BODY MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES: A COMPARISON OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL BODY SCANNING AND PHYSICAL ANTHROPOMETRIC METHODS By Karla Peavy Simmons Submitted to the TTM Graduate Faculty College of Textiles North Carolina State University in partial fulfillment of the A1 requirement for the Ph.D. degree in Textile Technology and Management Raleigh, North Carolina January 12, 2001
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Body measurement techniques a comparison of three-dimensional body scanning and physical anthropometric methods
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BODY MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES: A COMPARISON OFTHREE-DIMENSIONAL BODY SCANNING AND
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOMETRIC METHODS
By
Karla Peavy Simmons
Submitted to the TTM Graduate FacultyCollege of Textiles
North Carolina State Universityin partial fulfillment of the A1 requirement
for the Ph.D. degreein Textile Technology and Management
Raleigh, North CarolinaJanuary 12, 2001
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paperii
Table of Contents
Page #
LIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURES viii
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. THREE-DIMENSIONAL BODY SCANNING TECHNOLOGY 22.1 Textile/Clothing Technology Corporation/ImageTwin 4
2.1.1 History 42.1.2 ImageTwin systems 52.1.3 System design 6
2.2 Cyberware 92.2.1 History 92.2.2 Cyberware systems 92.2.3 Cyberware system design 11
2.3 SYMCAD 132.3.1 History 132.3.2 SYMCAD system models 132.3.3 SYMCAD system design 14
3. TRADITIONAL ANTHROPOMETRY 143.1 Historical Practice 143.2 Methodology and Instrumentation 16
3.2.1 Methodology 163.2.2 Instrumentation 17
3.3 Landmarks 20
4. COMPARISON OF THE TRADITIONAL ANTHROPOMETRICAL 27METHOD WITH THREE-DIMENSIONAL BODY SCANNINGMETHODS4.1 Neck-Midneck 29
11. Diagram of principle planes used in anthropometry and terms 19of orientation
12. Anatomical points used in locating body landmarks on the front 24of the body
13. Anatomical points used in locating body landmarks on the back 25of the body
14. Anatomical points used in locating body landmarks on the side 26of the body
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper1
BODY MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES: A COMPARISON OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL BODY SCANNING AND PHYSICAL ANTHROPOMETRIC
METHODS
Introduction
In 1961, Ralph Lapp, a scientist turned writer, made these comments
about the unknown directions where science would lead us. Little did he know
that just a few years later, a new technology would be developed that would
revolutionize many industries by the end of the 21st century. This new
technology is three-dimensional (3D) non-contact body scanning.
Although body scanning applications have been used in many areas of
study, the apparel industry is anxiously researching its usage for apparel design
and the mass customization of garments. A major frustration for consumer
shopping of apparel is finding garments that are comfortable and fit properly
(Goldsberry & Reich, 1989). This frustration is caused by the current sizing
system, which was taken from an anthropometric study conducted in 1941.
Women are shaped differently today than six decades ago. New studies are
needed to record anthropometric data of today’s culture.
“No one – not even the most brilliant scientist alive today – really knowswhere science is taking us. We are aboard a train which is gatheringspeed, racing down a track on which there are an unknown number ofswitches leading to unknown destinations. No single scientist is in theengine cab and there may be demons at the switch. Most of society is inthe caboose looking backward.” (Lapp, Ralph E., The New Priesthood.New York: Harper & Row, 1961, p.29)
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper2
Three-dimensional body scanning is capable of extracting an infinite
number of types of data. However, a problem exists in the consistency of
measuring techniques between scanners. Among the several scanners that are
currently available, significant variance exists in how each captures specific body
measurements. Until the data capture process of specific body measurements
can be standardized or communicated among scanning systems, this island of
technology cannot be utilized for its maximum benefit within the apparel industry.
This paper will to a) give a brief description of several major body scanners, b)
discuss traditional anthropometry with regards to landmarks and body dimension
data, and c) present a comparison of traditional anthropometry with the
measurement techniques for each scanner.
Three-Dimensional Body Scanning Technology
When measuring a large number of locations on the human body, the
most desirable method would be one of non-contact. Before the turn of the
century, surveyors were using non-contact measurement from a distance to
determine the shape of the earth’s surface (West, 1993). Their system of
triangulation would become the basis of modern methods whereas a light
sensing device would replace the theodolite1. In 1964, a full-scale male dummy
was designed with anthropometric measuring that utilized a simple three-
dimensional technique (Lovesey). Also in 1964, Vietorisz used a light source and
an arrangement of photo detectors to measure a person’s silhouette.
