Block 8 – 2019 v20190406 Topics and aims - HistoWebhistoweb.co.za/blok/werksboek20190406_svk.pdfBlock 8 – 2019 v20190406 Topics and aims Introduction This section contains instructions

Block 8 – 2019 v20190406

Topics and aims

Introduction

This section contains instructions that are applicable to all material, irrespective of your specific course. Please take note and make sure to complete the tasks in sequence. Failure to complete the tasks or jumping the structured sequence could lead to difficulty in mastering subsequent slides and/or topics.

IMPORTANT: Course and topic specific instructions will be supplied. Each course will complete different areas in different sequences. This will be communicated before and during each practical session.

In general, you should be able to:1. Describe the six levels of organisation of the human body.2. Name eleven organ systems of the human body.3. Define histology.4. Identify the four main tissue types.5. Discuss the function of each tissue type in the human body.6. Correlate structure, location and function for all.

You should bring your notes, a handbook, stationary and additional paper to the practical sessions. Coloured pencils are useful but not mandatory. You will be required to use the computers in the laboratory. Keep your login information current and working.

The workbook consists of various sections, dealing with various parts of the histology topics. There are four components to each topic. The first component consists of Aims relating to the topic. Make sure you are able to fulfil these by the end of the session. For each topic, a set of general tasks are given. These tasks lay the foundation and provide a scaffold to assist when studying each slide in the topic. Next is a set of slides which have to be studied for that topic. Slides have to be finished before the end of each session. The last component is the review section. You can use this to assist in assessing your knowledge for each topic and can be completed at your leisure.

Each slide consists of a description, instructions, drawing instructions and a set of reflection questions. You have to complete the slides before the conclusion of each practical session. Read the description and instructions for each slide carefully. The description and instructions will assist you in orienting the slide and identifying the tissues and structures. Drawing is an important part of the learning process. We do not require textbook sketches, but drawings should be complete and should be annotated. Use all keywords from the aims and description as annotations. Create a glossary by adding a concise definition or description next to each annotated term.

Always add your name and a date to material you are working on. In the case of the workbook, yourname should be in front of the book. Add the date as you work on topics and slides. This will assist in building a mental image of progression on the content.

Epithelia

Epithelia will be discussed according to the following scheme:Type Number of layers Shape Line drawing

Covering andLining epithelium

Simple

Squamous

Cuboidal

Columnar

Pseudostratified

Stratified

Squamous

Cuboidal

Columnar

Urothelium (transitional)

Type Function Cells Arrangement Shape Example

Glandularepithelium

Exocrine

Unicellular

Multicellular

Simpletubular

alveolar

Compound

tubular

tubulo-alveolar

alveolar

Endocrine

Unicellular

Multicellular

Cords

Islets

Acini

Follicles

Female reproductive system

You should be able to:1. Describe the structures and functions of the components of the female reproductive system.2. Identify the main structures of the female reproductive system.3. Describe the histology of an oocyte.4. Recognise and describe the cyclical changes in the histology of the endometrium.5. Recognise and describe the components of the ovary.

6. Recognise and describe the developmental stages of ovarian follicles.7. Correlate the various structural cycles in the female reproductive system, both histological,

physiological and hormonal.8. Describe and compare the steps of oogenesis, spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis.9. Describe the structure and function of an oocyte.10. Recognise and describe the cyclical changes in the histology of breast tissue.11. Describe the histology of the lactating breast.

Digestive system

The purpose of this topic is to practically illustrate the structures, organs and glands of the gastro-intestinal tract. The secretory units which were covered in the session on glandular epithelia, shouldbe reviewed for the salivary glands.

The digestive system can be divided into three parts:1. Upper Digestive Tract (oral cavity, oesophagus and stomach).

Histology of the structures found in and around the mouth, the oesophagus and stomach.2. Lower Digestive Tract (duodenum to anus).

Most digestion and absorption takes place from the duodenum to the ileum. The colon and lower is involved with water balance and excretion.

3. Accessory organs.Those organs whose primary function relates to the digestive system. These include the liver, gall bladder and pancreas.

Digestive system in general

You should be able to:1. Describe the generic organisation, components and functions common to most of the

digestive tract.2. Describe how the basic organisation of the digestive tract is modified along its course.3. Identify the layers of the digestive tract and compare cross and longitudinal appearance.4. Describe changes in layers in the transitional areas of the digestive tract.5. Relate the structure to the function of each section of the digestive tract.6. Describe the morphology and histology of each component of the digestive tract.7. Describe how morphological variations relate to function.8. Discuss the distribution of lymphoid tissue in the digestive system.9. Identify and describe the intrinsic glands of the digestive tract.10. Identify and describe the cells found in the various areas of the digestive tract.11. Describe the specialised functions of cells found in the various areas of the digestive tract.12. Describe the appearance, organisation and functions of the epithelial cells throughout the

digestive system.

Upper digestive tract

You should be able to:1. Describe the characteristics of the lip.2. Name and identify the papillae on the tongue.3. Name, identify and compare the salivary glands.4. Identify and describe the structure and function of the salivary glands.5. Describe and identify the histological structures of teeth.6. Identify and describe the oesophagus.7. Identify the regions of the stomach.8. Identify the different types of secreting cells in gastric glands, and the function of each.

