Joke, at

First. New York Times, 25 April 1999,

national edition, sec. A, p. l.

18. ONLINE BOOK

Austen describes Emma Woodhouse as handsome, clever, and rich

with a comfortable home and happy disposition.18

18. Jane Austen, Emma, Berkeley Digital Library SunSITE,

University of California, Berkeley, May 15, 1997, (25 June 1999).

Austen, Jane. Emma. Berkeley Digital Library SunSITE,

University of California, Berkeley, May 15, 1997.

(25 June 1999).

19. ONLINE ARTICLE

An article in the Society for American Archaeology Bulletin

states that the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reser-

vation could claim the 9,300-year-old find because the area in

which the find was made is Umatilla aboriginal land.19

Specify the

edition.


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Writing and Research in Different Disciplines42.6 social

672

19. 9,300-Year-Old Skeleton Sparks Controversy in North-

west, Society for American Archaeology Bulletin 14, no. 5 (No-

vember 1996), (24 June 1999).

9,300-Year-Old Skeleton Sparks Controversy in Northwest. Soci-

ety for American Archaeology Bulletin 14, no. 5 (November

1996). (24 June 1999).

The current CMS provides very limited coverage of online-source docu-

mentation. Until the appearance of the fifteenth edition, the CMS editors

recommend that you consult any of several other style guides, including

MLA (see chapter 39); APA (see 42.7); Xia Li and Nancy B. Crane,Electronic

Styles: A Handbook for Citing Electronic Information (Medford, NJ: Informa-

tion Today, 1996); and Andrew Harnack and Eugene Kleppinger, Online! A

Reference Guide to Using Internet Sources (New York: St. Martins, 1997), the

basis for our formats. Ask your instructor about which style guide you

should follow.

42.6 ORGANIZING RESEARCH PAPERS IN THESOCIAL SCIENCES

Research papers in the social sciences are commonly based on the observa-

tion of particular cases or groups. If you are asked to write a case study or to

report your findings on an assigned question, your most important pri-

mary source will be the record of your own observations, including the re-

sults of interviews you may conduct and questionnaires you may distrib-

ute. Together with published sources, these will provide the material for

your paper.

A report of findings in the social sciences normally includes five parts:

1. The introduction states the question you propose to answer and ex-

plains how the methods of a particular social science can help you answer

it. Suppose the question is Do children with disabilities gain more confi-

dence from competitive sports (such as the Special Olympics) than from

noncompetitive activities? Having posed this question, the introduction
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surrounding many of the polluting activities of the socialist military-

industrial complex. Only recently, with the fall of socialism, has it been

possible to envisage a full and free exchange of information about pollu-

tion and establish the basis for ecological cooperation throughout the

entire continent.

Christie Davies, The Need for Ecological Cooperation in Europe,

International Journal on the Unity of the Sciences 4 (1991):20116.

This paragraph illustrates what every effective abstract should be: succinct,

informative, and comprehensive.

First, the paragraph is succinct. Its first four words state one of the

main points of the article: Pollution knows no frontiers.

Second, the paragraph is informative. Using highly significant modi-

fiers such as dumped in rivers or off the coast and dirty, inefficient, and

irresponsible, it tersely reveals how pollution moves from one country to

another. Every sentence, in fact, is richly modified to deliver the maximum

amount of information in a small number of words.

Third, the paragraph is comprehensive. It not only states the mainpoint of the essay but shows how the point is developed. The recent his-

tory of pollution in Europe, we learn, is presented as a conflict between the

cleanup efforts made by Western European democracies and the messes

made by the socialist countries of Eastern Europe. Just as importantly, we

learn what the article tells us about the latest development in this history:

the fall of socialism may lead to full cooperation in the control of pollu-

tion throughout Western Europe.

42.7 DOCUMENTING SOURCES IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

USING APA STYLE

The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 4th ed.

(Washington, D.C.: APA, 1994), presents APA style, which is used in the

behavioral and social sciences. If you are writing a paper for a psychology

or sociology class, for example, check to see whether your instructor ex-

pects you to use APA. (To obtain print publications or software devoted to

APA style, visit .)In APA style, parenthetical citations appear within the text, and full

bibliographic entries appear in a list titled References at the end of the

text.

Writing and Research in Different Disciplines42.7 apa

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CAPITALIZATION Within the body of your text, use standard capitaliza-

tion. For the References page, follow this example:

Erikson, E. H. (1964). Insight and responsibility: Lectures on

the ethical implications of psychoanalytic insight. New

York: Norton.

