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Review Article
Body malodours and their topical treatment agents
M. Kanlayavattanakul and N. Lourith
School of Cosmetic Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai, Thailand
Received 4 October 2010, Accepted 3 February 2011
Keywords:anti-perspirant, body odour, deodourant, foot odour, treatment
Synopsis
Body malodour, including foot odour, suppresses social interaction
by diminishing self-confidence and accelerating damage to the
wearers clothes and shoes. Most treatment agents, including alu-
minium anti-perspirant salts, inhibit the growth of malodourousbacteria. These metallic salts also reduce sweat by blocking the
excretory ducts of sweat glands, minimizing the water source that
supports bacterial growth. However, there are some drawback
effects that limit the use of aluminium anti-perspirant salts. In
addition, over-the-counter anti-perspirant and deodourant products
may not be sufficiently effective for heavy sweaters, and strong
malodour producers. Body odour treatment agents are rarely men-
tioned in the literature compared with other cosmetic ingredients.
This review briefly summarizes the relationship among sweat, skin
bacteria, and body odour; describes how odourous acids, thiols,
and steroids are formed; and discusses the active ingredients,
including metallic salts and herbs, that are used to treat body
odour. A new class of ingredients that function by regulating the
release of malodourants will also be described. These ingredients do
not alter the balance of the skin flora.
Resume
Les mauvaises odeurs corporelles, y compris celles des pieds, atte-
nue linteraction sociale en diminuant la confiance en soi et favori-
sant des dommages aux vetements et aux chaussures portes. La
plupart des agents inclus dans les traitements, y compris les sels
daluminium antiperspirants, inhibent la croissance de bacteries
malodorantes. Ces sels metalliques reduisent aussi la sueur en blo-
quant les canaux excreteurs des glandes sudoripares, reduisant ainsi
au minimum leau, source de la croissance bacterienne. Cependant,
il y a quelques inconvenients qui limitent lutilisation de sels dalu-
minium anti-transpirants. De plus, les produits antiperspirants et
deodorants OTC peuvent ne pas etre suffisamment efficaces pour des
personnes produisant une grande quantite de sueur et producteursde fortes odeurs. Les agents actifs sur les Odeurs corporelles sont rar-
ement mentionnes dans la litterature comparativement a dautres
Ingredients cosmetiques. Cette revue recapitule brievement la rela-
tion entre la Sueur, les bacteries cutanees et lodeur corporelle; elle
decrit comment des acides odorants, des thiols, et des ste rodes sont
formes; et examine les principes actifs, y compris les sels metalliques
et les vegetaux utilises pour traiter lodeur corporelle. Une nouvelle
classe dingredients dont la fonction est de reguler la liberation de
mauvaises odeurs est egalement decrite. Ces ingredients ne modifient
pas lequilibre de la flore cutanee.
Introduction
Body odour, which encompasses axillary and foot odour, can com-
municate a strong non-verbal signal [1, 2]. These odours are often
unnoticed by the offender because that person has specific anosmia
[3]. As a result, the individual is embarrassed when alerted, and
his or her self-confidence is compromised. The offensive body odour
also has economical consequences stemming from the need to
replace damaged/stained clothes and shoes [4, 5].
In contrast to clear findings in animals, the presence of human
vomeronasal organs is still being debated. Clearly, the ability to
appreciate underarm and foot odours depends solely on an individ-
uals evolutionary culture and perceptual development. However,
the emission of odourless human pheromones has been reviewed
and is becoming a popular discussion topic [6].
The human scent is genetically controlled and systemically influ-enced by dietary and medicinal intake, as well as the application of
fragrance products [68]. Heavy sweating or hyperhidrosis, partic-
ularly at axillary sites, leads to unpleasant odours that cause social
embarrassment and reduce self-confidence, especially among
women. Hyperhidrosis results from the oversecretion of sweat.
Because there is an excessive amount of water in which bacteria
can grow, hyperhidrosis is often accompanied by bromhidrosis or
osmidrosis or offensive body odour. Both conditions can be treated
by topically applying anti-perspirant and deodourant products.
Body odour treatment products are part of a multibillion dollar
industry [9]. High levels of fragrance are often used in these prod-
ucts to mask malodour [10]. Surprisingly, there is little discussion
of odour treatment products in the literature [6], in contrast to
other personal care products [11, 12].
This review will summarize the chemical composition andformation of body odour, the use of anti-perspirant, deodourant
and herbal products to treat body odour, and a new class of treat-
ment agents that do not change the balance of the skins bacterial
population.
Sweat glands and body odour
Sweat is necessary for thermoregulation control, enabling humans
to live in different climate zones. There are three types of sweat
glands: eccrine, apocrine and apoeccrine. The eccrine glands are
Correspondence: Nattaya Lourith, School of Cosmetic Science, Mae Fah
Luang University, Chiang Rai, 57100, Thailand. Tel.: +66 53 916834;
fax: +66 53 916831; e-mail: [email protected]
International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 2011, 33, 298311 doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2494.2011.00649.x
2011 The Authors
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distributed throughout the human body, particularly in the palms,
soles and armpits. Sweat glands vary in density and size depending
on race, sex, body site and determination techniques [1315]. Apo-
crine gland secretions, which are initially odourless, are metabo-
lized by normal skin flora, producing malodour.
Eccrine glands exist and function at birth. Apocrine glands exist
at birth, but they do not begin to function until the onset of pub-erty. Within the axilla, apocrine glands outnumber eccrine glands
by 101 [16]. Apoeccrine glands develop from the eccrine gland
during adolescence, as the number of eccrine glands is observed to
decrease with age. Although the eccrine glands are mainly respon-
sible for thermoregulation, emotional stimuli also initiate a
response, particularly from those glands found in the palms, soles
and forehead. Emotional stimuli also initiate responses from the
apoeccrine and apocrine glands within the axilla [17].
Apocrine glands open into hair follicles and secrete malodour
precursors and microbial nutrients that provide an excellent envi-
ronment for the growth of cutaneous microorganisms [18]. Some
examples of apocrine gland secretions include: proteins, lipids, sul-
phur-containing amino acids, volatile short-chain fatty acids and
steroids such as dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), DHEA sulphates
(DHEAS), androsterone and testosterone [1921]. In adolescents, ahigh amount of 5a-reductase type I has been identified that con-
verts testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT), another androgen
that contributes to malodour [22]. Such cutaneous microorganisms
include aerobic cocci of the Micrococcaceae family, aerobic diph-
theroids (mainly Corynebacterium), anaerobic diphtheroids (Propio-
nibacterium) and yeast (Pityrosporum) [23]. Some of the resulting
malodourous species include: (E)-3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid or
3M2H and 3-hydroxy-3-methyl hexanoic acid (HMHA) [24], 3-sul-
phanylalkanol (particularly 3-methyl-3-sulphanyl hexanol;
3M3SH) [2527], androstenone (5a-androst-16-en-3-one) and
androstenol (5a-androst-16-en-3a-ol).Trans-3M2H is detected more
frequently than its cis-isomer. The E/Z ratio is 10 : 1 in men and
16 : 1 in women [18, 28, 29], of which detection thresholds of
these characteristic malodourants were shown in Table I. It is the
presence of those bacteria population that metabolizes apocrinegland secretions producing axillary odour.