Lower digestive tract

You should be able to:1. Identify the neural tissue in the intestines and the coats in which they are found.2. Distinguish between the various sections of the small and large intestine.

Accessory organs

You should be able to:1. Describe the organisation of liver tissue.2. Recognise and describe the histological structure and function of liver lobules.3. Explain how blood and bile pass through the liver lobules and relate this to liver function

and pathologies.4. Identify and describe the structure of the gall bladder and bile duct.5. Identify and describe the structure and function of the exocrine and endocrine pancreas.

Slides – topic related

Digestive system

Slide name Slide number Stain

Oral cavity

Lip 51 H/E

Tooth (longitudinal section) 25 H/E

Tooth (cross section) 23 H/E

Tooth (ground longitudinal section)

27 None

Tooth (ground cross section) 16 None

Tongue (tip) 7 H/E

Papilla fungi & filiformes 53 H/E

Papilla circumvalata 33 H/E

Parotid gland 85 H/E

Submandibular gland 35 H/E

Sublingual gland 107 H/E

Upper digestive track

Esophagus (cross section) 31 H/E

Esophagus-stomach junction 101 H/E

Fundus 37 H/E

Pylorus 38 H/E

Stomach-duodenal junction 36 H/E

Lower digestive track

Duodenum 40 H/E

Ileum 41 H/E

Appendix vermiformis 43 H/E

Colon 42 H/E

Rectum-anal-skin junction 45 H/E

Digestive system – accessory organs

Liver

Liver (pig) 68 H/E

Liver (human) 46 H/E

Liver (injected) 110 Berlin Blue

Liver (reticular fibres) 48 Silver

Other accessory organs

Gall bladder 58 H/E

Pancreas 50 H/E

Female reproductive system

Female Genital System

Slide Name Slide number Stain

Ovaries 89 and 106 H/E

Ovary and corpus luteum 91 H/E

Tuba uterina 97 H/E

Uterus 88 H/E

Vagina 90 H/E

Mammary gland 57 H/E

Nipple 15 H/E

Topic related tasks

Tasks – Digestive system

General

1. Make a table and list, for each of the digestive system slides and where applicable, the following structures. Not all slides will be listed, for example the tooth will NOT have any of the layers and will therefore not form part of the table:

1. Mucosa

• Type of epithelium

• Cell types present in epithelium

• Features of mucosal glands

• Features of lamina propria

• Muscularis mucosae

2. Submucosa

3. Muscularis externa

4. Serosa or Adventitia

If a heading is not applicable, make sure to explicitly state so, and do not just leave the listing empty.

2. Make an annotated diagram of the general structure of the digestive track. Clearly indicate the four layers making up the general structure of the digestive track, and the general contentof each layer. Use the table previously compiled as a guide and the following word bank to populate your diagram:

muscle coat, submucosa, mucous membrane, villi, lymphoid nodule, epithelium, lamina propria, muscularis mucosa, serosa, external gland, mesentery, submucosal gland, Meissner's plexus, Auerbach's plexus.

Note: You can add additional terms as well as substitute terms. If you know this diagram well, it is much easier to identify and describe individual sections of the digestive system.

1. Mucosa

• Epithelium: stratified squamous, simple columnar

• Lamina propria: loose connective tissue = blood and lymphatic vessels, lymphoid follicles.

• muscularis mucosae: smooth muscle

2. Submucosa: loose connective tissue

3. Muscle layer

• Two layers of smooth muscle cells, inner circumferentially, outer longitudinal.

• Separated by nervous tissue, myenteric plexus.

4. Serosa/Adventitia

• Loose connective tissue covered by mesothelium

• Only loose connective tissue.

5. +Glands

• Isolated mucosal secretory cells.

• Lamina propria of mucosa.

• Submucosa

• External connected with ducts.

3. List the epithelium found in the complete digestive track, starting and ending with keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

4. Describe the general distribution of glands in the digestive track.

5. What structures are found in the submucosa?

6. Give the distribution of the serosa and adventitia throughout the digestive track.

Slides

Slide 15: Nipple H/E

This slide is a section through the nipple.

Identify microscopically:(i) Skin(ii) Lactiferous ducts

Draw and annotate:A line drawing of the nipple.

Questions:1. What is typical of the skin of the nipple?2. How are the lactiferous ducts identified?3. What types of tissue are found in the vicinity of the sinuses and ductuli lactiferi?

Tooth Various

These are various sections through the tooth.1. Slide 16: Crosswise ground section of a tooth (H/E).2. Slide 23: Cross section of a decalcified tooth (H/E).3. Slide 25: Longitudinal section through a decalcified tooth (H/E).4. Slide 27: Longitudinal ground section of a tooth (None).

These slides should be viewed in conjunction with each other, and supplemented with suitable additional resources.

1. You should know the parts of the tooth and be able to recognise the parts of the tooth on a slide.

Structures and cells of and found in association with a tooth: blood vessels, pulp, dentine, enamel, odontoblasts, cementum, periodontal membrane, crown, root, root canal, alveolar bone, pulp chamber, gingiva, gum, bone, artery, vein, nerve, mandible, maxilla.

1. Make an annotated line diagram of a section through a tooth, showing its component parts. Include as many of the structures and cells listed above.