1 A theodolite is a surveyor’s instrument for measuring horizontal and vertical angles (Webster’s,1987).
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper3
In 1979, Ito used an arrangement of lights with a collection of photo
detectors, which were rotated around the body being measured. A similar
system in principle was developed by Takada and Escki (1981), but with a
different setup of lights and photo detectors. In 1984, Halioua, Krishnamurphy,
Liu, and Chiang improved upon a method by Meadows, Johnson, and Allen
(1970), known today as the Moire` fringe method. They were able to determine
the body contour height of single points using two small independent gratings of
a light source and camera.
All of these systems were only capable of measuring one side of the body
at a time. It wasn’t until 1985 that Magnant produced a system which used a
horizontal sheet of light to completely surround the body. Framework for the
system carried the projectors and cameras needed that would scan the body
from head to toe.
Systems utilizing lasers were also being developed during this same
period of the late 1970s and early 1980s. In 1977, Clerget, Germain, and Kryze
illuminated their measured object with a scanning laser beam. Arridge, Moss,
Linney, and James (1985) used 2 vertical slices of laser along with a television
camera to measure the shapes of faces for orthodontic and maxillo-facial2
surgery. At this same time, Addleman and Addleman (1985) developed a
scanning laser beam system which is marketed today as Cyberware. Other
scanning systems have also been developed in the last fifteen years. A
list of the current major scanning systems can be found in Table 1.
2 Maxillo-facial is the upper jaw area of the face (Webster’s, 1987).
History. In 1981, a concept generated from the National Science
Foundation was formed into Tailored Clothing Technology Corporation. Their
mission was to conduct Research and Development activities, demonstrate
technology and provide education programs for the apparel industry. In 1985,
they became Textile/Clothing Technology Corporation [(TC2)]. (TC2) is located
in Cary, North Carolina where their teaching factory is visited by thousands of
industry representatives each year.
One of the research and development products invented by (TC2) has
been a 3-Dimensional whole body scanner and body measurement system
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper5
(BMS). Work on the system began back in 1991. In 1998, the first 3D scanner
model, the 3T6, was made available to the public. The first four systems to be
delivered were to Levi Strauss & Company, San Francisco, the U.S. Navy, North
Carolina State University College of Textiles, and Clarity Fit Technology of
Minneapolis.
The (TC2) scanner was the first scanner to be developed with the initial
focus for the clothing industry. In order for the American apparel industry to be
more competitive, (TC2) saw the need for the drive toward mass customization. 3
A move toward made-to-measure clothing necessitated fundamental technology
that would make the acquisition of essential body measurements quick, private,
and accurate for the customer.
ImageTwin systems. In July of 2000, (TC2) and Truefinds.com, Inc.
announced the joint venture formation of ImageTwin . The (TC2) scanner will
now be known as the ImageTwin Digital Body Measurement System ([TC2],
2000). The model 3T6 is named by the number of towers (3) and the number of
sensors (6) that are used for the scanning process. New models have been
designed that have the same basic function but a smaller footprint: the 2T4 and
2T4s. The 2T4 and 2T4s have 2 towers with 4 sensors. The “s” in 2T4s stands
for short which denotes a smaller layout than the 2T4 (David Bruner, personal
communication, 2000). A comparison of the 2T4 and 2T4s scanner models is
shown in Table 2.
3 Mass Customization is a term that was coined by Stan Davis in 1987 in Future Perfect. Ingeneral , it is the delivery of custom made goods and services to a mass market.
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper6
Table 2. Comparison of ImageTwin Scanner Models, 2T4 and 2T4s
Hardware 2T4 2T4sSystem Dimensions
Height 7.9 ft. 7.9 ft. Width 5 ft. 5 ft. Length 20.5 ft. 13.5 ft.Weight 600 lbs. 600 lbs.Field of view
Height 7.2 ft. 7.2 ft. Width 3.9 ft. 3.9 ft. Depth 2.6 ft. 3.6 ft.Setup time 4 hrs. 4 hrs.Calibration time 15 mins. 15 mins.Portability Yes YesCost $65,000 $65,000
System design. The ImageTwin BMS utilizes phase measurement
profilometry (PMP) where structured white light is employed. The concept was
first introduced by M. Halioua in 1986 (Halioua & Hsin-Chu, 1989). The PMP
method employs white light to impel a curved, 2-dimenional patterned grating on
the surface of the body. An example of this grating can be found in Figure 1.