Hypersweating by eccrine glands, commonly known as hyper-
hidrosis, produces a water-rich environment that supports the
bacteria population (i.e. Corynebacteria, Stapphylococci and Propioni-
bacteria) that causes extreme body malodour known as osmidrosis
or bromhidrosis. Hypersweating does not occur before the onset of
puberty, similar to emotional sweating in the axillary region. Axil-
lary hyperhidrosis is defined as a sweat rate >20 in men and
10 mg min)1 in women. However, palmar hyperhidrosis in both
sexes is defined as a rate of sweat secretion >3040 mg min)1
[30]. The axillary odour is stronger given differences in the bacte-
rial populations at the different sites. Young females are often
hypersensitive to the resulting axillary malodour, perhaps because
male body odour from this site acts as a human pheromone [6].
Sweat from the eccrine gland mainly consists of water (99%)and amino acids, ions, lactic acid, glycerol, urea, peptides and
proteins (particularly cysteine containing) [31, 32]. Propionibacteria,
Staphylococcus and Corynebacteria that are apart of the normal skin
flora catabolize glycerol, and lactic acid to short-chain (C2C3)
volatile fatty acids (VFAs) such as acetic, and propionic acids.
These bacteria also degrade amino acids into C4C5 methyl-
branched VFAs such as isovaleric acid, a common foot odourant
[25, 33, 34]. Valine is transformed into isobutyric acid, leucine is
converted to isovaleric acid, and isoleucine is degraded to 2-methyl
butyric acid through aerobic metabolism [35]. The apoeccrine
glands secrete some of the same compounds that are found in
eccrine sweat [36] because these glands are believed to develop
from eccrine glands. Sweat collected from the skin surface contains
a diverse range of metabolites, depending on the physiology status
of the donor as well as the functional, and developmental states of
the sweat glands.
Sebaceous glands also secrete odourless compounds that includewax esters, cholesteryl esters, cholesterol and other sterols, squa-
lenes, hydrocarbons and triglycerides. These compounds are further
metabolized into malodourants by means of cutaneous bacteria
lipase. Triglycerides are hydrolysed yielding glycerol and subse-
quently VFAs.
Odourous acids
Staphylococci metabolize amino acids to generate short-chain
methyl-branched VFAs that contribute to malodour. Corynebacteria
metabolize skin lipids to generate medium-chain VFA (C6C11).
These bacteria transform, for example isopalmitic acid to isobutyric
acid [35]. Corynebacteria, previously called lipophilic diphtheroids,
populate the axillary region and are believed to be the main bacte-
rial contributor to axillary odour [37, 38]. The metabolic efficiencyof odourant generation by means of Coryneform lipase activity was
found to be superior to that mediated by Staphylococci and Propioni-
bacterium. Propionibacterium was found to be the least efficient
bacteria with regard to the generation of malodourants [37].
3-Hydroxy-3-methyl hexanoic acid, a very pungent axillary
odour, was the most abundant odourant identified in axillary secre-
tions [39] quantified by means of LC-MS/MS [12] and confirmed by
GC-MS [24] and GC techniques [25]. This odourant acid was
detected in a larger amount than its dehydroxylated analogue
(3M2H) [12]. HMHA might be a precursor of 3M2H, resulting from
an acid-catalysed dehydrolysis reaction [40]. HMHA, 3M2H and
28 other acids were determined to be degradation products of leu-
cine, isoleucine and tyrosine [39]. The bacterial exoenzyme, amino-
acylase, was shown to cleave these odourants from water-soluble
proteins, namely apocrine secretion odour-binding proteins 1 and 2(ASOB1 and ASOB2). ASOB2, a stable protein [41], was identified
as apolipoprotein D (apoD), which is an a2l-microglobulin in the
lipocalins family [42]. The mechanism of VFA transportation to the
skin involves the covalent binding of 3M2H (3M2H : apoD = 2 : 1)
and its hydroxylated derivative, HMHA, a spicy note characteristic
of axillary odour to a glutamine (Gln) residue of the ASOB proteins,
Na-3-methyl-2-hexenoyl-l-glutamine and Na-3-hydroxy-3-methyl-
hexanoyl-l-glutamine [30]. These odourants are released by a
Zn2+-containing Na-acyl-Gln-aminoacylase specifically from Coryne-
bacterium striatum strain Ax20, as shown in Fig. 1. This dipeptidase
has a certain affinity towards Na-acyl-Gln conjugates [12] and
Na-acyl-Gln-aminoacylase. This affinity is specific to cleaving at the
Gln residue and low for cleaving the Na-acyl bond [12, 24, 25].
Subsequently, the odourant acids cleaved from Na-acyl-Gln conju-
gates [43] are volatilized off of the skin surface [12]. Odourantacids are covalently bound to apoD at their carbonyl terminal ends.
The ASOB2 concentration was found to vary with race [20], con-
firming the race-related differential intensity of body odour [13,
15]. Nonetheless, the concentration of axillary bacteria did not
vary [20]. Therefore, an understanding of the molecular mecha-
nism underlying metallopeptidase enzyme activity will facilitate
the design of inhibitors to terminate the release of malodourous
compounds [12].
In addition to ASOB2, the ABCC11 gene, whose protein is
expressed and localized in apocrine glands, has recently been found
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to be associated with the presence of axillary malodour. This
protein is essential for Na-acyl-Gln conjugates in odourous acids
[44]. The enzymatic release of these conjugates results in long-last-ing malodour. Using HMHA with a detection threshold of 4 ppt,
the enantiomeric excess (ee) of the (+)-(S)-isomer (>97%) was
observed at a S: R ratio of 72 : 28. The S-isomer exhibited a
strong spicy odour, whereas its optical isomer exhibited a weak
animal-like odour [25]. However, the ABCC11 protein was less
associated with the production of straight-chain acids. The
straight-chain acids might derive from b-oxidation or bacterial deg-
radation of skin or sebum lipids [44]. Transportation and formation
of odourous acids are prospectively illustrated, as shown in Fig. 2.
The above learning suggests that controlling ABCC11 will control
the secretion and formation of amino acid precursors and axillary
odourants.
ABCC11 protein was also associated with a dry white earwax
phenotype among Asian individuals. Asians having this particular
phenotype had less body odour and lower levels of apoD than
Caucasians [20, 45]. Therefore, determination of whether the
ABCC11 gene is present, and whether this gene expresses a dryvs. wet earwax phenotype, represents a good way to screen for
osmidrosis.
In contrast to body odour, foot odour is mostly due to short-chain
fatty acids catabolized from components found in eccrine sweat.
Acetic, butyric and isobutyric acids, and particularly isovaleric acid,
are the main components in eccrine sweat, with traces of propionic,
valeric and isocaproic acids [34]. Isovaleric acid is an odourant
derived from leucine; acetic and propionic acids are produced via
the fermentation of glycerol and lactic acid; isobutyric acid is
derived from valine, 2-methyl butyric acid from isoleucine and
short-chain, branched fatty acids are formed by incomplete degrada-
tion of skin lipids. ABCC11 not only contributes to axillary odour
but also is associated with foot odour and strongly involved in isova-
leric acid formation and leucine/isoleucine degradation [44].
Odourous thiols
Odouriferous sulphanylalkanols include 3-sulphanylhexanol (3SH),
2-methyl-3-sulphanylbutanol (2M3SB), 3-sulphanylpentanol (3SP)
and 3M3SH. These compounds were found in low amounts in
human axillary sweat (110 ppt) [26], but human sensitivity to
them is high. Cystathione-b-lyase is the enzyme involved in cataly-
sing the release of sulphur-containing malodourous compounds.