2. View the tooth slides on low magnification. You should see the enamel and root canal of the tooth. In the haematoxillin stained sections, the alveolar bone is also visible.

3. Identify the structures and cells associated with the tooth, on both cross and longitudinal sections.

4. Make an annotated line drawing of a cross and longitudinal section of the tooth, indicating the various parts as identified above.

1. Enamel is analogous to epithelium, covering the surface of the tooth and derived from epithelium.

2. What is characteristic of the pulp?3. What is the layer of cells found against the dentine called?4. What is characteristic of cementum?

5. What are the collagen fibres of the periodontal ligament known as?6. What is characteristic of the gingiva?7. What is the granular layer of Tomes?8. What are Retzius lines?9. Define and describe spindles and tufts?10. What cells are responsible for the secretion of dentine?

Salivary glands H/E

These are three large paired salivary glands located in the oral cavity. These slides should be viewed in conjunction with each other, and supplemented with suitable additional resources.

1. Slide 35: Submandibular gland (H/E).2. Slide 85: Parotid gland (H/E).3. Slide 107: Sublingual gland (H/E).

1. View the slides at both low and high magnification. At low magnification, lobes, ducts and general structure should be visible. At higher magnifications, the acini and cells forming the acini is visible. Epithelia of ducts should also be identifiable.

1. Name the six types of contractile cells.2. Which contractile cell/s are associated with salivary glands?3. Where in salivary glands are contractile cells seen?4. Give the complete classification of glandular tissue.5. Name the three types of cellular secretion.6. Which type of cellular secretion is active in salivary glands?7. Secretory material from salivary glands are contained in zymogen granules.8. Compare the three salivary glands in a table with regards to the following:

• Type of secretory units.• Type of secretions.• Relative frequency of secretory unit types.• Type of ducts.• Cells, tissues and structures seen in the gland.

2. Identify the following structures of each of the salivary glands:

1. Connective tissue septae.

2. Blood vessels.

3. Secretory units.

4. Secretory ducts.

5. Zymogen granules.

1. Give a complete classification for each of the three salivary glands.2. Name the organ most commonly associated with pseudostratified columnar

epithelium.3. Describe the morphology of ducts found in salivary glands and the associated

epithelial progression.Intercalated ducts – striated ducts – interlobular ducts

Simple cuboidal – simple columnar – tall columnar – pseudostratified columnar – stratified columnar

4. Where does centro-acinar cells occur?5. Does salivary glands have centro-acinar cells?

3. Make an annotated drawing of the secretory units of each of the salivary glands. Give a clearindication of the relative frequency of the different secretory units.

Slide 57: Mammary gland H/E

This is a section through an active or resting mammary gland.

1. The breast and mammary gland is a modification of skin and sweat glands. Knowledge of the basic structures are essential to understand these modifications.

1. Give a classification of epithelia.2. Name and describe general connective tissues.3. Make an annotated line diagram illustrating the main layers of the skin and

subdivisions of each layer.4. Describe the connective tissue found in the dermis.5. What structures are found in the dermis?6. What is the connection between the mammary gland (exocrine gland) and the

adenohypophysis?

2. View the slide on low magnification. On this view, you should see purple staining glandular acini separated by pink staining connective tissue. Ducts could also be visible.

1. The breast is a modified sweat gland.2. What other type of modified sweat glands are present in the skin around the nipple?3. What type of epithelium are generally associated with ducts in glands?4. What structure is found directly underneath the epithelium?5. What contractile element forms an essential component of the ductal system?

3. Identify on low magnification the following:

• Mammary gland lobules

• Interlobular connective tissue

• Mammary ducts

• Adipose tissue

1. Compare the amount of connective tissue to the amount of glandular tissue. Which tissue is dominant?

2. Is the slide you viewed of an active or resting mammary gland?

4. View the slide at higher magnification. Cellular detail like the nuclei within cells should be visible.

5. Identify the epithelium lining the alveoli and ducts.

1. What type of epithelium is found in lactiferous ducts in deeper parts of the nipple?2. What type of epithelium is found in lactiferous ducts closer to the orifice of the nipple?3. Can you find any of these types of epithelium on a slide?4. What connective tissue cell nucleus is seen between lobules?5. What is the dividing line between malignant and benign mammary gland carcinoma?

6. Make an annotated drawing of a glandular lobule, with a number of alveoli and surrounding tissue shown in detail.

7. Complete this table relating to the histology of the breast. Elaborate by making relevant connections with physiology and pathology.

Phase Epithelium Ductal system Connective tissues Elaborate

Pre-puberty

Male

Female

Puberty

Male

Female

Pregnancy

Male

Female

Menopause

Male

Female

Tongue H/E

These are various sections through the tongue to illustrate its component parts. These slides shouldbe viewed in conjunction with each other, and supplemented with suitable additional resources.

1. Slide 7: A coronal section through the distal part of the tongue (H/E).2. Slide 33: A coronal section through the tongue (H/E).3. Slide 53: Coronal section through the tongue (H/E).

These are sections through the tip of the tongue in which the skeletal muscle is sectioned longitudinally, obliquely and crosswise. See also slide 18, a longitudinal and cross section of skeletal muscle. The tip of the tongue or pharyngeal tube (slide 39) is used as examples to study serous, mucinous and mixed secretory units.