The pattern that is projected is captured by an area array charge-coupled device
(CCD) camera.
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper7
Figure 1. Patterned grating in the ImageTwin scanner.
The design of this system allows for extensive coverage of the entire
human body. After experimentation, it was determined that more detail and
coverage is required for the front surface of the body than on the back surface
(Hurley, Demers, Wulpurn, & Grindon 1997). The 3T6 has 2 front views that
have a 60 degree angle and a straight on back view (see Figure 2).
Figure 2. Booth layout of the ImageTwin scanner.
With these angles, overlap between the views is imparted where a high
degree of detail is needed for high slope regions. Minimal overlap is needed on
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper8
smooth surfaces. Therefore, for height coverage, six views are utilized: three
upper and three lower.
Each system utilizes six stationary surface sensors. A single sensor
captures an area segment of the surface. When all sensors are combined, an
incorporated surface with critical area coverage of the body is formed for the use
in the production of apparel. Four images per sensor per grating are attained.
This information is used to calculate the 3D data points. The transitional yield of
the PMP method is a data cloud for all six views.
Once the image is obtained, over 400,000 processed data points are
determined (Figure 3). Then segmentation of the body occurs and the
measurement extraction transpires (Figure 4). The specific measurement output
is predetermined by the user. A printout is available with a body image and the
measurements (Figure 5).
Figure 3. 3D point Figure 4. Segmentation Figure 5. Printoutcloud of the body available to subject
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper9
Cyberware
History. Another leading three-dimensional body scanner manufacturer is
Cyberware. Incorporated in December 1982, the company’s early work
consisted of digitizing and model shop services. More than two years was spent
developing the rapid 3D digitizing that they are now known for today. Currently,
Cyberware centers on manufacturing various 3D scanners with continuing
research and development in custom digitizing. They are one of the leaders in
research concerning 3D scanning for garment design and fitting,
anthropometrics, and ergonomics. Cyberware is privately funded (Cyberware,
2000a).
The idea for whole body scanning started at Cyberware when
anthropologists at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base began deliberations on
imaging in 1991. Two years later, a formal proposal was published with an order
for a system in March of 1994. Delivery of the system was in August 1995
(Addleman, 1997). Since then, Cyberware has sold scanners all over the world
(Cyberware, 2000a).
Cyberware systems. Although Cyberware has several different types of
scanners, they currently have only two models in the whole-body scanner line,
the WB4 and WBX. The WB4 is a color whole-body 3D scanner, the goal of
which is to obtain an accurate computer model in one pass of the scanner
(Cyberware, 2000b). The subject stands on the scanner platform while the
scanner pans down the length of the entire body (see Figure 6). The WBX is an
enclosed whole body 3D scanner (Cyberware, 2000c). It was custom designed
for use in scanning military recruits for uniform issue (ARN, 2000)(Figure 7.) The
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper10
systems do have similarities. Table 3 best illustrates the features of both the
WB4 and the WBX scanners.
Figure 6. Cyberware 3D whole body scanner: Model WB4.
Figure 7. Cyberware 3D whole body scanner: Model WBX.
Each one of the scanning heads consists of a light source and a detector.
Laser diodes4 are the source of light, which project a level surface of light onto a
subject. This laser line is created by tubular lenses and focusing optics. A CCD,
coupled charge device, sees the line created by the laser crossing the subject.
The image is reflected using mirrors to reduce the camera size. Electronic
circuitry distributes the raw data to the workstation for the scanned points
(Addleman, 1997).
The WB4 can produce a cloud of over 100,000 3D data points from the
human body surface (Daanen, Taylor, Brunsman, & Nurre, 1997). These points
4 According to Webster’s Dictionary (1987), a diode is a 2-electrode electron tube having anegative terminal (cathode) and a positive terminal (anode) of an electrolytic cell.
105
105
7575
Head 2
Head 3
Head 1
Head
0
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper13
are available within seconds for use. The four separate camera views are
illustrated and combined into one data set where redundant and overlapping data
are removed. For subjects larger than the maximum allowable dimensions for
the scanner (79” x 49”), two or more scans can be combined for a complete 3D
model (Cyberware, 2000b).