The strong meaty, fruity odour of 3M3SH is contributed by the
97% stereometric excess of ())-(S)-isomer, which possesses a char-
acteristic sulphuric odour, whereas its (+)-(R)-isomer (>97% enan-
tiomeric excess) has a fruity odour. The odour of 3SP is described
as onion-like, sulphuric and weakly reminiscent of grapefruit. The
threshold for this compound is 2 ppt, whereas 3M3SH, the major
odourous sulphanylalkanol, has a lower threshold of 1 ppt. Anisomeric mixture of 2M3SB has a threshold of 8 ppt (Table I). Such
a mixture has an onion- and sweat-like odour. Although these
compounds are found at very low concentrations, they strongly
contribute to body odour [25]. These compounds are secreted from
apocrine glands [26] as Cys-(S) or Cys-Gly-(S) conjugates [43, 46,
47]. A metal-dependent dipeptidase hydrolyses the Cys-Gly bond.
Corynebacterium C-S lyase then releases the powerful odourant thiol
(Fig. 3). Na-acyl-Gln-aminoacylase was also found to cleave
Cys-Gly-(S) conjugates [43]. Corynebacterium b-lyase doses release
the sulphuric notes from fresh sweat. Similar to HMHA formation,
HN
HOO
OH
O
NH2O
HN
O
OH
O
NH2O
HO
HOO
HO
O
Corynebacteriumaminoacylase
Figure 1 Corynebacterium sp. function in 3-hydroxy-3-
methyl hexanoic acid and 3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid
formations.
HMHA-Gln-ABCC11
HMHA-Gln
HMHA-apoD-HMHA
HMHA
Figure 2 Odourous 3-hydroxy-3-methyl hexanoic acid transporta-
tion and cleavage.
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odourous acids and thiol formations are linked. Furthermore, the
1,4-addition of Cys to the a,b-unsaturated acids including an ester,
and aldehyde appears necessary for biosynthesis of the 3M3SH pre-cursor [26]. Therefore, the cross-specificity of these two metallopep-
tidases plays an important role in axillary odour formation. Thus,
dual metallopeptidase inhibitors blocking Na-acyl-Gln conjugates
associated with odourant acids and thiols should be designed as
treatment for body odour [43].
ABCC11 regulates the Cys-Gly-(S) conjugate of 3M3SH, which is
further catabolized into 3M3SH by b-lyase [44]. Direct hydrolysis
of 3-sulphanyl-3-methylhexanol (3M3SH), which was isolated from
human sweat, was proposed as the mechanism. The (S)-isomer of
this precursor was 7578% more prevalent than the (R)-isomer in
sweat and had an onion-like odour. In contrast, the (R)-enantiomer
exhibited a fruity, grapefruit-like odour [25, 27]. The transporta-
tion and cleavage of odourous thiols are graphically summarized in
Fig. 4.
Odourous steroids
Axillary sweat and hair contain androsterone (5a-androst-16-en-3a-ol), 17-oxo-5a-androstan-3a-yl sulphate (androsterone
sulphate; AS), 17-oxo-5a-androsten-3b-yl sulphate (DHEAS),
DHEA, 3b-androstadienol and androstadienone (androst-4,
16-dien-3-one), which are secreted by apocrine glands [19]. These
precursors are converted to 4,16-dienone, and 5a-androstenone
by Corynebacteria producing a characteristic urine-like odour. 5a-
Androstenone is catabolized to 3a- a n d 3b-androstenols, which
have musk, and urine scents, particularly the a-isomer. Coryne-
form and Staphylococcus epidermidis cleave DHEAS, which is trans-
ported by the ABCC11 protein [48], and androsterone sulphate
by means of sulphatases delivering their unconjugated corre-
sponding steroids (e.g. 5a-androst-2-en-17-one). In addition,
3b-androstenyl sulphate is converted to 3b-androstenol. Coryne-
bacteria is the most efficient in transforming 5a-androst-5,16-
diene-3a-ol to androst-4,16-diene-3-one, the malodourous steroid[49, 50]. The transformation is significantly associated with the
presence of oxygen, confirming the aerobic nature of Coryneform.
Thus, 5,6-dehydrostenols created by Coryneform 5a-reductase play
an important role in malodour steroid production. 4,5-Isomerase
is associated with odourous steroid formation through isomeriza-
tion of androst-5,16-dien-3-one into androst-4,16-diene-3-one
following the oxidation of androst-5,16-diene-3a-ol [49]. The con-
figuration of 3-hydroxy contributes to the odour of the steroids
produced. An equatorial arrangement of hydroxyl (3b-ol) showed
less odour, whereas axial configurations (3a-ol) increased the
malodour. Notably, androst-16-en-3a-ol creates the characteristic
male body odour. The enzymatic activity was stereospecific
towards b-isomer, as 3b-sterol dehydrogenase activity was much
greater than 3a-sterol dehydrogenase activity [48]. Thus, transfor-
mation of androst-5,16-diene-3-ol, androst-16-en-3-ol and and-rost-4,16-diene-3-ol are key components in the biosynthesis of
malodourous androst-16-en-3a-ol (in male body odour), androst-
4,16-dien-3-one and 5a- androst-16-en-3-one, which contribute
to the characteristic underarmpit odour, as proposed in Fig. 5.
These 3-oxo-steroids have very low thresholds (Table I), particu-
larly 5a-androst-16-en-3-one (0.2 ppb), which is a powerful urin-
ous odour. However, androstenone is perceived by only 50% of
the human population. Furthermore, testosterone is not a precur-
sor of 3-oxo-steroid (androst-4,16-dien-3-one) [50]. Therefore, the
action of axillary odour treatment agents should be reviewed to
S
O
HN
NH2
HO
O
OH S
O
HO
NH2
OH
HS OH
Corynebacterium
Dipeptidase
Corynebacterium
cystathionine-beta-lysase
Figure 3 Corynebacterium sp. function in 3-sulphanyl-3-methylhexanol formation.
ABCC11-Cys-Gly-3M3SH
Cys-Gly-3M3SH
3M3SH
Gly-3M3SH
Figure 4 Odourous 3-sulphanyl-3-methylhexanol transportation
and cleavage.
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effectively combat body malodour which do not affect skin
homeostatis by novel ways of action [24].
Thus, the remaining sections of this review article aim to
describe the topical treatment agents that are currently used, as
well as the newest generation of active ingredients in body odour
treatments. In addition, laundry products with active agents pre-
venting malodour are included, as typical axillary odour appears
on the cloth within approximately 2 h of wearing and stays
until washing. Indeed, skin microorganisms, particularly S. epide-rmidis and other malodour-producing bacteria, were found to
survive, low temperature washing and slow drying conditions
[51].
Active ingredients for body odour treatment
Topical anti-perspirants are the first line of body odour improve-
ment because they are inexpensive, with minimal side effects
[52]. Anti-perspirants are used to diminish sweat secretion by
blocking the excretory ducts of sweat glands. Most types of anti-
perspirants contain metallic salts, particularly aluminium. The
types of aluminium salts include: aluminium chlorohydrate
(ACH), aluminium bromohydrate, aluminium chloride, aluminiumsulphate, potassium alum and sodium aluminium chlorohydroxy
lactate. Aluminium salts are anti-bacterial. Aluminium anti-
perspirant salts (most notably ACH, aluminium sulphate, ACH
lactate and aluminium chloride) polymerize with increasing pH,
forming aluminium hydroxide gel plugs in the sweat tubule
[23]. These plugs prevent new sweat movement towards the skin
surface. However, they are not permanent, and the acidic nature
of these salts can be irritating to the skin which limits their use.
In an attempt to reduce skin irritation, salicylic acid was used
in combination with ACH [5]. The formulation, consisting of alu-
minium salts and salicylic acid, had a reduced incidence of skin
irritation and had good anti-bacterial and anti-fungal properties
[53].