You should be able to identify and differentiate between the three types of papillae seen on the tongue. Papillae are surface structures and as such are covered with epithelium. You should know the type of epithelium covering the papillae and the glands associated with the papillae.

To view the striations of skeletal muscle in an H/E specimen, the condenser of the microscope must be turned down to obtain as much contrast as possible. (Remember to turn the condenser back to its original position after you have finished).

1. View the slide at various magnifications and orientate yourself as to the distribution and appearance of the various component structures. The free surface and attached area should be visible. Below the free surface, layers of muscle tissue interspersed with glandular tissue is visible. Blood vessels and scattered fat cells are also present. The glandular tissue of the tongue can be found between the bundles of muscle fibers.

1. What type of epithelium is present on the dorsal surface of the tongue?2. What type of epithelium is present on the under surface of the tongue?3. Muscles normally have an origin (fixed) and insertion (moving). Muscle fibres run

longitudinally between the origin and insertion. In what direction does muscle fibres of the tongue run?

4. Twist and fold your tongue. Why is the tongue able to perform such complex movements?

5. What is characteristic of skeletal muscle?6. What is characteristic of the nuclei of skeletal muscle and how do they differ from

those of smooth muscle?7. How does skeletal muscle differ in longitudinal and cross section from smooth

muscle?8. What are skeletal muscle fibre bundles called?9. How is the anterior and posterior parts of the tongue divided?10. What is secreted by the glands in the tongue?11. Name the three types of papillae found on the tongue.

2. View the slide at both low and high magnification. Cellular detail should be discernible at higher magnifications.

1. Can all the subdivisions of muscle connective tissue be seen on this specimen? What is the connective tissue is called?

2. How does the anterior and posterior parts of the tongue differ?3. What is the shape of each of the papillae found on the tongue?4. How are the papillae distributed on the tongue.5. Where are the glands found in relation to the papillae?6. What are the shape of each papilla?

3. Identify the following tissues and structures in the tongue:1. Epithelia2. Muscle fibres3. Fat cells4. Glandular tissue.

1. Serous units2. Mucinous units3. Mixed units – serous demilunes4. Glands of Ebner

5. Papillae. Look at the shape of the papillae and their placement in the epithelium of the tongue.1. Papilla circumvalata2. Papilla fungiformes3. Papilla filiformes

4. Taste buds6. Skeletal muscle fibers

1. Longitudinal section1. Nuclei of the skeletal muscle fibers and connective tissue 2. Cross striations3. Connective tissue

2. Cross section1. Skeletal muscle fibers arranged in bundles 2. Size, shape and diameter of the muscle bundles 3. Nuclei of the skeletal muscle fibers4. Myofibrils5. Connective tissue

1. Classify the glands of the oral cavity fully.2. Where are taste buds found in the digestive track?3. What are the glands of Ebner?4. Where do the glands of Ebner open?5. What type of gland is the gland of Ebner?6. What are the functions of the glands found in association with the papillae?7. Where do the secretions of the serous demilunes go?8. Where are the taste buds found?

4. Make annotated drawings of the following. Cross-reference the various drawings to indicate the placement of structures in the tongue.1. A line diagram of the tongue, indicating the different layers, tissues and structures.2. A detail drawing of a section of the glands in the tongue, illustrating the three types of

secretory units. Clearly indicate the differences in morphology.3. A longitudinal and cross section of skeletal muscle.4. A diagram of each of the three types of papillae.5. A line diagram of the surface of the tongue, indicating the distribution of the papillae and

landmarks on the surface of the tongue.

1. Complete the following table to illustrate the differences between mucinous and serous units:

Mucinous Serous

Shape of unit

Staining of cells in unit

Shape of nucleus

Lumen

START HERE v20190330

Slide 31: Oesophagus H/E

This specimen is a cross section through the oesophagus.

1. View the slide at low magnification. You should be able to see the complete organ, or a section stretching from the lumen to the surrounding adventitia. All layers should be visible.

1. What is the function of the oesophagus?2. What transitional areas are seen in the oesophagus?3. How are muscle types distributed in the oesophagus?

4. Is the surface of the oesophagus flattened or folded?5. How does the lumen of the oesophagus appear?

2. Identify the following:1. Lumen of the oesophagus.2. Mucosa

1. Folded epithelium.2. Glands in the lamina propria.

3. Submucosa1. Papillae2. Glands

4. Adventitia1. What are the three main layers of the oesophagus?2. What type of epithelium is present in the oesophagus?3. What is the function of this epithelium in the oesophagus?4. How is the function of the oesophageal epithelium different from the rest of the

digestive track?5. What type of glands are located in the oesophagus?6. In which of the three main layers of the oesophagus does the glands occur?7. What is analogous between the muscle layers and glands of the oesophagus?8. Describe the contractile components of the oesophagus.9. What does the adventitia consist of?

3. View the oesophagus at higher magnification. Some cellular detail may be visible.1. Where are the nerve supply found in the oesophagus?

4. Identify the transitions between the different layers of the oesophagus.1. Describe the border between the epithelium and the lamina propria.2. How is the border between the epithelium and the lamina propria similar to the

border between the epidermis and dermis of skin?3. How is the border between the epithelium and the lamina propria and the border

between the epidermis and dermis of skin different from the epithelium in the cornea?