SYMCAD
History. In 1992, a French based company, TELMAT Industrie, developed
a computerized 3D body measuring system called SYMCAD. The System for
Measuring and Creating Anthropometric Database (SYMCAD) was first used in
January 1995 by the French Navy for uniform issue (Financial Times, 1998).
SYMCAD systems. The range of TELMAT products fall into several
categories. In the textile area, the only product they offer is the SYMCAD. They
refer to this system as “The Electronic Master Tailor”, “the SYMCAD Turbo
Flash/3D”, and “a Computerized 3D Body Measuring System” (TELMAT 2000;
L’LALSACE, 1999; Financial Times, 1998). See Figure 9 for a representation of
the SYMCAD scanner.
Figure 9. Scanning booth of the SYMCAD Turbo Flash/3D.
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper14
SYMCAD system design. The scanning system consists of a small
enclosed room with an illuminated wall, a camera, and a computer. The subject
enters the booth, removes their clothing, and stands in their undergarments in
front of the illuminated wall. Three different poses of the subject are
photographed: facing the camera with arms slightly apart from the body, from the
side straight on5, and facing the wall (Financial Times, 1998). These 3D images
are processed and appear on the computer screen. Over 70 measurement
calculations are made from these computerized images.
Traditional Anthropometry
Historical Practice
No two people are ever alike in all of their measurable characteristics.
This uniqueness has been the object of curiosity and research for over 200
years. In the past, different individuals have set out to express quantitatively the
form of the body. This technique was termed anthropometry. The definition
used by Kroemer, Kroemer, & Kroemer-Elbert (1986) is:
The name is derived from anthropos, meaning human, and metrikos,
meaning of or pertaining to measuring (Roebuck, Jr., 1995). The first individual
to mark the beginning of anthropometry was Quelet in 1870, with his desire to
5 Both the front and side views adopt anthropometric poses (World Clothing Manufacturer, 1996).The anthropometric position assumes the body is standing upright, and at “attention” with thearms hanging by the sides slightly apart from the body, palms of the hands facing the front, andthe feet facing directly forward (Croney, 1971).
Anthropometry describes the dimensions of the human body (p.1).
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper15
obtain measurements of the average man according to Gauss’ Law6
(Anthropometry, 2000). It wasn’t until the 1950s that anthropometrics became a
recognized discipline. Settings for usage of anthropometry include vehicles, work
sites, equipment, airplane cockpits, and clothing (CAD Modelling, 1992; Czaja,
traditional methods of measuring bodies need a great deal of improvement.
Methodology & Instrumentation
Methodology. Classical anthropometric data provides information on
static dimensions of the human body in standard postures (Kroemer, Kroemer, &
Kroemer-Elbert, 1986). The science of anthropometry is one of great precision.
Experienced workers in the field are the best to utilize this technique (Montagu,
1960).
Most measurements taken of the subject are taken in the most desirable
position of standing. However, there are a few measures which warrant
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper17
exception. Measurements are taken, whenever possible in the morning. The
human body tends to decrease in height during the day and is often more relaxed
in the morning (Montagu, 1960). It is preferable to have the subject completely
unclothed or with as little clothing as possible.
Kromer, Kroemer, & Kroemer-Elbert (1986) explain in detail the standard
method of measuring a subject:
For most measurements, the subject’s body is placed in adefined upright straight posture, with the body segments at either180, 0, or 90 degrees to each other. For example, the subjectmay be required to “stand erect; heels together; buttocks,shoulder blades, and back of head touching the wall; armsvertical, fingers straight…”: This is close to the so-called“anatomical position” used in anatomy. The head is positioned inthe “Frankfurt Plane”; With the pupils on the same horizontallevel, the right tragion (approximated by the ear hole), and thelowest point of the right orbit (eye socket) are also placed on thesame horizontal plane. When measures are taken on a seatedsubject, the (flat and horizontal) surfaces of seat and foot supportare so arranged that the thighs are horizontal, the lower legsvertical and the feet flat on their horizontal support. The subjectis nude, or nearly so, and unshod (p.6).
A diagram of the principle planes used in anthropometry and the terms
of orientation are given in Figure 11.
Instrumentation. The same anthropometric instruments have been used
since Richer first used calipers in 1890 (Anthropometry, 2000). Simple,
quick, non-invasive tools include a weight scale, camera, measuring tape,
anthropometer, spreading caliper, sliding compass, and head spanner. Table 4
summarizes the tools and their uses. Figure 10 shows the tools.