Zinc salts
The anti-DHT activity of zinc gluconate, zinc glycerinate, zinc
acetate, zinc sulphate, zinc oxide, zinc citrate and zinc chloride was
used in combination with other anti-perspirants, natural androgen
receptor expression inhibitors and malodour carrier proteins inhibi-
tors in the formulations for body odour control [54]. Water-soluble
zinc salts (zinc pidolate or zinc pyrrolidonecarboxylate, zinc chlo-
ride, zinc gluconate, zinc lactate, zinc phenolsulphate and zinc
sulphate) were used to absorb human axillary smells [55]. This
function is an additional benefit of Zn salts, highlighting their
HO
H
H
H
Androstadienol
HO4SO
O
H
HH
H
Androsterone sulfate
HO
O
H
HH
H
HO
OH
H
HH
H
HOH
HH
H
Androst-16-ene-3-ol
Androsterone
3,17-androstadiol
HO
HH
H
HO
HH
H
O
HH
H
O
HH
H
OH
HH
H
Androst-16-ene-3-one
Androst-4,16-ene-3-ol Androst-5,16-ene-3-ol Androst-4,16-ene-3-one Androst-5,16-ene-3-one
Figure 5 Odourous steroids formation.
Table I Characteristic body odours and their detection thresholds
[23, 25]
Odourant
Organoleptic
property
Detection
threshold
HMHA Spicy 4 ppt
3M2H Sweaty 14 ppb
Isovaleric acid Sweaty 1 ppm
3M3SH Sweaty 1 ppt
2M3SB Sweaty 8 ppt
3SP Sulfuric 2 ppt
Androstenone Urinous 0.2 ppb
Androstenol Musky 6.2 ppb
HMHA, 3-hydroxy-3-methyl hexanoic acid; 3M2H, 3-methyl-2-hexenoic
acid; 3M3SH, 3-methyl-3-sulphanyl hexanol; 2M3SB, 2-methyl-3-sulphanyl
butanol; 3SP, 3-sulphanyl pentanol.
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efficacy in malodour treatment. Furthermore, zinc pyrithione and
zinc phenolsulphonate were formulated with a 1,3-diketone in a
laundry product [56] designed to suppress undesirable odour.
Similar to the case with micronized ACH, zinc oxide powder with
a particle size of 0.02200lm was compounded with sesquiter-
pene alcohols and volatile silicone, producing a dry-texture deodou-
rant [56] characterized by control-release enhancement andmoisture absorption, which eliminated microbial growth.
Mn salts
In addition to zinc and aluminium, porous manganese was used as
a deodourant carrier that exerted anti-bacterial activity [57]. Fur-
thermore, divalent manganese salts (manganese chloride, manga-
nese acetate and manganese sulphate) were found to reduce
axillary, foot and scalp odours in aerosol, spray, roll-on, cream,
stick and laundry detergents suitable for woven or non-woven
fibres [58].
Anti-microbial agent
A good anti-bacterial deodourant should work specifically againstaxillary bacteria within an effective time period as well as exhibit
good stability and compatibility with other ingredients in the for-
mulation. Furthermore, such formulations should be non-toxic and
non-irritating and safe. Thus, anti-microbial metal ions known as
anti-microbial ceramics (ACs) have become increasingly important
in peoples day-to-day lives because of their wide range of appli-
cations in personal and home care products (i.e. fabrics and
cosmetics). Formulations of ACs, for instance, zeolite AC, calcium
phosphate AC and amorphous silica AC, are used as anti-microbial
agents in household and personal care products because of their
good biocompatibility. ACs based on hydroxyapatile and nitrate-
apatile complexed to Ag+ demonstrated an obvious anti-microbial
effect [59] that allowed for controlled release, which was superior
in terms of safety and durability to the casual anti-bacterial vehi-
cles [60]. The bactericidal action of silver zeolite ACs resulted fromthe transfer of silver ion to the bactericidal cell and the formation
reactive oxygen species. This action mode was proved in the bacte-
ria treated, and untreated with Ag-zeolite, and in anaerobiosis
condition as well [61]. Furthermore, Ag-zeolite concentrated to
540% ww)1 was found to act as an anti-microbial against skin-
resident bacteria. Its activity was superior to that of triclosan. It
was long-lasting and had no adverse effects. It was promoted as an
excellent agent for anti-axillary odour preparations [62]. Ag salts
of fusidic acid were also found to be effective against S. epidermidis
growth, particularly silver fusidate (minimum inhibitory concentra-
tion; MIC = 608000 ppm), which was more effective than silver
sulphadiazine (MIC = 800016 000 ppm). These Ag salts were
additional candidate topical agents for use as body odour treatment
products [63].
Triclosan was used as a broad-spectrum anti-microbial agent formore than 40 years. Body odour control preparations were first
launched in 1967, because of the compounds efficacy and stabil-
ity, as well as the lack of resistance among malodour-forming
bacteria [64]. Corynebacterium sp. inhibition was found to be effec-
tive at an MIC of 3 ppm; activity against Staphylococcus sp., and
Propionibacterium acnes was also observed [65]. Triclosan and triclo-
carban were included as anti-microbial agents in combination with
sodium hydroxymethyl glycinate (used as a preservative) and aro-
matic compounds such as eucalyptol, menthol, methylsalicylate
and thymol [66].
Anti-microbial agents that could be used in deodourants include
cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide; cetyl pyridinium chloride;
benzethonium chloride; diisobutyl phenoxy ethoxy ethyl dimethyl
benzyl ammonium chloride; sodium N-lauryl sarcosine, sodium
N-polymethyl sarcosine; N-myristoyl glycine, potassium N-lauroyl
sarcosine; stearyl trimethyl ammonium chloride; 2,4,4-trichloro-
2-hydroxydiphenyl ether; zinc pyrithione; sodium bicarbonate;2,2-methylene-bis-(3,4,6-trichlorophenol); zinc phenolsulphonate;
2,2-thio-bis-(4,6-dichorphenol); p-chloro-m-xylenol; dichloro-m-xy-
lenol; and diaminoalkyl amide. These agents were formulated with
a 1,3-diketone to obtain deodourant effects. Notably, 5-chloro-2-
(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)-phenol and 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxane,4,6-di-
one were deodourant agents that were suitable at concentrations
of 0.0120% for topical application and in cloth worn in contact
with skin. In addition, these diketones were found to be compatible
with anti-microbial agents that were used in the conventional
formulations such as sticks, roll-on, cleansing and laundry products
[67]. The diketones were entrapped in cyclodextrin for controlled
release of active components, and for the absorption of malodou-
rous perspiration, with no associated irritation [68]. In addition,
benzalkonium chloride was used as an anti-microbial agent in a
deodourizing emulsion containing isopropyl myristate or isopropylsterate [69].
In addition to the use of the above agents, stick, spray and lotion
anti-microbial piroctone [70] (0.11.0%, w w)1), formulations were
used to control body odour [71]. Coryneform growth inhibition was
also exerted by b-chloro-d-alanine, and d-cycloserine at an MIC of
0.001 and 0.005% wv)1, respectively, similar to that of triclosan
which was 0.001% wv)1 [72]. Propylene glycol can also function in
deodourant formulations as a bacteria growth inhibition agent.