4. Describe the structure of the muscular layer.

5. View the epithelium at very high magnification. Identify the different layers of the epithelium and the shape of the cells in the different layers.

1. How is the name of epithelia derived?2. How many cell layers are present between the basal lamina and lumen?3. How thick is each one of the different epithelial layers in relation to one

another?4. How does the shape of the cells in each layer change?5. What is characteristic of the junction between this epithelium and the

underlying support structures (connective tissue)?6. Are there connective tissue papillae present as seen in skin?7. How does this junction appear in longitudinal as well as cross section?

6. Make annotated drawings of the following:

1. A line diagram of the oesophagus, showing the layers and contents of each layer and the divisions of each layer. Use the terminology used in the drawing of the general structure of the digestive track as a resource.

2. A part of the oesophagus, depicting the epithelium. Do only a few epithelial cells of eachlayer to show the different cell shapes.1. What is typical of the lumen of the oesophagus?2. Which layers form the mucosa?3. What glands are found in the mucosa?4. What type of connective tissue forms the submucosa?5. What glands are found in the submucosa?6. What types of muscle are found in the M. externa, and where?7. What type of tissue forms the adventitia?

Slide 36: Stomach-duodenal junction H/E

This slide is a longitudinal section through the stomach-duodenal junction.

1. View the slide at low magnification. A purple mucosa layer should be visible, with a change in epithelium type occurring somewhere along the surface. Below this, a layer of glandular and muscle tissue is present.

2. Identify microscopically at low magnification:1. Mucosa2. Submucosa 3. M. externa4. Serosa

3. View the slide at higher magnification. Cell and luminal detail should be visible.4. Make an annotated line drawing of the stomach-duodenal junction.

1. How do the different layers of the stomach change in the duodenum?

Stomach H/E

These slides are cross sections through parts of the stomach.Slide 37: Stomach – cross section through the fundus of the stomachSlide 38: Stomach – cross section through the pylorus of the stomach

1. View the slides at low magnification. The surface of the stomach as well as the muscle layers should be visible. Also view slides 101 and 36 where transitional areas include portions of the stomach tissue.

1. What are the main functions of the stomach?2. What are ruggae?3. What are foveolae?4. Which cells, tissues and structures are responsible for each of the respective functions

of the stomach?Stomach = Food reservoir

= Digestion = chemical= mechanical

Mucosal cells = enzymes= HCl = proteolysis

Mucous membrane = glandsMuscle layer = complex coat

= sphyncter = control outlet food

2. Identify the main layers associated with the digestive track, as seen in the stomach.

3. View the slide at higher magnifications. Cellular arrangement should become visible.

1. Name the four parts of the gastric gland.Pit – Isthmus – Neck – Base

2. What epithelium is found in most parts of the conducting sections of the respiratory system?

3. Name the four cells seen in the epithelium of the conducting section of the respiratory system.

4. What epithelium lines the surface of the stomach (excluding the pits)?- mucous columnar cells

5. What is the function of the epithelium lining the surface of the stomach?- secretion of a protective coat of alkaline mucus.

4. Identify the following structures:1. Pits (foveolae)2. Mucosa3. Gastric glands4. Submucosa5. Muscle layers6. Serosa7. Nervous tissue8. Lymphocyte infiltration

5. Make and annotated line sketch of the stomach. Indicate the layers and structural features. Make a separate line sketch of the gastric gland, and the distribution of cells from the surface (pit) to the base of the gland.

1. What are the four main anatomical parts of the stomach?Cardia – OesophagusFundus – DomeBody – Main partPylorus - duodenum

2. What happens to the mucosa and submucosa of an empty stomach?Folds into rugae

3. Proportionally, how deep does the gastric pits extend into the mucosa?4. How deep do the foveolae extend into the mucosa?5. Which layers comprise the mucosa?6. What are the identifying characteristics of the epithelium which lines the foveolae and

surface?7. What is typical of the extent, areas and types of cells of the gastric glands?8. What is typical of the submucosa?9. What are the identifying characteristics of the M. externa?10. What does the serosa comprise of, and how does it differ from the adventitia?11. Where are the ganglia found, and of what do they form a part of?12. Where are lymphocytes found, and how are they arranged?

Slide 40: Duodenum H/E

This slide is a longitudinal section through the duodenum.

1. View the slide at low magnification. The lumen should be visible. Bordering the lumen is the irregular surface of the mucosa.

2. Identify the following layers:1. Mucosa2. Submucosa3. M. externa4. Serosa

3. View the slide at high magnification. Structures within the layers and cells should be visible.4. Make an annotated line sketch of the duodenum. Show the villi, crypts of Lieberkühn as

well as glands of Brunner in detail.1. What are the projections and invaginations from the surface of the small intestine

called?2. What types of cells cover the luminal surface of the duodenum?3. What types of cells line the crypts?4. What type of gland is the Brunner gland?5. Where do the Brunner glands open?

Slide 41: Ileum H/E

This slide is a longitudinal section through the ileum. This specimen is used to study the ileum (organ) and endothelium (structure) as seen in the blood vessels (structure) within the ileum. The blood vessels can be found in the submucosa of the ileum.