IN-TEXT CITATION AND REFERENCE-PAGE FORMATS

1. BOOK BY ONE AUTHOR

Authors name used in discussion:

Levine (1976) has found that marriages in which the parents

share responsibilities equally tend to be the happiest

(p. 176).

Authors name not used in discussion:

One researcher has found that marriages in which the parents

share responsibilities equally tend to be the happiest (Levine,

1976, p. 176).

Levine, J. A. (1976). Who will raise the children? Philadelphia:

Lippincott.

2. BOOK BY TWO AUTHORS

If a work has two authors, give both authors names each time the refer-

ence occurs in the text.

According to one team of scholars, Perhaps the most complicated

aspect of race relations in America today concerns

attitude (Kinder & Sanders, 1996, p. 6).

Writing and Research in Different Disciplines apa

675

Authors last

name Comma Period

Initials of first and middle names

Capitalize first word of title and subtitle (if any), plus proper nouns.

Date of

publicationparenthesized

Publisher Underlined periodColon

Place of

publication

Ampersand for and

All lines after

the first are

indented five

spaces.

Double-space

throughout.


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Kinder, D. R., and Sanders, L. M. (1996). Divided by color:

Racial politics and democratic ideas. Chicago: University of

Chicago Press.

3. BOOK BY MORE THAN TWO AUTHORS

Give all the names in the first citation only:

Miller, Dellefield, and Musso (1980) have called for more effec-

tive advertising of financial aid programs.

In later citations give just the first authors name followed by et al. (Latin

et alia, and others):

Miller et al. (1980) have studied the institutional management of

financial aid.

Miller, S., Dellefield, W., & Musso, T. (1980). A Guide to se-

lected financial aid management practices. Washington, DC:

U.S. Department of Education.

4. MORE THAN ONE WORK BY THE SAME AUTHOR

On your References page, provide complete information for each work andarrange entries by date, from earliest to most recent. If two or more works

by an author were published the same year, put them in alphabetical order

and assign a lowercase letter to each, placing that letter next to the date.

In Keeping Faith: Philosophy and Race in America, West concen-

trates on cultural criticism (1993a). In Prophetic Reflections:

Notes on Race and Power in America (1993b), he focuses on cul-

tural crisis.

West, C. (1993a). Keeping faith: Philosophy and race in America.

New York: Routledge.


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678

8. ARTICLE IN A REFERENCE BOOK

According to the ancient Greeks, emotional and physical health

depended on a balance of four fluids, called humours (Personal-

ity, p. 311).

Personality. (1993). In The new encyclopaedia Britannica (15th

ed., Vol. 10, pp. 311-312). Chicago: Encyclopaedia

Britannica.

9. ARTICLE IN A MAGAZINE

Shacochis (1999) observes that the recent intervention of the

American military in such international conflicts as Kosovo has

produced the complicated notion of military

humanism (p. 45).

Shacochis, B. (1999, December). Soldiers of great fortune.

Harpers, 299, 44-56.

10. ARTICLE IN A SCHOLARLY JOURNAL

Kamerman (1983, p. 36) reports that from 1967 to 1980, kinder-

garten enrollment rose by about a third, and from 1969 to 1980,

nursery school enrollment more than doubled.

Kamerman, S. B. (1983). Child-care services: A national

picture. Monthly Labor Review, 106(12), 35-39.

11. ARTICLE IN A NEWSPAPER

The New York Times reports that a bipartisan group of Senators

will propose a plan on Thursday to deal with Social Securitys

Volume

number

Issue number


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Writing and Research in Different Disciplines apa

679

looming problems . . . an issue that had seemed all

but dead this year (Stevenson, 1999, p. A23).

Stevenson, R. W. (1999, May 20). Congress and White House try to

break social security deadlock. The New York Times, p. A23.

12. EDITORIAL, LETTER TO THE EDITOR, OR REVIEW

One commentator notes that although Dr. Robert Fiddes

endangered the lives of study participants, and shows no appar-

ent remorse . . . he is sentenced to [only] 15 months in prison

(Sims, 1999, p. A28).

Sims, Pat H. (1999, May 17). When drug trials hurt patients;

light sentence. [Letter to the editor]. The New York Times,

p. A28.

13. ONLINE MAGAZINE

Provide author, year and issue of magazine, article title, magazine title,

URL, and date of access.

As Keegan (1999) notes, Researchers and marketers have known for

decades that when it comes to kids and their toys, speed sells.

Give a child a choice between a storybook and a television set,

and guess which one will grab his attention (paragraph 10).