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper18
Table 4. Summary of Anthropometric Tools and Usages
Anthropometric Tool Usage
Weight Scale For determining weight
Camera For photographing subjects
Measuring Tape For measuring circumferences andcurvatures
Anthropometer For measuring height and varioustraverse diameters of the body
Spreading Caliper For measuring diameters
Sliding Compass For measuring short diameters suchas those of the nose, ears, hand, etc.
Head Spanner For determining the height of the head
Figure 11. Diagram of principle planes used in anthropometry andthe terms of orientation.7
7 Medial suggests near the midline. Lateral suggests farther away from the midline. Posteriorsuggests at the back of the body. Anterior suggests at the front of the body. Superior suggeststoward the head. Inferior suggests away from the head. The Median plane passes through thecenter of the body dividing it into a right and left half. The Sagittal plane passes through the bodyparallel with the median plane. The Coronal plane passes through the body from side to side atright angles to the sagittal plane. The Traverse plane is any plane at right angles to the long axisof the body (Bryan, Davies, & Middlemiss, 1996; Tortora, 1986).
YZ
XZ
XY
Lateral(Away fromthe body)
Medial(Middle ofthe body)
Posterior(Back ofthe body)
Anterior(Front ofthe body)
Transverseplane
Sagittalplane Coronal
plane
XY
YZ
Distal
Proximal(nearer tothe torsoskeleton)
Superior(Toward thehead)
Inferior(Away fromthe head)
Lateral(Away fromthe body)
Distal (furtherfrom the torsoskeleton)
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper20
Landmarks
As stated earlier, the correct identification of body landmarks is one of the
key elements in observer error in the collection of anthropometric data. In order
to have agreement as to the body measurements recorded in an anthropometric
based study, uniformity must be achieved as to what common points on the body
must be identified. These points are referred to as landmarks.
Most people have never had a formal education in anatomy to be able to
identify specific landmarks. Even though measurers are usually trained in how to
measure subjects for a study, the process is still very difficult and time
consuming. In a 1988 anthropometric survey of US Army personnel, four hours
were required to physically landmark, measure, and record the data of one
subject (Paquette, 1996).
The first step in traditional landmarking is to mark certain places on the
body with a non-smearing, skin pencil (O’Brien & Sheldon, 1941) or skin-safe,
washable ink (Roebuck, 1995). A small cross verses a dot is usually used as the
marking symbol because the intersection of the lines is easier to read. The
traditional methods in determining and placing landmarks are given below.
Diagrams of the landmarks are given in Figures 12, 13, and 14.
A landmark is an anatomical structure used as a point of orientation in locatingother structures (Websters, 1987).
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper21
Table 5. Landmark Terms and Definitions
Landmark Symbol DefinitionAbdominalExtension(Front High-Hip)
A
Figure 14
Viewed from the side, it is the measure of thegreatest protrusion from one imaginary side seam tothe other imaginary side seam usually taken at thehigh hip level (ASTM, 1999); taken approximately 3inches below the waist, parallel to the floor (ASTM,1995)
Acromion(Shoulder Point)
B
Figure 12
The most prominent point on the upper edge of theacromial process of the shoulder blade (scapula)[T]as determined by palpatation (feeling) (Jones, 1929;McConville, 1979).
Ankle(Malleolus)
C
Figures 12,13, 14
The joint between the foot and lower leg; theprojection of the end of the major bones of the lowerleg, fibula and tibia, that is prominent, taken at theminimum circumference (McConville, 1979; O’Brien &Sheldon, 1941; ASTM, 1999).
Armpit(Axilla)
D
Figures 12,13
Points at the lower (inferior) edge determined byplacing a straight edge horizontally and as high aspossible into the armpit without compressing the skinand marking the front and rear points or the hollowpart under the arm at the shoulder (McConville, 1979;ASTM, 1999). *See Scye.
Bicep Point E
Figure 12
Point of maximum protrusion of the bicep muscle, thebrachii, as viewed when elbow is flexed 90 degrees,fist clenched and bicep strongly contracted (Gordon,Churchhill, Clauser, Bradtmiller, McConville,Tebbetts, & Walker, 1989; ASTM, 1999).
Bust Point F
Figure 14
Most prominent protrusion of the bra cup (Gordon,et.al, 1989, McConville, 1979; O’Brien & Sheldon,1941); apex of the breast (ASTM, 1999).