1. View the slide at low magnification. At this magnification, the lumen should be visible. A rough appearing mucosa borders the lumen and below that two additional layers, the submucosa and muscular layer is visible. Depending on the tissue, components of the serosa could be visible.

1. What is the difference between a serosa and an adventitia?2. What is the main visual difference at low magnification between the luminal side

and the serosal side?

2. Identify the following layers to orientate yourself:1. Epithelium.2. Mucosa.3. Submucosa.4. Muscle layer.5. Serosa.6. Lymphocyte infiltration.

1. How does the mucosa appear at low magnification?2. How does the submucosa appear at low magnification?3. How does the muscle layer appear at low magnification?

3. View the slide at high magnification. On this view, structural and cellular details should be visible.

1. Name the type of epithelium lining the surface of the digestive track.

4. Identify the following structures:1. Border areas between the main layers and sub-layers as identified at low magnification.2. Blood vessels in the submucosa.

1. Are there blood vessels present in areas outside of the submucosa?

5. In the blood vessels, identify the following:1. Lumen of the blood vessel.2. Endothelial cells against the lumen.3. Nuclei of the endothelial cells.4. Cytoplasm.5. Layers of the blood vessel wall.

1. What is characteristic of the endothelial cells?2. What is characteristic of the cytoplasm of these endothelial cells? And the nuclei?3. What is sometimes seen in the lumen of the blood vessel?

6. Make annotated drawings of the following:1. A line diagram of the blood vessel and endothelial cells.2. A line diagram of the ileum, showing the different layers and sub-layers.

1. What are the similarities and differences between the ileum and duodenum?

Slide 42: Large intestine H/E

This specimen is a longitudinal section through the large intestine. This specimen is used to study the colon (organ), glands (structures) and different types of connective tissue cells (cells).

1. View the slide on low magnification. You should see the lumen and several layers of colon tissue.1. List the cells found in the colon.2. List the tissues found in the colon.3. List the structures found in the colon.

2. Identify the following:1. The longitudinally sectioned colon.2. The luminal surface.3. A dark pink zone, the mucosa.4. The epithelium of the colon.5. Lamina propria of the mucosa.6. A central lighter coloured area, with fine pink coloured structures, the submucosa.7. And outer irregular area, the outer muscular layer.

1. What is a single cell gland?2. Describe a simple tubular gland.3. Make a line drawing of 3 adjacent simple tubular glands.4. What cells line a simple tubular gland?5. What are the characteristics of a goblet cell?6. What are the subdivisions of the mucosa?

3. View the slide at appropriate magnification, and identify the following:

1. A single cell gland, the goblet cell (pale staining).2. A simple tubular gland in longitudinal and cross section.

1. What cells line the simple tubular gland?

4. View the slide at higher magnification.5. The mucosa comprises an epithelial layer and a loose connective tissue layer, the lamina

propria. In the lamina propria, locate as many of the following cells as possible:1. Fibroblasts2. Plasma cells3. Macrophages4. Mast cells5. Eosinophils6. Lymphocytes 7. Smooth muscle fibers

1. What are the functions of each of the cells listed?2. What is a distinguishing feature of each of the cells listed?3. What is characteristic of a goblet cell?

6. Make an annotated drawing of each of the cell types. List their distinguishing characteristics, the function of each cell and other tissues, organs and structures where they can be expected to occur.

7. Make an annotated drawing of a goblet cell as well as a simple tubular gland (with goblet cells and columnar epithelial cells), as seen in longitudinal section.1. What are the distinguishing characteristics of the crypts as far as their structure and

arrangement are concerned?2. What is typical of the outer layer of M. externa?3. What are the similarities and differences between the colon, appendix, vermiformis,

ileum and duodenum?

Slide 43: Appendix vermiformis H/E

This slide is a cross section through the appendix.

Identify microscopically:1. Mucosa2. Submucosa3. M. externa4. Serosa

Draw and annotate:A line diagram of the appendix vermiformis wherein the typical lymphocyte infiltration is shown.

Questions:1. How are the lymphocytes arranged?2. What is typical of the crypts?

Slide 45: Rectum-anal-skin junction H/E

This slide is a longitudinal section through the rectum-anus-skin junction.

Identify microscopically:1. Mucosa2. Submucosa3. M. externa4. Serosa and/or adventitia

Draw and annotate:A line drawing of the rectum-anus-skin transition.

Questions:1. What changes are seen at the junction?2. What happens to the submucosa?3. How does the M. externa change, and what types of muscle are found here?4. Presence of a serosa and/or adventitia? Explain.

Slide 101: Oesophagus-stomach junction H/E

This slide is a longitudinal section through the oesophagus-stomach junction.

1. View the slide at low magnification. The mucosa, submucosa and muscular layers should be visible. The epithelium lining the lumen side (inside) shows a transitional area that should also be visible. On the outside, the adventitia is sometimes visible, but are often lost during preparation.

1. Name the layers and subdivisions of each layer of the oesophagus.2. Name the layers and subdivisions of each layer of the stomach.3. What epithelium is seen in the trachea?4. Name the epithelium of the oesophagus and stomach, respectively.

2. At low magnification, identify the oesophageal epithelium. Follow the oesophageal epithelium until it changes into stomach epithelium.