Aryl 2-acetoxyethanoic acids (phenyl 2-acetoxyethanoic acid,
diphenyl 2-acetoxyethanoic acid (4-chlorophenyl) 2-acetoxyetha-
noic acid, (2-chlorophenyl) 2-acetoxyethanoic acid, (4-chlorophe-
nyl)-(2-chlorophenyl) 2-acetoxyethanoic acid) were also applicable
to the development of deodourant products as they inhibited the
bacterial growth [73]. A formulation consisting of hexamethylene
biguanide hydrochloride inhibited body odour more effectively thantriclosan and was used in the production of solutions, lotions,
creams, ointments, powders, suspensions, soaps, gel sticks and
aerosols [74].
Azole anti-fungal agents include clotrimazole, miconazole, tioco-
nazole, butoconazole, econazole, terconazole, ketoconazole and
fenticonazole, as well as terbinafine and tolnaftate. These compounds
were used in creams for axillary odour treatment, in combination
with undecylenic and salicylic acids, and benzoyl and hydrogen per-
oxides [75]. x-Cyclohexylalkan-1-oles with anti-microbial activity
were formulated into body odour treatment products [76]. Androste-
none odour was found to decrease following application of povidone,
which is an anti-bacterial agent [77].
Odour-neutralizing agent
Axillary malodour neutralizing agents can act via a sulphydryl
reactant, yielding N-ethylmaleimide and N-coumarylmaleimide.
This technology was patented [78] in addition to the neutralization
effect of NaHCO3 towards odourous acids for instance 3M2H [23].
Metal oxide silicates in particular calcium silicate act as odour
absorbents and neutralizers to absorb and neutralize body malo-
dours accordingly. The silicate particles allow for the volatilized
malodourants, and fatty acids to be easily adsorbed onto the
surfaces. Therefore, less fatty acids evaporate, and less odour is
perceived [79, 80].
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ICS 2011 Society of Cosmetic Scientists and the Societe Francaise de Cosmetol ogie
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Odour absorbers
Cyclodextrins are used to entrap active ingredients and thereby
control the release of polyols, anti-microbials, zinc salts, polymers,
bicarbonate salts, chelating agents, zeolites and activated carbon.
Cyclodextrin formulations can be sprayed or wiped onto the skin
[66]. Cyclodextrins absorb moisture and odour-causing molecules.In addition, silicates, silicas and carbonates absorb moisture [79
81] which indirectly reduces malodour formation by eliminating
cutaneous flora that cause the odour. Bacteria prefer cool and dry
to hot and humid environments. Polyamines hybridized with inor-
ganic oxide materials [e.g. SiO2, TiO2, ZnO, Al2O3 or Mg(OH)2]
have also been shown to absorb odour [82].
Novel ingredients for the treatment of body malodour
Inhibition of androgen receptor expression
Resveratrol, epigallocatechin-3-gallate and flufenamic acids were
used to prevent body odour by inhibiting the expression of andro-
gen receptors [68]. Androgen receptor blocking of DHT binding
was employed by a C-19 steroid with an androsten-17(OR)-3-onestructure, with R representing a hydrogen, or an alkyl, aryl or acyl
group [83]. Competitive inhibition of the malodour-producing
enzymes, aminoacylase and cystathionine b-lyase [12, 24, 26]
resulted in a neutral or pleasant odour. This result was achieved
through the use of O-acyl serine and threonine compounds at a
concentration of 0.0110% ww)1, in both stick and roll-on formu-
lations [84, 85].
ASOB2 inhibitor
Monesin, tunicamycin, amphomycin, diumycin, showdomycin,
tsushimycin, amphortericine, mycospocidin, streptovirudin and
d-glucosamine [86] are thought to be involved in apoD suppression
through the inhibition ofN-linked oligosaccharide-processing glyco-
protein synthesis. Therefore, terminal glycosylation was prevented,and body malodour was limited. Accordingly, a screening method
for enzymes mediating malodour involving incubation of Na-acyl-
Gln-aminoacylase with precursors, and measurement of the release
of HMHA or MHA and free l-Gln [87] was shown to be effective in
identifying agents that inhibited the aminoacylase-catalysed mal-
odour-generating reaction.
Ethylendiaminedisuccinic acid (EDDS) and pentetic acid, for
example, significantly reduced the enzyme activity, and subsequent
malodour production by chelating Zn2+ [25] rather than by acting
as bacteriostatic agents. Indeed, there could be other chelating
agents that could provide sequestration of the active-Zn2+-site in a
similar way.
Alternatively, deodourants have been designed using fragrance
precursors that bind with Gln residues. Corynebacteria enzymes use
these residues as substrates, providing a way to engineer enzymespecificity towards Gln but not acyl groups [24]. Thus, cutaneous
bacterial degradation of amino acid conjugates could one day
provide pleasant odourant precursors. Homeostasis of the skin
would be retained, as none of the skins normal flora would be
eliminated through the use of this novel deodourant system.
Nutrient deprivation
A combination system consisting of diethylenetriamine pentaacetic
acid (DTPA), and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) might exert
deodourant activity because of synergistic effects. The axillary mal-
odour could be controlled by sequestering iron depriving the bacte-
ria of a needed food source [88]. The use of DTPA and BHT were
found to significantly reduce body odour [89].
Exoenzyme inhibition
Steroidal axillary malodour production was inhibited by exoenzyme
inhibition. The exoenzymes involved were arylsulphatase and
b-glucuronidase. The inhibitors with deodourant effects were Cu2+,
hexametaphosphate, d-glucaro-D-lactone, ethylenediaminetetraace-
tic acid (EDTA), nitrilotriacetic acid, O-phenanthroline and sodium
sulphate or other phosphates [90].
Control of malodour with fabrics
Fe(III)-4,4,4,4-tetracarboxylic acid phthalocyanine, a deodouriz-
ing complex, was grafted onto the surface of polypropylene non-
woven fabric. This fabricated fabric showed high deodourizing
performance for 2-mecaptoethanol [91].
The production of odour-controlling textiles also incorporated
the use of a polymeric amine coating [92] of hydroxyl-containingamines, particularly trialkanol amines on cellulose fibres. The use
of trialkanol amines conferred anti-microbial properties to the fab-
ric. The soft resinous coating was durable to cleaning procedures.
The anti-microbial activity was regenerated at pH 10 or above.
This process controlled certain odours and diminished the offensive
body odour [93].
A laundry cleansing product containing lysostaphin (Gly-Gly
endopeptidase), which hydrolyses the Gly-Gly bond in the polygly-
cine interpeptide link joining staphylococcal cell wall peptidogly-
cans, was also patented as a component of a detergent
composition, suitable for all types of textiles, and fabrics. The deter-
gent system consisted of amylase, arabinase, galactanase, lipase,
mannanase, pectinase, protease and xylanase [94].
Herbs to treat body odour
Herbs and naturally derived compounds are alternatively available
for applications in body odour treatment. Natural flavonoids exert
deodourizing effects [95] because of 3,4-hydroxyl units. The addi-
tional 5,7-dihydroxyl groups enhance anti-microbial activity [96,
97] in addition to their efficiency in androgen receptor inhibition
[64]. The toxicity of flavonoids is minimal [98]. Traditional reme-
dies can also be used to control body odour; i.e. the Kampo formu-
lation. This traditional medicine contains Rehmanniae radix, Cnidii
rhizoma, Angelicae radix, Scutellariae radix (17%, each) and Phello-
dendri cortex, Coptidis rhizoma and Gardenae fructus (8%, each). The
mixture was found to suppress lipase activity of P. avidum, which
significantly reduced the production of butyric acid (P = 0.047)
[59]. Therefore, herbal extracts with high amounts of these natural
compounds and bactericidal activity towards malodour-generatingmicroorganisms are applicable in herbal deodourant product devel-
opment and the development of bactericidal essential oils.