Buttock(Seat)
GFigure 14
Level of maximum protrusion as determined by visualinspection (McConville, 1979; Gordon, et.al, 1989)
Calf(Gastrocnemius)
HFigures 12,
13, 14
Part of the leg between the knee and ankle atmaximum circumference (McConville, 1979; ASTM,1999).
Cervicale(VertebraProminous)
I
Figures 13,14
At the base of the neck [R] portion of the spine andlocated at the tip of the spinous process of the 7th
cervical vertebra determined by palpatation, oftenfound by bending the neck or head forward(McConville, 1979; Jones, 1929; Gordon, et.al, 1989;O’Brien & Sheldon, 1941; ASTM, 1999).
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper22
Landmark Symbol DefinitionCollarbone Point(Clavical Point)
JFigure 12
Upper (superior) points of the shoulder (lateral) endsof the clavical (Gordon, et.al, 1989).
Crotch Point KFigures 12,
13
Body area adjunct to the highest point (vertex) of theincluded angle between the legs (ASTM, 1999).
Crown LFigure 12
Top of the head (ASTM, 1999; O’Brien & Sheldon,1941).
Elbow(Olecranon)
M
Figures 12,13, 14
When arm is bent, the farthermost (lateral) point ofthe olecranon which is the projection of the end of theinner most bone in the lower arm (ulna) (O’Brien &Sheldon, 1941); the joint between the upper andlower arm (ASTM, 1999).
Gluteal FurrowPoint
NFigures 13,
14
The crease formed at the juncture of the thigh andbuttock (McConville, 1979; Gordon, et. Al, 1989).
Hip Bone(GreaterTrochanter)
O
Figures 12,14
Outer bony prominence of the upper end of the thighbone (femer) (ASTM, 1999; O’Brien & Sheldon,1941).
Iliocristale P
Figures 12,14
Highest palpable point of the iliac crest of the pelvis,½ the distance between the front (anterior) and back(posterior) upper (superior) iliac spine (Gordon, et.al,1989; Jones, 1929).
Kneecap Q
Figures 12,14
Upper and lower borders of the kneecap (patella)located by palpatation (Gordon, et.al, 1989;McConville, 1979); joint between the upper and lowerleg (ASTM, 1999).
Neck R
Figures 12,13
Front (anterior) and side (lateral) points at the base ofthe neck; points on each cervical and upper bordersof neck ends of right and left clavicles [J] (O’Brien &Sheldon, 1941; Gordon, et.al, 1989).
Infrathyroid(Adam’s Apple)
S
Figure 14
The bottom (inferior), most prominent point in themiddle of the thyroid cartilage found in the centerfront of the neck (Gordon, et.al, 1989).
Shoulder Blade(Scapula)
T
Figures 13,14
Large, triangular, flat bones situated in the back partof the chest (thorax) between the 2nd and 7th ribs(Totora, 1986; Bryan, Davies, & Middlemiss, 1996).
Scye U Points at the folds of the juncture of the upperarm andtorso associated with a set-in sleeve of a garment(Gordon, et.al, 1989; McConville, 1979; O’Brien &Sheldon,1941). *See Armpit.
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper23
Landmark Symbol DefinitionTop of theBreastbone(Suprasternal)
V
Figure 12
Bottom most (inferior) point of the jugular notch of thebreastbone (sternum) (Gordon, et. al, 1989; Jones,1929).
Tenth Rib W
Figures 12,14
Lower edge point of the lowest rib at the bottom of therib cage (Gordon, et. al, 1989; O’Brien & Sheldon,1941).
7th ThoracicVertebra
X
Figure 13
The 7th vertebra of 12 of the thoracic type whichcovers from the neck to the lower back (Totora,1986).
Waist (Naturalindentation)
Y
Figure 13
Taken at the lower edge of the 10th rib [W] bypalpatation (O’Brien & Sheldon, 1941); point ofgreatest indentation on the profile of the torso or ½the distance between the 10th rib [W] and iliocristale[P] landmarks (Gordon, et.al, 1989); location betweenthe lowest rib [W] and hip [O] identified by bendingthe body to the side (ASTM, 1999).
Waist(Omphalion)
ZFigure 14
Center of navel (umbilicus) (Gordon, et. al, 1989;Jones, 1929).
Wrist (Carpus) AA
Figures 12,13
Joint between the lower arm and hand (ASTM, 1999);Distal ends (toward the fingers) of the ulna (the innermost bone) and radius (the outer most bone) of thelower arm (McConville, 1979; Gordon, et. al, 1989).