Keegan, P. (1999, November/December). Culture quake. Mother

Jones. [Magazine, selected stories on-line]. Available:

http://www.mojones.com/mother_jones/ND99/quake.html [1999,

December 6].

Note that APA hyphenates online, though this handbook and Li and Cranes Electronic

Styles do not.

Page number

in section A


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14. ONLINE SCHOLARLY JOURNAL

Follows pattern for magazine except volume and series numbers follow the

journals title.

Crabtree (2000) asks:

Why is the unnoticed important? I would want to say that is

not just important but of primordial importance in that, and

precisely because, it is within the

practical actions that constitute our mundane reality that

the one and only real world, the one given through percep-

tion, the one and only one that is experienced, is inher-

ently organised or structured. (paragraph 18)

Crabtree, A. (2000, February). Remarks on the social

organisation of space and place. Journal of Mundane Behavior

[Online], 1(1). Available: http://www.mundane-

behavior.org/index2.htm [2000, March 1].

15. WEB SITE

Provide authors name if available, date of creation or last update of Web

site, title of site, URL, and date of access.

Citistate is the name Neal Peirce and Curtis Johnson coined in

1993 to describe how metropolitan regions have begun to operate

in the new, post-Cold War world economy (Citistates, 2000, para-

graph 1).

Citistates [Homepage of The Citistates Group], [Online]. (January

28, 2000). Available: http://www.citistates.

com/whatis.htm [2000, February 14].


22/28

The current APA guide provides very limited coverage of online-source docu-

mentation and follows Xia Li and Nancy B. Cranes Electronic Style (1993).

Our formats are based on the updated version of Li and Cranes book,

Electronic Styles: A Handbook for Citing Electronic Information (1996) and

on the information at their Web site: . Ask your instructor about which style guide you should follow.

42.8 ORGANIZING RESEARCH PAPERS IN THENATURAL SCIENCES

Research papers in the natural sciences are generally of two kinds: review

papers, which analyze the current state of knowledge on a specialized

topic, and laboratory reports, which present the results of an actual ex-

periment. Both kinds of papers normally begin with an abstract: a brief,

one-paragraph summary of the papers most important points. But the twokinds of papers differ in many respects.

The primary sources for a review paperare current articles in scientific

journals, and the purpose of a review paper is not to make an argument or

develop an original idea but to survey and explain what laboratory re-

search has recently shown about the topic. A review paper normally does

three things: (1) it introduces its topic, explaining why it is important and

what questions about it have been raised by recent research; (2) it develops

the topic by reviewing that research under a series of subheadings; and

(3) it concludes by summarizing what has been discovered and stating

what remains to be investigated.A laboratory report explains how an experiment made in a natural

science laboratory answers a question such as How do changes in temper-

ature affect the conductivity of copper? Resembling in its format a report

of findings in the social sciences, the lab report usually presents its materi-

als as follows:

1. The title succinctly states what was tested. It might be, for instance,

The Effect of Temperature Changes on the Conductivity of Copper.

2. The abstractsummarizes the report in about two hundred words.

3. The introduction explains the question that the lab test is designed to

answer.

4. A section on methods and materials explains how the experiment was

made, what apparatus was used, and how data were collected.

Writing and Research in Different Disciplines natur

681


23/28

5. A section on results puts the data into clearly organized form, using

graphs, tables, and illustrations where necessary. (See 42.10 on the pre-

sentation of tables and figures.)

6. The conclusion explains the significance of the results.

7. A reference listgives any published sources used, including any manuals

or textbooks.

42.9 DOCUMENTING SOURCES IN THE SCIENCES

Each subject in the sciences has its own style of documentation, which is

explained in one of the following style manuals:

BIOLOGY

Council of Biology Editors. Scientific Style and Format: The CBE Manual

for Authors, Editors and Publishers. 6th ed. New York: Cambridge UP,1994.

CHEMISTRY

Dodd, Janet S., ed. The American Chemical Society Style Guide: A Manual

for Authors and Editors. 2nd ed. Washington, 1997.

GEOLOGY

Bates, Robert L., Rex Buchanan, and Marla Adkins-Heljeson, eds.

Geowriting: A Guide to Writing, Editing, and Printing in Earth Science.

5th ed. Alexandria: American Geological Institute, 1995.

LINGUISTICS

Linguistic Society of America.LSA Bulletin, Dec. issue, annually.

MATHEMATICS

American Mathematical Society. The AMS Author Handbook: General

Instructions for Preparing Manuscripts. Providence: AMS, 1997.