Herbal extracts
Anti-microbial activity towards nine pathogenicArctopus species has
been studied in A. dregei, A. echinatus and A. monacanthus. The root
of each plant was extracted using 20% aqueous methanol.Arctopus
spp. showed the strongest activity against S. epidermidis;A. monacan-
thus was found to be the most potent (MIC = 2050 ppm), followed
2011 The Authors
ICS 2011 Society of Cosmetic Scientists and the Societe Francaise de Cosmetolog ie
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by A. echinatus (MIC = 50200 ppm) and A. dregei, respectively
(MIC = 100900 ppm), whereas the MIC of ciprofloxacin was
600 ppm [99].
Caesalpinia minosoides, which is freshly consumed as a vegetable
in Thailand, is a calming agent with carminative effects that
reduce dizziness. The anti-microbial activity of this compound was
investigated. To do so, the plant was macerated with several sol-vents at different polarities to yield crude acetone, aqueous, chloro-
form and ethanolic extracts. All parts of the extract were able to
inhibit S. epidermidis, particularly the aqueous extract, which
potently inhibited S. epidermidis at an MIC of 3130 ppm; streptomy-
cin (MIC = 63 ppm) was used as a positive control [100].
Tea or Camellia sinensis has remarkable biological activity with
respect to catechins and is widely used for its health benefits. Tea
components, mainly catechins, and other polyphenolic compounds
are used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications. Certain com-
ponents of tea are anti-oxidants as well as bacterial growth inhibi-
tors. Susceptibility of tea towards S. epidermidis was evaluated. Tea
showed bactericidal and inhibitory effects at an minimum bacterici-
dal concentration (MBC) and MIC of 550 and 410 ppm, respec-
tively. Gallocatechins and their gallates were claimed as the main
constituents responsible for anti-bacterial activity [101], with anadditional effect on androgen receptors [64] that synergistically
prevented and reduced body malodour. Furthermore, tea anti-bac-
terial activity was enhanced (1117%) by irradiation at 40 kGy
that resulted in the reduction in tea dark colour, enabling more
applications in cosmetics [102].
Furthermore, a mixture ofC. sinensis,Hibicus sabdariffa,Malva syl-
vestris, Vitis viticola, Daucus carota, Commiphora myrrh, Simmondsia
chinensis and Calendula officinalis was used to examine probiotic
effects that inhibited the growth of odour-producing microbes. Mix-
tures of these herbs were then incorporated into deodourant aerosols,
gels, emulsions, sticks, creams, powders, soaps and lotions [103].
Cassia alata (Senna alata) is also used as a traditional medicine to
treat body odour [104, 105]. Its S. epidermidis inhibitory effect was
compared with that of other medicinal plants used in Thailand.
Cassia alata showed a moderate MIC and MBC (2500 and>5000 ppm), similar to Barleria lupulina, Lawsonia inermis and Psid-
ium guajava. In the same study, Garcinia mangostana was found to
be the most potent S. epidermidis inhibitor (MIC = 39 ppm), fol-
lowed by H. sabdariffa and Eupatorium odoratum (MIC = 625 ppm,
each) [106]. Hibicus sabdariffa was formulated into deodourant
products [103].
Chaenomeles speciosa is used in China because of its hepatoprotec-
tive effect, anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory and anti-tumour activ-
ities. The essential oil of this species contains b-caryophyllene as a
major constituent (12.52%) and a moderate amount of linalool
(1.33%). The compound was effective against several microorgan-
isms including S. epidermidis ( MIC and MBC of 1570 and
3130 ppm) when compared with standard treatments (e.g. levo-
floxacin; MIC = 610, MBC = 1220 ppm) [107].
Garlic is used for a number of infectious diseases and for its anti-bacterial activity, including inhibition of S. epidermidis. It was found
that S. epidermidis was sensitive to garlic extract, particularly crude
aqueous. The majority of S. epidermidis was killed by garlic (90
93%) in 1 h, although resistance was found following 34 h of
incubation [108]. Furthermore, the MIC and MBC of garlic juice
were evaluated: the concentration was low, and the active
compound was found to be equally active at a dilution factor of
128. In addition to garlic, some vegetables and fruits play a role in
S. epidermidis inhibition. For example, the MIC of pomegranate was
found to be effective at a dilution factor of 16, whereas that of
rhubarb was effective at a dilution factor of 4. In addition, beet,
cherry, cranberry, red onion, red cabbage, raspberry and straw-
berry inhibited S. epidermidis with a dilution factor of 2 [109].
Ginkgo biloba leaf and Phellodendron amurens bark extracts were
used as deodourants because of their inhibition of the degradation
of the apoD-chelating odourant. The extracts could be effectively
used at 0.120% ww)1
, although the most commonly usedamount was 0.510% ww)1 [95].
Gunnera perpensa, an herb traditionally used for psoriasis
treatment, was purified, and benzoquinone, benzopyran (2-methyl-
6-(3-methyl-2-butenyl)benzo-1,4-quinone and 6-hydroxy-8-methyl-
2,2-dimethyl-2H-benzopyran) were isolated from leaves and stems.
The isolated benzoquinone significantly inhibited the growth of
microorganisms, particularly S. epidermidis, at an MIC of 9.8 ppm.
Additionally, benzopyran showed moderate activity towards this
microbe with an MIC of 187 ppm, whereas that of ciproflaxin was
1.25 ppm [110].
Resinous exudates from twigs and leaves of Haplopappus spp.
were shown to inhibit S. epidermidis, with an inhibition zone of
910 mm. Terpenoids in H. diplopappus, H. anthylloides, H. schuman-
nii, H. cuneifolius, H. velutinus, H. uncinatus and H. foliosus were
found to be effective, in combination with flavonoids in H. velutinusand H. foliosus [111].
Harungana madagascariensis is well known for its topical anti-bac-
terial properties and has been used to treat cutaneous mycoses
because of its high levels of biologically active flavonoids, alkaloids,
saponins, glycosides and tannins [112, 113]. Its in vitro inhibition
of skin microflora was evaluated. Crude leaf extract, particularly
the ethyl acetate fraction, was found to inhibit armpit- and foot
odour-producing bacteria with MIC and MBC ranges of 25250
and 100750 ppm, respectively. Furthermore, Corynebacterium
xerosis was killed at 200 ppm, whereas the growth of S. epidermidis
was inhibited at 250 ppm. This effect was mediated by flavanones
(i.e. astilbin or 3-O-a-l-rhamnoside-5,7,3,4-tetrahydroxydihydrofl-
avonol) [114].
Furthermore, hop (Humulus lupulus L.) supercritical fluid extrac-
tion was used to test related anti-microbial activity against odou-rant-producing bacteria. MIC and MBC of hop extract were found
to be 6.25 and 25 ppm, respectively, against C. xerosis and 25 and
>25 ppm, respectively, towards S. epidermidis. Deodourant-contain-
ing hop extract (0.2%) was formulated and compared with the deo-
dourant base. It was found that 0.2% hop deodourant inhibited
C. xerosis four times more stronger than S. epidermidis (inhibition
zone of 8, and 2 mm, respectively). In addition, axillary malodour
decreased from 6.28 0.70 to 1.80 0.71, 1.82 0.74 and
2.24 0.77 following 8, 12 and 24 h of application, respectively
[115].
Anti-bacterial activity of methanolic extract of Hypercicum perfo-
ratum or St. Johns Wort against S. epidermidis had been reported at
1000 ppm. Isolated hyperforin inhibited Corynebacterium diptheriae
at 100 ppm [116].