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper24
Figure 12. Anatomical points used in locating body landmarks on the frontof the body.
Shoulder Point (Acromion) [B]
Ankle(Malleolus) [C]
Armpit[D] (Axilla)
BicepPoint [E]
Collarbone Point[J] (Clavical Point)
[L] Crown
Elbow[M] (Olecranon)
Hip Bone(Greater [O]Trochanter)
Iliocristale [P]
Kneecap[Q] (Patella)
Neck [R]
Tenth[W] Rib
Wrist(Carpus) [AA]
Top of Breastbone[V] (Suprasternal)
Crotch[K] Point
Calf(Gastrocnemius) [H]
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper25
Figure 13. Anatomical points used in locating body landmarks on the backof the body.
Cervicale(7th Cervical [I] Vertebra)
[R] Neck
7th Thoracic[X] Vertebra
Elbow(Olecranon) [M]
GlutealFurrow Point [N]
Waist[Y] (Natural Indentation)
Calf(Gastrocnemius) [H]
Crotch[K] Point
Shoulder Blades (Scapula) [T]
Ankle[C] (Malleolus)
Wrist[AA] (Carpus)
Armpit(Axilla) [D]
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper26
Figure 14. Anatomical points used in locating body landmarks on the sideof the body.
Bust Point [F]
Adam’s Apple(Infrathyroid) [S]
[W] Tenth Rib
Cervical(7th Cerival Vertebra)
[I]
Shoulder Blade [T] (Scapula)
Iliocristale [P]
Elbow(Olecranon) [M]
Gluteal Furrow [N] Point
Hip Bone (Greater [O]Trochanter)
Kneecap(Patella) [Q]
Calf[H] (Gatrocnemius)
Ankle[C] (Malleolus)
Waist(Omphalion) [Z]
Abdominal Extension [A]
[G] Buttock
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper27
Comparison of the Traditional Anthropometrical Method With 3D BodyScanning Methods
Simple anthropometric methods using measuring tapes and calipers are
still being utilized to measure the human body. The methods are time consuming
and often not accurate. With the development of three-dimensional body
scanning, this technology allows for the extraction of body measurements in
seconds. It also allows consistent measurements. However, there are several
problems that exist with the adoption of this technology.
One such issue is the comparability of measuring techniques between the
scanners. Among the growing number of scanners that are currently available,
significant variance exists in how each scanner captures specific body
measurements. Until the data capture process of these measurements can be
standardized or, at the very least, communicated among the scanning systems,
this technology cannot be utilized for its maximum benefit within the apparel
industry.
A second problem is the unwillingness of some scanner companies to
share information about their scanning process. Some companies will give how
the data capture occurs, how and what landmarks are used, and general
information about their measurement extraction. However, the real proprietary
information is in the mathematic/algebraic algorithms that are used. Almost all
scanning companies are keeping this secret, which is understandable since this
might be their competitive advantage. When these particular scanning
companies are questioned about their data capturing methods, they simply give a
standard answer of “we follow the ISO standards” or a similar statement. These
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper28
are the kinds of attitudes that cause barriers to be built, which could inhibit the
growth of this technology. Research of this comparative nature should enable
3D scanner companies to see the importance of their support in order to promote
adoption of their technologies.
A third problem with body scanning technology is that there are no
standards, published or unpublished, on the interpretation of measurements or
measurement terms. Current standards for body and garment dimensions
include those established by the Association of Standards and Testing Materials
(ASTM) and the International Standards Organization (ISO). The predominant
standard for measurements taken for the military today in their issue of clothing is
the 1988 study of U.S. Army personnel by Gordon, Bradtmiller, Churchhill,
Clouser, McConville, Tebbetts, and Walker (1989).
Three-dimensional body scanning brings to the forefront issues
concerning these current standards. Most current standards require palpatation,
or touching of the human body, or the bending of body parts to find appropriate
landmarks for the needed measurements. Most scanners are intended to be
non-contact so that the privacy of the individual being scanned can be protected.
If we were to use the current standards to define the measuring process in 3D
scanning, they just will not work. New standards are needed that will work for 3D
scanners on a global basis.
A fourth problem is the need of some scanners to require landmarking.
Manually identifying landmarks is time consuming and, usually, full of error.