MEDICINE

Iverson, Cheryl, et al.American Medical Association Manual of Style. 9th

ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1997.

PHYSICS

American Institute of Physics.AIP Style Manual. 4th ed. New York: AIP,1990 (updated 1997).

Your instructor will tell you which scientific style of documentation you

are expected to use. What follows is a brief guide to the style recommended

by the Council of Science Editors (CSE), which until January 1, 2000, was

Writing and Research in Different Disciplines42.9 cbe

682


24/28

Writing and Research in Different Disciplines cbe

683

called the Council of Biology Editors (CBE). Complete information on this

style will be found in the CBE manual cited above; for more information

on the CSE, visit .

USING CBE STYLE

The CBE style manual presents two documentation systems used inmathematics and the natural sciences. One is the name-yearsystem; the

other, illustrated below, is the citation-sequence system. In this system,

each source is numbered in the text and then listed by number on a Ref-

erences page at the end of the paper. If a source is used more than once,

the second use and any subsequent uses take the same number as the

first. More than one number may appear in different places in a single

sentence.

IN-TEXT CITATION AND REFERENCE-PAGE FORMATS

1. SINGLE AUTHOR MENTIONED IN TEXT

According to Nagle1, sunburn affects reproductive success only in

rare instances.

2. TWO OR MORE AUTHORS MENTIONED IN TEXT

Weiss and Mann2 have shown that folate deficiency retards growth,

causes anemia, and inhibits fertility.

3. THREE OR MORE AUTHORS MENTIONED IN TEXT

Holick and others3 exposed hypopigmented human skin to

simulated solar unltraviolet radiation for various times and de-

termined the photoproducts of 7-dehydrocholesterol.

4. NO AUTHOR MENTIONED IN TEXT

This theory implies that ultraviolet radiation can penetrate more

easily into lightly pigmented skin and will result in a greater

production of vitamin D than will a heavily melanated skin sub-

jected to the same light4.

Raised number

goes insidepunctuation.


25/28

Writing and Research in Different Disciplines42.9 cbe

684

5. SPECIFIC PAGES OR PARAGRAPHS CITED

It is reasonable to assume that dark pigmentation was prominent

among the ancient human populations5.

6. TWO OR MORE SOURCES CITED IN ONE REFERENCE

How is the distribution of skin color among indigenous popula-

tions to be explained? One hypothesis is that heavily melanated

skin emerged in sundrenched countries as protection against sun-

burn2,5.

References

1. Nagle JJ. Heredity and human affairs. St. Louis: Mosby; 1974.

337 p.

2. Weiss MA, Mann AE. Human biology and behaviour: an anthropo-

logical perspective. Boston: Little, Brown; 1985. 274 p.

3. Holick MF, MacLaughlin JA, Dopplet SH. Regulation of cutaneous

previtamin D3 photosynthesis in man: skin pigment is an essen-

tial regulator. Science 1981;211:589-95.

4. Loomis WF. Skin-pigment regulation of vitamin-D biosynthesis

in man. Science 167;157:66-71.

5. Kottack CP. Anthropology: the exploration of human

diversity. New York: Random House; 1978. p. 62.

Use only initials (without space or

punctuation between them) for

authors first and middle names.

Capitalize only first wordof title.

Center.

Single-space

each entry,

double-space

between them.

Not unde

No spac

between

volume

and pag


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Writing and Research in Different Disciplines table 4

685

7. ONLINE BOOK

6. Young RM. Darwins metaphor: natures place in Victorian cul-

ture. [online] 1985. Available from:

http://www.shef.ac.uk/~psych/darwin/dar.html. Accessed 1999

Nov 30.

8. ONLINE JOURNAL

7. Cukelly GJ, McNulty H, and Scott JM. Fortification with low

amounts of folic acid makes a significant difference in folate

status in young women: implications for the

prevention of neural tube defects. Am J Clin Nutr

[online] 1999;70:234-9. Available from:

http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/70/2/234. Accessed 1999

Aug 30.

9. WEB SITE

8. Bry L. Visible human transverse section through the head [on-

line]. 1998. Available from http://www.madsci.org/

cgi-bin/cgiwrap/~lynn/image?name=a_vm1110&

show_this=brain&searc7/20/99. Accessed 1999 Jul 20.

42.10 TABLES AND FIGURES IN RESEARCH PAPERS

Research papers in the social and natural sciences often require tables

(tabular data) or figures (graphs and illustrations). Tables and figures

should be numbered consecutively (Table 1, Table 2; Figure 1, Figure 2) and

accompanied by a descriptive caption, as shown below.