Anti-bacterial activity of lichen ethanol extract was evaluated. Itwas found that Cetrelia olivetorum (10 ppm), Lecanora muralis
(10 ppm), Ramalina farinacea (10 ppm) and Rhizoplaca melanophth-
alma (50 ppm) inhibited S. epidermidis with inhibition zones of 11,
13, 10 and 16 mm, respectively, whereas those of tobramycin and
cephalothin, standard antibiotics, were 18, and 20 mm, respec-
tively [117]. In addition, lichen extract-containing usnic acid was
found to inhibit body malodour microorganisms at an MIC of
0.002% [118].
Licorice root extract was used to formulate aerosol, roll-on,
powder, cream, lotion, stick and detergent deodourants to control
2011 The Authors
ICS 2011 Society of Cosmetic Scientists and the Societe Francaise de Cosmetol ogie
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axillary odour. The active ingredient, glycyrrhetic acid, was effec-
tive at a concentration of 0.015% ww)1. The preparation
comprised tannic acid, resorcin, phenol, sorbic acid and salicylic
acid with odour-masking agents: musk, skatole, lemon oil, laven-
der oil, absolute jasmine, vanillin, benzoin, benzyl acetate and
menthol [119].
Androstenone generation was inhibited >95% by incubation ofandrosterone sulphate with C. xerosis in the presence of 500 ppm
of plant extracts. The suppressive effect of androstenone was fur-
ther evaluated with lower concentrations of plant extracts (125
and 62.5 ppm). Apricot (Prunus armeniaca) kernel extract was more
effective than gentian, prune and triclosan, which was used as a
positive control [120].
Inhibition of isovaleric acid generation was screened by means
of anti-microbial activity. Sophora flavescens significantly inhibited
the growth of C. xerosis, eliminating malodour. Furthermore,
S. flavescens showed broad-spectrum inhibition of resident skin
microbes, mediated by flavonoids [121].
Madder, or Rubia tinctorium, which is widely used as a natural
dye and folkloric anti-bacterial in Turkey, was Soxhlet-extracted by
ethanol and water, individually. The crude extracts (483 lg disc)1)
were susceptibility tested against several bacteria including C. xero-sis. The aqueous extract exerted stronger activity against C. xerosis
than the ethanolic fraction (inhibition zones were 12 and 7 mm,
respectively), whereas the inhibition zone of ampicillin (10 mg), a
standard, was 15 mm [122].
Traditional astringent, and tonic Tamarix ramosissima or salt
cedar rich in tannins, and phenolics potently inhibitedC. diphthe-
riae. The ethyl acetate extract in particular displayed an MIC of
25 ppm, whereas the butanoic extract isolated from tamarixetin
showed lower activity at an MIC of 1000 ppm [123].
Usnea barbata, Salvia officinalis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Boswellia
serrata, Harpagophytum procumbens and Menyanthes trifoliata were
screened against S. epidermidis and Corynebacterium spp. for anti-
microbial activity. Usnea barbata was the strongest inhibitor with
an MIC of 1 ppm, followed by R. officinalis with an MIC of 10
and 2 ppm, respectively. Although B. serrata showed strongeractivity against Corynebacterium spp. (MIC = 110 ppm), its effect
on S. epidermidis was reduced (MIC = 100 ppm). Harpagophytum
procumbens had similar activity on the test microorganisms
(MIC = 10 ppm; S. epidermidis, and 1020 ppm; Corynebacterium
spp.). However, S. officinalis was the least effective anti-bacterial
agent (MIC = 20 ppm; S. epidermidis, and 1020 ppm; Corynebacte-
rium spp.). Isolated (+)-usnic and carnosic acid exhibited stronger
activity than the crude extract. (+)-Usnic acid inhibited S. epidermi-
dis at an MIC of 4 ppm, and Corynebacterium spp. at 48 ppm,
whereas values for carnosic acid were 64 and 3264 ppm, respec-
tively [124].
Essential oils
Abies cilicica, Cilician fir, is native to the Mediterranean region, andaffords resin traditionally used for antiseptic, anti-inflammatory,
anti-pyretic and anti-bacterial applications in Turkey. Essential oil
extracted from the cones was investigated on Gram-positive bacte-
ria including C. xerosis; the oil showed a potent inhibitory effect
with an MIC of 1.5 ppm. Aroma compounds in the oil were
extracted; limonene was the most potent inhibitor ofC. xerosis with
an MIC of 3 ppm. a-, and b-pinene as well as myrcene had an MIC
of >8 ppm [125].
Anethum graveolens oil inhibited Corynebacterium growth at 4.5,
0.09, 0.04 and 0.02 lg filter paper disc)1 [126]. Staphylococcus
epidermidis was inhibited by essential oil extracted from Anthemis
aciphylla [127, 128]. Grammosciadium platycarpum oil was found to
inhibit malodour-producing microorganisms: limonene inhibited
S. epidermidis at an MIC of 6005000 ppm [129]. In addition,
essential oils that inhibit Gram-positive bacteria may be applicable
to control malodour [130].
Hydrodistillation of essential oil from Inula helenium wasconducted. S. epidermidis was found to be inhibited by the oil
(MIC = 3700 ppm, MIC of streptomycin = 60 ppm); alantolactone
and isoalantolactone were reported as the main constituents [131].
Melaleuca alternifolia or tea tree oil was also applicable in
deodourants because it contains terpinen-4-ol, the active anti-
microbial agent. The MIC and MBC against Corynebacterium spp.
were found to be 0.5% and 2% (vv)1), respectively. In addition,
it inhibited Staphylococcus spp. at an MIC and MBC of 0.5% and
12% (vv)1), respectively, in particular S. epidermidis (MIC = 0.5%
and MBC = 2% vv)1) [132].
Coriander (Corriandrum sativum) oil inhibited micrococci and
diphtheroids at an MIC of 0.1% because of its oxygenated terpe-
noids. The lichen extracts and coriander oil could be incorporated
into a stick deodourant at 0.13% and 1.06.0% ww)1, respec-
tively, although the preferred amounts were 0.0380.42% and1.82.2% ww)1, respectively. In the same deodourant formulation,
witch hazel, Aloe vera and chamomile extracts were additionally
incorporated. This formulation absorbed moisture [118] and
thereby inhibited microbial metabolism.
Essential oils from commercialized spices such as oregano (Origa-
num minutiflorum and O. onites), black thyme (Thymbra spicata) and
savoury (Satureja cuneifolia), which contains cavracrol, were tested
against C. xerosis. Inhibition was observed at the dilution range of
1 : 501 : 200 [133]. Furthermore, Satureja species were distilled
to obtain essential oils and evaluated with regard to their anti-
microbial activities and chemical composition. Staphylococcus masu-
kensis potently inhibited S. epidermidis, followed by Staphylococcus
pseudosimensis and Staphylococcus biflora (MIC = 370, 750 and
980 ppm, respectively). Linalool levels were highest in S. masuken-
sis oil (4.44%); this compound was found to be the strongestinhibitor against S. epidermidis (MIC = 250 ppm), compared to
caryophyllene oxide and pulegone (MIC = 900 and 950 ppm,
respectively). The antibiotics amoxicillin with clavulanic acid and
netilmicin had an MIC of 3 and 4 ppm, respectively [134]. There-
fore, it could be concluded from this study that essential oils
containing linalool, caryophyllene oxide and/or pulegone should be
considered S. epidermidis growth inhibitors.