Landmarking also violates the privacy of the individual. A human must come in
contact with the subject’s skin in order to find the landmark and to mark it. On
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper29
the other side, another issue is that scanners that do landmarking automatically
are most times making an educated guess as to the exact location of that
landmark. Without being able to touch the subject’s skin, absolute identification
cannot be achieved.
In this study, 17 measurements were chosen that were considered critical
in the initial design of well fitting garments. These measures included
midneck/neckbase, chest/bust, waist by natural indentation/waist by navel,
hips/seat, sleeve length/arm length, inseam, outseam, shoulder length, across
back, across chest, back of neck to waist, rise, crotch length, thigh
circumference, bicep circumference, and wrist circumference. For each of the 17
measurements, the method of data capture is described below for three different
scanners: ImageTwin , Cyberware, and SYMCAD.
Neck-Midneck
Traditional measurement method. The midneck is defined as the
circumference of the neck approximately 25mm (1 inch) above the neck base
(ASTMa,1995; ASTMb, 1995; ASTM, 1999). The girth of the neck measured
2cm below the Adam’s apple and at the level of the 7th cervical vertebra (ISO,
1981; ISO, 1989; National Bureau of Standards (NBS), 1971). The plane is
perpendicular to the long axis of the body (McConville, 1979; Gordon, et al,
1979).
ImageTwin method. In this system, the mid-neck measure is referred to
as the “collar”. It is measured by
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper30
Cyberware method. The “neck circumference” measure
is taken at the collar level. It is the smallest circumference of
points that pass through the center of the Adam’s Apple. It
often lies on or near a plane at varying offsets and tilt angles
(Steven Paquette, personal communication, December 1,
2000).
SYMCAD method. The “neck girth” is the perimeter of the neck that is the
smallest circumference measured from the 7th cervical vertebra (SYMCAD,
2000).
Discussion. For the midneck measure, the first issue of discussion is that
the current standards are not in agreement as to the proper method of
measurement. About 25 mm above the neckbase and 2 cm below the Adam’s
apple can vary widely between individuals. Secondly, men have an Adam’s
apple but women do not. The ISO and NBS definitions seem not to be
appropriate for women. Thirdly, the terms used for the midneck are not clear.
The midneck measure is used as the collar measurement in men’s shirts.
ImageTwin recognizes this usage by calling their measure “collar”. However,
Cyberware and SYMCAD refer to their midneck as neck circumference and neck
girth.
Figure 15.Midneckmeasurement.
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper31
Neck-Neckbase
Traditional measurement method. The neckbase is defined as the
circumference of the neck taken just over the cervical at the back and at the top
of the collarbone in the front (ISO, 1989; ASTMa, 1995; ASTM, 1999; NBS, 1971;
NBS, 1972).
ImageTwin method. The neckbase is the “neck”
measurement in this system. It is the circumference measured
right at the base of the neck following the contours. It is not
parallel to the floor (Ken Harrison, personal communication,
September, 1999).
Cyberware method. Cyberware does not have a
neckbase measure.
SYMCAD method. The “neckbase” is the perimeter
around the neck defined by a plane section based on the 7th cervical vertebra
and both left and right neck bases (SYMCAD, 2000).
Discussion. The neckbase measurement for the ImageTwin and
SYMCAD seem to be consistent with the current standards. The term “neck”
could be changed so it would not be confused with the midneck measure. This
measure is possibly more important for women than men because of the various
collarless clothing styles. Considering the development of the Cyberware system
and its use by the military, it is understandable that they have not developed a
neckbase measure.
Figure 16.Neckbasemeasurement.
Karla P. Simmons A-1 Paper32
Table 6. Midneck and Neckbase Terms Used in Selected Scanner Models
Midneck Neckbase
ImageTwin Collar Neck
Cyberware Neck Circumference n/a
SYMCAD Neck Girth Neckbase
Chest Circumference
Traditional measurement method. The chest circumference is defined as
the maximum horizontal girth at bust levels measured under the armpits, over the
shoulder blades, and across the nipples with the subject breathing normally
(NSB, 1971; ISO, 1989; ISO, 1981); parallel to the floor (ASTMa, 1995; ASTMb,
1995; ASTM, 1999; McConville, 1979).
ImageTwin method. The “chest” measurement is measured horizontally
at the armpit level just above the bustline (Ken Harrison, personal
communication, September, 1999; [TC2], 1999).
Cyberware method. Cyberware does not have a
measurement that differentiates the chest from the bust
measures. Their chest measure is more related to the
bust measure and is discussed in the next section.