1. What is the function of oesophageal epithelium?2. What is the function of stomach epithelium?

3. View the slide at higher magnifications. Cellular detail like nuclei should become visible.

4. Identify the following, on both low and high magnification:

1. Mucosa

2. Submucosa

3. M. externa

4. Adventitia

5. Two types of epithelia and the junction between them.

1. What is the function of the oesophageal muscular layers?

2. What is the function of the stomach's muscular layers?

5. Make an annotated line diagram of the oesophagus-stomach junction.

1. How does the layers of the oesophagus change in the stomach? Structure your answer in a table, listing the layers and the functions of each.

v20190406

Slide 58: Gallbladder H/E

This slide is a section through the gallbladder. The slide is used to study the histology of the gallbladder and serves as an example of simple columnar epithelium.

1. View the slide at low magnification. On this view, the outside surface of the organ should be visible. A folded mucosal surface is visible on one side, and the flat adventitia/serosa on the other. There could be some liver tissue surrounding or attached to the gallbladder.

1. What is the difference between an adventitia and a serosa?2. Which two types of epithelium are associated with the gallbladder and its

associated structures?3. Give the classification of surface epithelium.4. How are the lateral borders of cells determined?5. What is found at the base of all epithelia?6. How is the free surface of epithelia modified? Give an example of each in the body

and the function of the modification in that specific instance.7. Viewing both at low magnification, compare the uterine tube (slide 97) with the

gallbladder (slide 58).

2. Identify:1. Lumen of the gall bladder.2. Layers of the gall bladder.3. Folds of the mucosal layer.

1. What is a diverticulum?2. Which part of the digestive system are commonly associated with diverticula?

3. View the slide at appropriate ranges of magnification. At higher magnification, cellular detail should be visible. You should be able to see the nuclei and the content of tubular structures. Identify the following structures:1. Lumen of the gallbladder.2. Other spaces that could be lumens.3. Simple columnar epithelium4. Mucosa5. Muscle layer6. Adventitia and/or serosa7. Aschoff sinuses (crypts or diverticula)

1. Why are the nuclei of simple columnar epithelium in some areas clumped together or stacked in several layers?

2. What are the shape of the nuclei in simple columnar epithelium?

3. What other lumens are visible on the slide?

4. Make annotated drawings of the following:1. A line diagram of the gallbladder and all its layers.2. A small section of simple columnar epithelium. Indicate the connective tissue layer that

these cells rest on.

1. On what type of connective tissue layer does the simple columnar epithelial cells rest?

2. How does the free surface of the simple columnar epithelium appear?3. What is absent from the free surface of the simple columnar epithelium?4. What are the layers and subdivisions of layers seen in the gallbladder?5. How are the muscle layers arranged?6. Adventitia and/or serosa? Explain.

Liver Various

This slide is a section through the liver.

1. Slide 46: A section through the human liver (H/E).2. Slide 48: A section through the liver to demonstrate reticular fibers and the space of Disse

(Silver).3. Slide 68: A section through pig liver. In the pig, liver lobules are well defined, in contrast to

those of humans (H/E).4. Slide 110: A section through liver which has been injected with Berlin blue, to show the

blood vessels (H/E).

These slides should be viewed in conjunction with each other, and supplemented with suitable additional resources.

1. View the slides at low magnification. At this magnification, the mass of liver tissue should be visible. In some cases, the capsule could still be present. Small structures like blood vessels can be seen, but may not be specifically identified.

1. How does human liver differ from pig liver?2. Name the three types of fibres found in connective tissue.3. What are characteristic of each of the three types of fibres of connective tissue?4. What characteristic is used to identify reticular fibres?5. What are the three ways used to describe the arrangement of liver tissue?6. Give the structures and their components used to demarcate the borders used to

describe the arrangement of liver tissue.7. What cells are found in liver lobules?

2. Identify the following:1. The mass of liver tissue.2. A capsule (if present).3. Blood vessels and ducts within the mass of liver tissue.

1. Where are reticular fibres specifically found?2. How are reticular fibres arranged three dimensionally?3. What is a portal area and where are they found?

4. From which anatomical structures does the liver receive blood?5. Where do portal areas drain into?6. What drains into the portal area?7. What drains from the liver?8. How are sinusoids arranged?

3. View the slide at higher magnifications. Structural detail should be discernible and at the highest magnification, you should be able to see cell borders.

4. Compare slide 46 (H/E) and slide 48 (silver stained for reticular fibres) at high magnification. 1. Identify the nuclei of the liver parenchyme in each.2. Identify the cell borders in each.

1. Where are the cell borders located relative to the reticular fibres?

5. Identify microscopically:1. Liver lobules.2. Liver parenchyma.3. The fibrous capsule of the liver (capsule of Glisson) .4. Vena centralis.5. Portal areas.6. Sinusoids and their position.7. Networks of reticular fibers.8. Outlines or ghost image of liver cells (silver stain).9. Position of the space of Disse

1. How does reticular fibres differ from collagen and elastic fibres?2. Where do sinusoids drain into?

Make annotated drawings and line diagrams to illustrate the following:1. A cross-section through a liver lobule, showing the components of the three types of

arrangements.2. The reticular fibers, cords of liver cells and sinusoids. Indicate the general outline of the

liver cells.3. The blood supply and drainage of the liver lobule. Also indicate the drainage of gall.