In addition, essential oils from cumin (Cuminum cyminum), sweet
fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), laurel (Laurus nobilis), mint (Mentha
spicata), marjoram (O. majorana), pickling herb (Echinophoria tenuifoli),
sage (Salvia aucheri) and thyme (T. sintenesi) were found to inhibit
C. xerosis at the oil concentration of 0.22% [135]. Anti-oxidant and
anti-bacterial activities of Salvia eremophila extracts were analysed by
means of hydrodistillation and Soxhlet extraction in methanol to
obtain essential oil and crude methanol extract, respectively. Freeradical scavenging and lipid peroxidation inhibitory activities of crude
methanol were more potent than those of the essential oil. However,
the inhibitory effect of essential oil that contained linalool was greater
than methanol extract against S. epidermidis (MIC = 125, and
250 ppm, respectively); activity towards P. vulgaris was relatively low
(MIC = 500, and 125 ppm, respectively) [136]. The anti-bacterial
activity of thyme oil prepared at different developmental stages
was compared. Essential oil prepared from thyme (Thymus caramani-
cus) at floral budding, and flowering states showed two-fold greater
S. epidermidisinhibition (MIC = 900 ppm) than essential oil from seed
2011 The Authors
ICS 2011 Society of Cosmetic Scientists and the Societe Francaise de Cosmetolog ie
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and vegetative stages (MIC = 1800 ppm). Cavacrol inhibited S. epide-
rmidis at an MIC of 0.22 lL (of 70% carvacrol solution in methanol).
The flowering stage of T. caramanicus development yielded compounds
that were the most potent (68.9%), followed by floral budding
(66.9%), seed (60.2%) and vegetative (58.9%) stages [137].
The essential oil of Semenovia tragioides, which is an endemic
plant with highly flavoured leaves that are frequently used in jam,and pickles in Iran, was prepared and tested against S. epidermis.
Its MIC was found to be 2000 ppm compared with an MIC of
500 ppm for rifampin and gentamicin, which were used as positive
controls. A lipid peroxidation inhibitory effect was also observed (%
inhibition = 9.1 0.3; 0.7 mg of test sample), although it was less
potent than that of the positive control (BHT = 95.6 1.3%).
Chemical composition analysis revealed anti-bacterial effects of
linalool 5.7 1% together with lavandulyl acetate and geranyl
acetate [138]. In addition to S. tragioides oil, essential oils from two
cultivars of Sideritis erythrantha (erythrantha, and cedretorum culti-
vars) were evaluated on S. epidermidis. The cedretorum cultivar,
which elicited greater anti-oxidant effects by means of 1,1-diphe-
nyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radicals (DPPH), b-carotene bleaching and
reducing power assays, showed stronger S. epidermidis inhibition
than the other cultivar. However, the cedretorum cultivar showedgood anti-bacterial activity (10.00 0.24 mm at 10lL) compared
to vancomycin (10.00 0.24 mm at 30 lg). In addition, the more
potent cultivar contained higher amounts of pulegone. However,
linalool content was similar [139]. Therefore, anti-bacterial activity
was consistent with the description of linalool and pulegone
reported previously [140].
Smyrniopsis aucheri oil containing a-bisabolol (19.91%), widely
used in cosmetics including underarm deodourants, as well as
a- and b-pinene (15.10% and 6.58%), was found to potently inhi-
bit S. epidermidis [141].
Staphylococcus epidermidis was inhibited by essential oil extracted
fromZiziphora clinopodioidesat 10-lL filter paper disc)1 [127] with an
MIC of 601000 ppm [128]. Ziziphora clinopodioides oil (10 lg)
contained (+)-pulegone (31.86%) 1,8-cineole (12.21%) and limonene
(10.48%) as the major aroma compounds and inhibited Corynebacte-rium spp. at an MIC of 15.6031.25 ppm, whereas its methanolic
extract showed less activity (MIC = 250 ppm) [142]. In addition,
Ziziphora persica oil containing high levels of (+)-pulegone (79.33%)
but low levels of limonene (6.78%), and no 1,8-cineole exhibited
a wide range of Corynebacterium spp. inhibition (MIC = 250
7.81 ppm); its methanolic extract showed the same activity [143].
Essential oils and the aromatic compounds contained therein
should be incorporated into anti-perspirant and deodourant prod-
ucts. Linalool and dihydromyrcenol were combined at a ratio of
4 : 11 : 4 in body odour-controlling products. The concentration
of aroma compounds ranged from 0.2% to 1% (ww)1). Further-
more, avocado and vegetable oils as well as lichen extract were
added, for their soothing effects [144]. Essential oils also mask
unexpected odours and exert bactericidal effects.
Vegetable and animal oils incorporated in a deodourizingemulsion were as follows: sweet almond, groundnut, wheatgerm,
linseed, jojoba, apricot stone, walnut, palm, pistachio, sesame, rape-
seed, cade, maize germ, peach stone, poppy seed, pine, castor, soya,
avocado, safflower seed, coconut, hazelnut, olive, grapeseed, sun-
flower, whale lard, horsehoof, tuna, caballine, otter, egg, sheep,
seal, turtle, halibut liver, marmot, cod liver, neat-foot and carbon
oils. The combination of these oils in the emulsion was stable and
washable with conventional detergents [145].In addition to the above herbs, those with astringency, and folk-
loric use as tonics should be applicable for body odour control.
Adiantum capillus, Bergenia ciliate, Bombax ceiba, Cannabis sativa,
Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus rotundus, Dalbergia sissoo, Dodonaea
viscose, Fumaria indica, Juglans regia, Olea ferruginea, Phyla nodiflora,
Punica granatum, Pyrus pashia, Rumex chalepensis, Sapindus mukoros-
si, Solanum miniatum and Woodfordia fruticosa were recently investi-
gated because of their ethnopharmacological uses in folk cosmetics
in Pakistan [146]. In particular, Pinus roxburghii was used as a
traditional deodourant [147]. Furthermore, Cassia occidentalis, an
Ayurvedic plant, contains flavonoids (particularly apigenin, flav-
ones, alkaloids, tannins and saponins) with biological activity
including C. diphtheriae inhibition that is applicable to deodourant
development [106].
In addition, some of the traditionally used herbs might be appli-cable for body malodour treatment product development because of
their S. epidermidis inhibitory effect. For instance, Bersama abyssini-
ca, Erlangea cordifolia, Hoslundia opposite, Lantana trifolia, Phyllanthus
guineense, Physalis peruviana, Podocarpus milanjianus, Rubus apetalus,
Steganotaenia araliacea and Vernonia auriculifera that are traditionally
used for their anti-microbial activity in Africa [147].
Conclusions
Body or axillary odour is offensive chemical communication that
strongly adheres to clothes and shoe fibres (remaining even after
laundering), negatively impacting ones self-confidence. Topical com-
pounds that inhibit microorganisms growth or bacteria enzyme reac-
tions, absorb sweat and malodour, neutralize odours, and/or limit
sweat secretion have been discussed in this review in terms of theirability to reduce malodour. These ingredients are natural, naturally
derived and synthetic in nature. Research involving the use of fra-
grance precursors as alternative substrates to bacteria enzymes has
also been discussed. Using this approach, bacteria enzymes catalyse
the release of pleasant, aromatic scents vs. unpleasant malodour-
leaving the natural skin flora unaltered. Although some deodourant
products can irritate the skin with long-term use, the many options
described in this review present a plethora of choices that have mini-
mal safety or skin irritation concerns.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge Mae Fah Luang University on facility
support for this manuscript preparation and the reviewers on their
valuable suggestions that make the article more comprehensive.
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