PRESENTING TABLES

Put the caption for a table above it as a heading. Use lowercase letters

(a,b,c) for footnotes, and put the footnotes at the bottom of the tablenot

at the bottom of the page or the end of the paper. If the table is photo-


27/28

Writing and Research in Different Disciplines42.10 table

686

Table 5.1 Selected Indicators of Development in Eastern Europe and

the USSR: PreWWII and 195070

PRE-WWII 1950 1960 1970

ILLITERATES (percent of total population)

Bulgaria 31.5% (1934) (10.7%)a

Czechoslovakia 4.1% (1930)

Hungary 9.0% (1930) 3.8% 2.4%Poland 23.1% (1931) 5.8% 2.7%

Romania 42.9% (1930) 23.1%USSR 43.4% (1926) 1.5% 0.3%

Yugoslavia 44.6% (1931) 25.4% 21.0% 15.1%

INFANT MORTALITY (rates per thousand live births)

Bulgaria 147 (1935) 94.5 45.1 27.3Czechoslovakia 130 (1935) 77.7 23.5 22.1

Hungary 157 (1935) 85.7 47.6 35.9

Poland 137 (1935) 111.2 54.8 33.4

Romania 182 (1935) 116.7 74.6 49.4USSR 181 (1926) 80.7 35.3 24.7Yugoslavia 153 (1935) 118.4 87.7 55.5

AGRICULTURAL POPULATION (active earners anddependents in agriculture as percent of total population)

Bulgaria 73.2% (1934) 45.2%Czechoslovakia 34.7% (1930) 24.9% 19.3% 13.2%

Hungary 51.9% (1930) 49.3% 34.8% 22.8%Poland 60.0% (1931) 46.4% 37.8% 29.8%

Romania 72.3% (1930) (45.1%)b

USSR 77.5% (1926) 22.8%Yugoslavia 76.6% (1931) 49.6% 38.2%

URBANIZATION (population in urban areas 20,000 and over as percent of total population)

Bulgaria 12.1% (1934) (29.1%)c 39.7%Czechoslovakia 16.6% (1930) 23.6% 25.3% 31.1%

Hungary 29.1% (1930) 34.3% 37.0%

Poland 17.0% (1931) 25.6% 31.8% 37.3%Romania 13.4% (1930) 17.1% 19.6% 28.4%

USSR 12.0% (1926) 35.6% 44.3%Yugoslavia 18.8% 26.0%

a Average of 1956 and 1965 figuresb 1966 figurec Average of 1956 and 1965 figures

Note. FromThe East European and Soviet data handbook: Politi-

cal, social, and developmental indicators, 19451975 (p. 382),

by P. Shoup, 1981, New York: Columbia University Press.


28/28

Writing and Research in Different Disciplines table 4

copied from a printed source, put a source note under it that follows the

appropriate style for your discipline. (The note for Table 5.1, p. 686, follows

APA style.)

PRESENTING FIGURES

Put the caption for a figurea graph or an illustrationjust below thefigure. The source note should follow the appropriate style. (The note for

Figure 1 below follows APA style.)

Gujarat

Maharashtra

AndhraPradesh

Orissa

Bihar

C H I N ATURKMN.

AFGHANISTAN

UZB.TAJIKISTAN

PAKISTAN

Ne wDelhi

NEPALBHUTAN

BURMA

B a y

o f

B e n g a l AndamanIslands

Nicobar

Islands

INDONESIAColombo

Maldives

Lakshadweep

AndamanSea

0 2 00 4 00 K il om et ers

0 200 400 Miles

Assam(nodata)

Source: Censusof India.1981.

Hind

u

Muslim

Christia

n

Sikh

Other

0

100%

Percentage oftotal state orunion territorypopulation

SRILANKA

BANGLADESH

ArunachalPradesh

Madhya Pradesh

Calcutta

A r a b i a nS e a

Goa

Dadra andNagar Haveli

Karnataka

Pondicherry

TamilNadu

Kerala

Lakshadweep

Rajasthan HaryanaDehi

TripuraWest Bengal

Manipur

Mizoram

Nagaland

SikkimMeghalaya

PunjabJammu andKashmir

Himachal Pradesh

Chandigarh

UttarPradesh

Andaman andNicobar Islands

Figure 1. The Religions of India

Note. FromFrom voting to violence: Democratization and

nationalist conflict (p. 288), by J. Snyder, 2000, New York:

Norton.

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