Slide 50: Pancreas – a compound tubulo-alveolar gland withexocrine and endocrine tissue

H/E

This specimen is a section through the pancreas. The pancreas is a compound tubulo-alveolar gland with exocrine and endocrine tissue. It is used to demonstrate the histology of the pancreas, the organisation of exocrine and endocrine glands and the endocrine section of the pancreas.

1. View the slide at low magnification. The mass of pancreatic tissue should be visible. Lobules, ducts, connective tissue septae and blood vessels could also be visible.

1. Endocrine glands secrete into _____.2. Exocrine glands secrete into _____.3. What are the main components of the pancreas?4. Classify the pancreas, using the classification of epithelium.

5. What cells, tissues and structures do you expect to find in the pancreas? List the functions of each of these as it pertains to the pancreas.

6. How is the tissue of the endocrine pancreas arranged?7. Name the three types of connective tissue fibres. Give an example of the

distribution of each. Give the function of each type of connective tissue fiber.

2. Identify the following:1. The mass of pancreatic tissue.2. Lobules.3. Septae.4. Ducts.5. Islands of endocrine tissue.

1. What are expected around the ducts?

3. View the slide at higher magnification. Fine structure and cellular detail should become visible.

1. What shape are the exocrine secretory units of the pancreas?Groups of cells arranged as round or elongated secretory units around a central lumen.

2. How is the endocrine tissue of the pancreas arranged?3. What are centro-acinar cells?

4. Identify the following:1. Exocrine tissue.2. Lobules, ducts and blood vessels and connective tissue septae.3. Round or elongated secretory units.4. Acini.5. Centro-acinar cells.6. An islands of endocrine tissue surrounded by exocrine tissue.7. Inside the islands, cords of island cells.8. Capillaries.

1. As what type of gland is the exocrine pancreas classified?2. What are the characteristics of the exocrine glandular cells?3. Why do the secretory units have different shapes in a section?4. What zones are found in the cells of an acinus?5. Of which structures of the pancreas are the centro-acinar cells part of?6. What types of secretory ducts are found in the pancreas?7. What is typical of the epithelium of ducts?8. How are the cells of the endocrine pancreas organized9. What structures are found in between the endocrine cells?10. What types of cells form an islet?

5. Make annotated drawings and diagrams (select as appropriate) of the following:1. A line diagram showing the low magnification composition of the pancreas.2. A line diagram of the secretory units in longitudinal, cross, as well as oblique sections.

In the line drawing of the cross section also draw the cells forming the unit.3. A few cells of an island. Demonstrate the cellular arrangement in the island clearly.

Additionally, draw a few (generic) cells to demonstrate the shape of groups, cords and follicles. Refer to slides 52, 55 and 56 (hypophysis, thyroid and adrenal glands) for review.

4. For each of the above drawings and diagrams, add additional detail to clarify cellular arrangements and structural relations.

5. Make an annotated drawing of a section of exocrine acini and the endocrine areas. Make a line diagram to illustrate the hierarchy of ducts and blood vessels supplying and draining the pancreas. Clearly indicate endocrine and exocrine structures

Revision Questions – Digestive track1. How is ingestion, propulsion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption, and

defecation controlled?

2. Name the six fundamental activities of the digestive system, giving an example of each.

3. What roles does bacterial flora play in functioning of the digestive system?

4. What stimulate secretions by the salivary glands?

◦ Stimulus by nerve endings in the oral mucosa.

◦ Olfactory stimuli

◦ Psychic stimuli

5. Secretory nerve fibres (efferent) to the salivary glands are derived from two sources. What are the two sources of efferent nerve supply to the salivary glands?

◦ Cranial outflow – parasympathetic system – thin serous

◦ Thoracic outflow – sympathetic system – thick mucous

6. What are the role or functions of the nerve supply to the salivary glands?

7. The buccal mucosa of the mouth contains numerous small glands. What does these glands consist of?

◦ Mucous cells

8. Some research suggest that serous demilunes as seen in mixed acini are artifacts of traditional fixation methods. Explain.

9. Name and discuss the three types of papillae.

10. What cells are responsible for the secretion of dentine?

11. Name the 3 main salivary glands and their secretions.

12. Tabulate the differences in the layers of the oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and colon.

13. What is the function of the oesophagus?

14. Explain and relate the histology of the oesophagus to the function of the oesophagus.

◦ Transport food to the stomach – muscle layers.

◦ Resist abrasion of food – stratified squamous epithelium & glands.

15. What is the function of the stomach?

16. Explain and relate the histology of the stomach to the function of the stomach.

1. Chemical digestion – glands secrete – HCl for digestion, mucous to protect against self-digestion, intrinsic factor for digestion.

2. And mechanical digestion – muscle layers.

17. Why does the stomach not digest itself?

18. What are the adaptations of the small intestine wall that increase its absorptive capacity

19. What features are unique to the wall of the large intestine?

20. Describe the contributions of the unique features of the large intestine to its function.

21. Name 7 functions of the liver.

22. Identify three main features of liver histology that are critical to its function.

23. Name and discuss the functional structures of the liver.

24. What classifies liver cirrhosis?

25. What is the capsule of the pancreas composed of?

26. What layer is absent in the mucosal layer of the gall bladder?